TWENTY LESSONS IN SEWING
SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER
The teacher should be familiar with the conditions in which the pupils live, should know how much money they can afford to pay for materials, what materials are available, what previous experience in hand work they have had, whether they can afford to have sewing-machines in their own homes, and to what extent they make their own clothes or buy them ready-made.
The lessons should be planned to furnish hand training, to give pupils practical instruction in the care of their own clothes, and to provide an opportunity for preparing the apron for the cooking lessons. The lesson course should tend to develop habits of thrift, industry, and neatness. The pupils should be encouraged to learn to sew, both to improve their own home conditions and to give them suggestions as to a possible means of livelihood. If sewing-machines are available and are in use in the homes, it is well to have lessons given in machine sewing and to have the long seams run by machine. If the pupils cannot have sewing-machines in their own homes, the lessons given should be limited to sewing by hand. In some schools, it may be necessary to simplify the lessons; in others, an increased number of articles may be prepared in the time allotted. Should the apron and cap not be needed for the cooking class, an undergarment (corset cover) may well be substituted.[A]
[A]Should the teacher feel that an apron or corset-cover is too large a piece for her pupils to undertake, and should she desire to have more time spent on the first ten lessons. Lessons XI to XVIII may be omitted, two periods each devoted to both Lessons XIX and XX, and three lessons used for the making of a simple needle-book or other small piece.
For each lesson the teacher should have in mind a definite plan of procedure. The lesson should be opened with a brief and concrete class discussion of the new work that is to be taken up or the special stage that has been reached in work that is already under way. Though individual instruction is necessary, it should not take the place of this general presentation of the subject-matter, which economizes time and develops the real thought content of the work. Whenever possible, the teacher should endeavour to correlate this work with the other subjects on the curriculum.
New stitches may be demonstrated on large pieces of scrim, with long darning-needles and coarse red or black yarn. The scrim should be pinned to the black-board with thumb tacks, and the stitches made large enough for all to see without difficulty. A variety of completed articles should be kept on hand, in order to show additional application of points brought out in the lesson. Each class may be given the privilege of preparing one article to add to this collection, and a spirit of class pride and valuable team work may be thereby developed.
During the lesson, posture, neatness, and order should be emphasized. Application can be secured by making the problems of interest. Care must be taken that none of the work demands unnecessary eye strain. Each lesson should be closed in time to have one of the members of the class give a brief summary of the steps that have been covered.
Since the class period for sewing in the rural school will necessarily be brief, the pupils should be encouraged to continue their work at some other period. However, no work outside of the class period should be permitted until the pupil has mastered the stitch and can be trusted to do the work in the right way. The privilege of sewing may be made the reward for lessons quickly learned, home practice may be assigned, or the class may meet out of school hours. All outside practice must be carefully supervised, the pupil bringing her work to the teacher for frequent inspection.
If it is possible to keep on hand a permanent equipment for sewing, the following should be provided for a class of twelve:
| Approximate cost | |
Scissors, 1 dozen | $3.00 |
Thimbles, 1 dozen | .50 |
Tape-measures, 1 dozen | .60 |
Emery, 1 dozen | .50 |
Boxes for work, 1 dozen | 1.00 |
Note.—Shoe or candy boxes may be used, but an effort should be made to have them uniform.
The teacher who is to give lessons in sewing should secure a helpful elementary text-book or some bulletin that deals with the teaching of sewing.
REFERENCE BOOKS
| School Sewing, Based on Home Problems. Burton, I. R. and M. G. Vocational Supply Co., Indianapolis | $1.00 |
| Handbook of Elementary Sewing. Flagg, E. P. Little, Brown & Co., Boston. (McClelland, Goodchild & Stewart, Toronto) | .50 |
| Constructive Sewing, Book I. (paper) Industrial Book & Equipment Co., Indianapolis | .60 |
| School Needlework. Hapgood, O. C. Ginn & Co., Boston | .50 |
| Handicraft for Girls. McGlauflin, I. Manual Arts Press, Peoria. Ill. | 1.00 |
| Home and School Sewing. Patton, F. Newson & Co., New York | .60 |
| A Sewing Course. Woolman, M. S. Frederick A. Fernald, Washington | 1.50 |
| Sewing. Department of Education of Ontario | .20 |
LESSON I: PREPARATION FOR SEWING
Preparation and use of working equipment: Needles, pins, thread, tape-measure, thimble, scissors, box for work. Talk on cleanliness and neatness (care of hands, etc.). Discussion of hemming. Hems folded on sheets of paper.
SUBJECT MATTER
A hem is made by twice turning over the edge of a piece of cloth toward the worker, and then sewing it down. It is used to finish a narrow edge. In turning a narrow hem the first fold must not be so deep as the second, in order that the hem may lie smoothly. If the hem is a wide one, the first fold can be much narrower than the second.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
The teacher should have interested the pupils in the sewing lessons before the first meeting of the class, and each pupil should be asked to bring with her the box in which to keep her materials and such other equipment as is required. If the school is to furnish the equipment, the teacher should be sure that there is an adequate supply on hand.
It will probably be necessary to have the towels to be used in the cooking classes hemmed, and the pupils should be interested in doing this work. If some of them wish to hem towels for use in their own homes, it may be desirable to allow them to do so. Flour or meal sacks will answer. It may be well to have each pupil hem a towel for home use, as well as for school use, in order to impress upon her the desirability of having hemmed dish-towels for daily use. The towels may be planned during this lesson, and the pupils may arrange to bring the material from home, if they are to provide it; but it will be well for the teacher to have on hand material for one or two towels. Plain paper will answer for the practice folding of the hem in the first lesson.
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should devote a few minutes to a talk on cleanliness, emphasizing its importance, and the necessity for exercising care in handling the sewing materials. This should be followed by a discussion regarding the care of the hands and the condition in which they should be for the sewing lesson. Each pupil should inspect her own hands and show them to the teacher.
Fig. 2.—Gauge
When all the pupils have their hands in a proper condition for sewing, the teacher should look over their supplies with them, give them suggestions as to how they are to keep these, and let them arrange their boxes.
Next, she should tell them what their first work is to be, show them the material for the towels, and discuss with them the best method of finishing the ends. [(See Lesson II.)]
Before turning the hem, the pupils should make a gauge from heavy paper, notched to indicate the depth of the hem. A few minutes should be devoted to practice in measuring and turning a hem of the desired depth on a sheet of paper. This should give practice in the double turning necessary—first, the narrow turn to dispose of the cut edge; second, the fold to finish the edge.
When the lesson is finished, the boxes should be put away in systematic order, and all scraps should be carefully picked up from the desks and the floor.
LESSON II: HEMMING TOWELS
Turning and basting hems. Hemming towels of crash, sacking, or other material, for use in washing and drying dishes at home or in school.
Fig. 3.—Even basting
SUBJECT MATTER
Basting is used to hold two pieces of material together until a permanent stitch can be put in. It is done by taking long stitches (one-fourth inch) from right to left and parallel to the edges that are to be basted together. In starting, the thread is fastened with a knot; when completed, it is fastened by taking two or three stitches one over the other.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
The teacher should have the necessary materials on hand or should see that they are supplied by the pupils. The articles needed will include material for the towels, white thread for basting and hemming, and gauges for measuring.
The teacher should also have a large square of unbleached cotton or canvas, 18 by 18 inches, and a large darning-needle and coloured worsted thread, to use for demonstration purposes. The canvas should be fastened to the black-board, where the class can see it easily.
METHOD OF WORK
As soon as the class is called, the supplies are at hand, and the hands are in a proper condition, the teacher should demonstrate the basting-stitch, with a large needle and thread, on the square of canvas that has been fastened on the wall. Materials for work should be passed. Each pupil should straighten the ends of her towel by drawing a thread. Then she should turn and baste a hem three eighths of an inch in depth.
At the close of the lesson, the pupils should fold their work carefully and put it neatly in their boxes.
LESSON III: HEMMING TOWELS—Continued
The overhanding stitch and the hemming stitch.
SUBJECT MATTER
Overhanding (also called overseaming or top sewing).—The edges to be overhanded are held between the first finger and the thumb of the left hand, with the edge parallel to the first finger. The needle is inserted just below and perpendicular to the edge. The needle is pointed straight toward the worker. The stitches proceed from right to left, each stitch being taken a little to the left of the preceding stitch. The stitches should all be straight on the right side, but they will slant a little on the wrong side. They should not be deep. It may be desirable to use this overhanding stitch at the ends of hems, to hold the edges of the material together. The overhanding stitch is also used for seams, for patching, and for sewing on lace.
Fig. 4.—Overhanding
The overhanding of narrow hems is not always necessary, but the ends may be made stronger thereby, and the stitch is a valuable one for the pupils to know.
Fig. 5.—Hemming
Hemming.—The hemming-stitch is placed on the inside of the hem. The end of the basted hem is laid over the first and under the second finger of the left hand, with the folded edge outside and the material toward the worker. It is held in place with the thumb. The stitch is begun at the end of the hem. The fastening of the thread is concealed by slipping it underneath the hem in the inside fold of the material. The needle is pointed over the left shoulder, a small stitch is taken by inserting the needle through the material just below the hem, then through the folded edge. This is repeated, making the next stitch nearer the worker and moving the goods away from the worker as necessary. Uniformity of slant, size, and spacing of the stitches is important.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
Before this lesson is given, all the pupils should report to the teacher, having both ends of their towels basted, so that they will all be ready to proceed at once with the new stitches.
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should begin by demonstrating on the large square of canvas with the large needle and heavy thread the stitches to be used. After overhanding the end of the hem, the hemming-stitch should follow with the same thread. The pupils will probably not be able to finish the hemming in this first lesson, so provision should be made for additional time. This can be required as an outside assignment, if the pupils have mastered the method during the class period. The teacher may also be able to give them some supervision while she is looking after other classes.
LESSON IV: BAGS
A school bag. Bag (made of material obtainable) to hold sewing materials. Measuring and straightening the material for the bag. Basting the seams.
SUBJECT MATTER
The basting-stitch will be used as a review of work in the second lesson.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
Some time before the lesson, the teacher should discuss with the pupils the kind of material they will be able to provide for their bags and, if the material has to be purchased, she should suggest something that is suitable, washable, and inexpensive. The bag should cost only a few cents. The dimensions of the finished bag should be about 12 by 18 inches.
METHOD OF WORK
The pupils should get out the materials they have brought and determine upon the size and shape of their bags. It will not be necessary to make them uniform. The teacher should help the pupils to use their material to the best advantage. It should be straightened, pulled in place, and measured carefully. When the bags have been cut out, the sides should be basted.
LESSON V: BAGS—Continued
Sewing up the seams with a running-stitch and a back-stitch.
SUBJECT MATTER
Running is done by passing the needle in and out of the material at regular intervals. Small, even stitches and spaces should follow consecutively on both sides of the material. The stitches should be much shorter than those used for basting, the length being determined largely by the kind of cloth used.
When running is combined with a back-stitch, two or more running-stitches and one back-stitch are taken alternately. The back-stitch is a stitch taken backward on the upper side of the cloth, the needle being put back each time into the end of the last stitch and brought out the same distance beyond the last stitch.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
The teacher should be sure that all the pupils are ready to report, having the sides of their bags basted ready for stitching.
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should first demonstrate the running-stitch with the back-stitch, and the pupils should begin to sew the sides of the bag, using this stitch. They should commence sewing three quarters of an inch from the top of the bag, so that there will be a space left for slits in the hem through which to run the cord.[A] The seams will doubtless have to be finished outside of the class hour, and may be assigned for completion before the next lesson.
Fig. 6.—Running-stitch with a back-stitch
[A]The draw-string, or cord, is to be run through the hem from the inside of the bag, and it will be necessary to leave three quarters of an inch of space at the ends of the seams, to provide slits as outlets for the cord.
Overcasting the seams and turning the hem at the top of the bag.
SUBJECT MATTER
Overcasting is done by taking loose stitches over the raw edge of the cloth, to keep it from ravelling or fraying.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
The teacher should be sure that all the pupils are ready to report, having the sides of their bags neatly sewed with the running-stitch.
Fig. 7.—Overcasting
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should demonstrate the method of overcasting and explain its use. She should have the pupils trim the edges of their seams neatly and overcast them carefully. After the seams have been overcast, she should discuss the depth of the hem that the pupils expect to use and the method of turning and basting it. They should then measure, turn, pin, and baste the hems, using the gauge for determining the depth of the hem. If the bags are deep enough to admit of a heading at the top, a deep hem (about 2½ inches) can be made, and a running-stitch put in one-half inch (or more) above the edge of the hem, to provide a casing, or space, for the cord. If it is necessary to take a narrow hem, the hem itself can be made to answer as space for the cord; in this case the hem should be made about one-half inch deep.
LESSON VII: BAGS—Continued
Hemming the top of the bag and putting in a running-stitch to provide a space for the cord.
SUBJECT MATTER
Review of the hemming-stitch and the running-stitch.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
The pupils, having the hems basted, should report to the teacher.
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should review briefly the method of making the hemming-stitch and the running-stitch, asking the pupils to describe these stitches and to demonstrate them on the large square of canvas before the class. The basted hems should then be sewed with the hemming-stitch.
After the hem is finished, the pupils should run a basting thread around the bag, to mark the location of the running-stitch, which is to be half an inch above the hem. They should measure for this carefully.
If there is not time to do all the hemming in the class period, the hemming-stitch and the running-stitch (which is to provide space for the draw-string) should be assigned for outside work, and each pupil should bring in her finished hem at a designated time before the next class period.
LESSON VIII: BAGS—Continued
Preparing a cord or other draw-string for the bag. Putting a double draw-string in the bag, so that it can easily be drawn up. Use of the bodkin.
Fig. 8.—Bag nearly completed
SUBJECT MATTER
To make a cord, it is necessary to take more than four times as much cotton as the final length of the cord will require, for some of the length will be taken up in the twisting of the cord. It will be easier for two to work together in making a cord. The cord should be doubled, the two lengths twisted together firmly, and the ends brought together again and held in one hand, while the middle is taken in the other hand, and the lengths are allowed to twist firmly together. The ends should be tied, and the cord run into the bag with a bodkin or tape-needle. If one cord is run in from one side and another is run in from the other side, each cord running all the way around, the bag can be drawn up easily.
Fig. 9.—Bodkin
In place of the cord, narrow tape may be used. Take two pieces of tape, each piece being twice as long as the width of the bag plus two inches. Run one tape in from one side and a second from the other side, each tape running all the way around. Join the tape ends in the following manner:
1. Turn a narrow fold on one end of the tape to the wrong side, and on the other end of the tape to the right side.
2. Slip one fold under the other and hem down the folded edges.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
If the pupils are not able to supply cords for their own bags, the teacher should have a sufficient supply of cord on hand. She should be sure the bags are in readiness for the cord before the class period.
Fig. 10.—Completed bag
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should begin the lesson by describing the method of making the cord, estimating the amount necessary, and demonstrating the process with the assistance of one of the pupils. The pupils should be numbered, so that they may work in groups of two. After they have completed the cord and run it into the bag, methods of finishing the ends neatly should be suggested to them.
Use of a darning-ball or gourd as a substitute for a ball. Talk on the care of the feet and the care of the stockings.
SUBJECT MATTER
Fig. 11.—Darning
This lesson will involve running and weaving. Darning is used to fill in a hole with thread, so as to supply the part that has been destroyed or to strengthen a place which shows signs of weakness. A darning-ball, a gourd, or a firm piece of cardboard should be placed under the hole. The darn should extend one quarter of an inch beyond the edge of the material, beginning with fine stitches in the material, making rows running close together in one direction, then crossing these threads with rows that run at a right angle to them. Care should be taken alternately to pick up and drop the edge of the material around the hole, so that no raw edges will be visible, and to weave evenly in and out of the material and the cross threads.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
Each pupil should provide a pair of stockings with a few small holes and a gourd or ball of some sort that she can use as a darning ball.
METHOD OF WORK
When the class meets, the teacher should discuss briefly the care of the feet and of the stockings, and demonstrate the method of darning, on a large piece of coarse material, with heavy yarn and a needle. If the pupils finish one darn during the lesson period, more darning should be assigned for practice out of class.
LESSON X: PATCHING[A]
Hemmed patches on cotton garments. Talk on the care of the clothes.
SUBJECT MATTER
This lesson will involve measuring, trimming, basting, and hemming. A patch is a piece of cloth sewed on to a garment to restore the worn part. The material used for the patch should be as nearly like the original fabric in colour and quality as possible. In placing the patch, the condition of the material about the hole must be taken into consideration, as well as the size of the hole. The worn parts around the hole should be removed, and the hole cut square or oblong. The patch should be, on all four sides, an inch larger than the trimmed hole. The corners of the hole should be cut back diagonally, so that the edges may be turned under. The patch should be matched and pinned to the wrong side of the garment, leaving the edges to project evenly on all four sides. The edges of the material around the hole should be turned in and basted to the patch. The edges of the patch should be turned in so that they extend, when finished, one-half inch from the edge of the hole. The patch and the cloth should be basted together and hemmed.
[A]Used when special problem comes up.
Fig. 12.—Patching
PRELIMINARY PLAN
The lesson on patching should be given at any time in the course when it can be applied to an immediate need. If a pupil tears her dress while playing at school, or if she wears a torn apron, the teacher can announce a patching lesson for the next sewing class, and request each pupil to bring a torn garment and the material for the patch from home. It may be desirable to use two or three periods for this lesson.
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should demonstrate the process of patching on a large piece of cotton. The pupils should practise placing a patch on a piece of paper with a hole in it. Each step should be assigned in succession—examination of the article to determine its condition, calculation of the size and preparation of the patch, placing the patch, trimming the article around the hole, basting the patch and material together, and hemming the patch.
LESSON XI: CUTTING OUT APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS
SUBJECT MATTER
When cutting out an apron, the length of the skirt should first be measured, and to this measure 6 inches should be added for the hem and the seams. One length of the material corresponding to this length should be cut. This should be folded lengthwise through the middle. Three quarters of an inch should be measured on this fold, and the material cut from the end of the selvage to this point, in order to slope the front of the apron. When the waist measure is taken, 3 inches should be added to it (1 for the lap and 1 at each end, for finishing). This makes a strong piece at each end for the button and button-hole. Two pieces of this length and 2½ inches wide should be cut lengthwise of the material for the belt. A measure should be made from the middle of the back of the waist line, over the shoulder, to a point 5 inches to the right to the centre front and on the waist line. Two pieces of the length of this measure and 4½ inches wide should be cut lengthwise of the material for the shoulder straps. A piece 9 by 12 inches should be cut for the bib, the longer distance lengthwise of the material. These measurements allow one quarter of an inch for seams.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
Before the lesson the teacher should see if arrangements can be made to secure the use of one or two sewing-machines, so that the pupils may sew all the long seams by machine.
At a previous lesson she should discuss the kinds of material suitable for the aprons. The pupils should consider whether their aprons shall be white or coloured, and whether they shall be of muslin, cambric, or gingham. Each pupil will need from 1½ to 2 yards of material, according to her size. The taller ones will need 2 yards.
Fig. 13.—Cutting out skirt of apron
There should be on hand a sufficient number of tape-measures, pins, and scissors, so that the pupils may proceed with the cutting of their aprons without unnecessary delay.
The apron to be made is to have a skirt, with a bib and shoulder straps, in order to be a protection to the dress, the skirt, and the waist.[A]
[A] If the pupils are very inexperienced and find the sewing difficult, it may be advisable to omit the bib and straps and to make the simple full-skirted apron. If a machine is not at hand to use for the long seams, the limited time may make the simpler apron necessary. This will give more time for the various steps. Lessons XIV and XV may then be omitted, Lesson XVI made more simple, and less outside work may be required.
METHOD OF WORK
As soon as the class meets, the pupils should take the measurements for their aprons. One measurement should be assigned at a time, and the reason for each measurement should be given. The pupils should have explicit directions as to the measurements, as they are apt to become confused if the directions are not clear. They should work carefully, so that the material does not become crumpled or soiled and, at the conclusion of the lesson, they should fold it carefully and put it away neatly. All threads and scraps of material should be carefully picked off the floor and the desks, and the room left in order.
LESSON XII: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS—Continued
Basting the hem for hemming on the machine or by hand. Uneven basting.
SUBJECT MATTER
An uneven basting forms the better guide for stitching. In uneven basting, the spaces are made about three times as long as the stitches. The stitch should be about one eighth of an inch and the space three eighths of an inch.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
In addition to the apron material which has been cut out in the previous lesson, each pupil should provide her own spool of thread (number sixty white thread will probably answer for all the work), a piece of cardboard 5 inches wide for a gauge, and pins to use in fastening the hem.
Fig. 14.—Uneven basting
METHOD OF WORK
As soon as the class meets, the pupils should prepare a 5-inch gauge, to guide them in turning the hems of the skirts of their aprons. They should make a half-inch notch in the measure for the first turn in the material. A half-inch edge should be turned up from the bottom of the skirt, then a 5-inch hem should be turned, pinned, and basted carefully with uneven basting. The gauge should be used for both measurements.
LESSON XIII: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS—Continued
Gathering the skirt and stitching to the belt.
SUBJECT MATTER
In gathering, a stitch much like running is employed. Small stitches are taken up on the needle, with spaces twice as great between them. The top of the skirt should be divided into halves, and each half gathered with a long thread, fine stitches one quarter of an inch from the edge being used. The middle of the belt and the middle of the top of the skirt of the apron should be determined upon. The belt should be pinned to the wrong side of the apron at these points, and the fulness drawn up to fit (approximately one half of the waist measure). The skirt and the belt should be pinned, basted, and sewn together.
Fig. 15.—Gathering
PRELIMINARY PLAN
If the hems have been completed in the skirts, the pupils are ready to gather the skirts and attach them to the belt. It will be well to have a supply of pins on hand, to use in fastening the skirt and belt together.
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should first demonstrate the method of gathering and assign that portion of the lesson. When the skirts have all been gathered, she should show the pupils how to measure, pin, and baste the skirt to the belt.
Fig. 16.—Sewing on the belt of the apron
LESSON XIV: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS—Continued
Making the bib.
SUBJECT MATTER
A 2-inch hem should be turned across one short end of the bib. This should be basted and hemmed. The bottom of the bib should be gathered, the method employed for the top of the skirt being used, and sufficient thread being left to adjust the gathers easily.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
If the pupils have completed the skirts and attached them to the belts, they are ready to make the bibs. They should be provided with a 2-inch marker, for use in making the hems in the top of the bibs.
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should guide the pupils carefully in the making of the bibs, reviewing their knowledge of basting, hemming, and gathering.
Fig. 17.—Bib and straps of apron
LESSON XV: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS—Continued
Making the straps.
SUBJECT MATTER
One end of one of the straps should be placed at the bottom of the bib. The edge of the strap should be pinned, basted, and sewed to the right side of the bib with a running-stitch. The other long edge of the strap should then be turned in one quarter of an inch and the side turned in one inch. The strap should then be folded through the middle for its entire length and the free side basted to the wrong side of the bib and hemmed. The remaining edges of the strap should be overhanded together. The other strap should be sewn to the other side of the bib in the same way.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
The bibs should have been completed before the pupils report for this lesson.
METHOD OF WORK
As soon as the pupils report for the lesson, the teacher should explain the method of attaching the straps to the bib and tell them how to finish the former. As they proceed with their work, she should supervise them carefully and assign the unfinished portion to be done out of class.
LESSON XVI: APRONS OR UNDERGARMENTS—Continued
Putting the bib and the skirt on the belt.
SUBJECT MATTER
The middle of the bottom of the bib should be determined, and pinned to the middle of the upper edge of the belt, to which the skirt has already been attached. The belt should be fastened to the wrong side of the bib. The gathering string of the bib should be drawn up, leaving 2 inches of fulness on each side of the middle. The bib should be pinned, basted, and sewn to the belt. The remaining long edges of the belt should be turned in one quarter of an inch, and the ends one inch. The edges of the other belt piece should be turned in in the same way, and should be pinned over the belt to which the skirt and the bib have been attached (with all the edges turned in), and basted carefully, to keep the edges even. The skirt and the bib should be hemmed to this upper belt, and all the remaining edges should be overhanded.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
The bib and the straps of the apron should be completed before the pupils report for this lesson.
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should guide the pupils carefully in the various steps necessary in fastening the bib to the belt and in completing the belt. If the hemming and overhanding is not completed during the class hour, they may be assigned as home work.
LESSON XVII: METHODS OF FASTENING GARMENTS
Sewing buttons on the aprons, corset-cover, or other garment.
SUBJECT MATTER
This lesson should teach neatness in dress, through a consideration of the best methods of fastening garments. The position of the button is measured by drawing the right end of the band one inch over the left end. The place for the button should be marked with a pin on the left end of the band. A double thread is fastened on the right side of the band, drawn through one hole of the button, and back through the other, and then taken through the band close to the first stitch. A pin should be inserted on top of the button under the first stitch, left there until the button is firmly fastened in place, and then removed. Before the thread is fastened, it should be wrapped two or three times around the threads holding the button, between the button and the cloth, then fastened neatly on the wrong side with a few small stitches one on top of another.
Fig. 18.—Sewing on buttons
PRELIMINARY PLAN
Each pupil should come to the class with her apron as nearly completed as possible, and with three buttons to sew on it, for fastening the belt and straps.
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should discuss the best methods of fastening garments and should demonstrate the method of sewing on buttons. The pupils should sew one button on the left end of the apron band in the middle of the width about 1 inch from the end, and another button 4 inches from each end of the band, to hold the shoulder straps.
LESSON XVIII: METHODS OF FASTENING GARMENTS—Continued
Button-holes on practice piece and on apron.
SUBJECT MATTER
Directions for making the button-hole.—Measure carefully the position for the button-hole, lengthwise of the band, so that the end will come one quarter of an inch from the edge of the garment. Mark the length of the button-hole on the material by putting in two lines of running-stitches at the ends. To cut the button-hole, insert the point of the scissors at the point marked by the running-stitches nearest the edge of the garment, and cut carefully along the thread of the material to the row of stitches marking the length at the other end.
| (a) | (b) | (c) |
| Starting the button-hole | The button-hole stitch | The finished button-hole |
Fig. 19.—Working button-holes
To make the button-hole, use a thread of sufficient length to do both the overcasting and the button-holing. Beginning at the lower right corner, overcast the raw edges with stitches one sixteenth of an inch deep. Do not overcast around the ends of the hole. As soon as the overcasting is done, proceed with the button-holing without breaking the thread. Hold the button-hole horizontally over the first finger of the left hand and work from right to left. Insert the point of the needle through the button-hole (at the back end), bringing the point through, toward you, four or five threads below the edge of the button-hole. Bring the doubled thread from the eye of the needle from right to left under and around the point of the needle, draw the needle through, and pull the thread firmly, so that the purl is on the edge. At the end of the button-hole, near the end of the band, make a fan, by placing from five to seven stitches. The other end of the button-hole should be finished with a bar made by taking three stitches across the end of the button-hole, then button-hole over the bar, taking in the cloth underneath and pulling the purl toward the slit. The thread should be fastened carefully on the under side of the button-hole.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
For this lesson it is desirable to have small pieces of cotton on hand, to use as practice pieces for the button-holes.
METHOD OF WORK
The teacher should demonstrate the making of a button-hole, illustrating each step of the process on a large piece of canvas. The pupils should sew two small strips of cotton together and cut a button-hole one quarter of an inch from the edge, and lengthwise of the material, to work for practice. When the button-hole has been sufficiently perfected on the practice piece, the pupils should make three in the apron—one in the right end of the band and one in the end of each shoulder strap.
LESSON XIX: A PADDED HOLDER FOR HANDLING HOT DISHES—BINDING
SUBJECT MATTER
A holder 6 inches square will be satisfactory for handling hot dishes. It can be made of quilted padding bound with tape, or of two thicknesses of outing flannel covered with percale or denim and bound with tape or braid. If made of the outing flannel and covered, it should be quilted, by stitching from the middle of one side to the middle of the opposite side in both directions, in order to hold the outing flannel and the outside covering together. The tape that is to be used for the binding should be folded through the middle lengthwise; then, a beginning being made at one corner of the padding, the edge should be basted, half on one side and half on the other. Right-angled corners should be formed. When basted all around, the tape should be sewn on each side with a hemming-stitch.
If the holder is to be suspended from the apron band, a tape of from 27 inches to 36 inches in length should be attached to one corner. The raw edge at one end of the tape should be turned in. The end should be so placed that it overlaps the corner of the holder about half an inch and it should be basted to the holder. The tape should then be secured firmly to the holder, hemmed down on one edge, across the bottom, and up the other edge. The other end of the tape should be finished with a 2-inch loop. The raw edge should be folded over, the tape turned 2 inches down for the loop, and basted in place. This should be hemmed across the end. One quarter of an inch up from the end, the double thickness of tape should be back-stitched together, and the edges of the tape should be overhanded from there to the hemmed end.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
Each pupil should provide sufficient denim, percale, huckaback, or other washable material to cover the two sides of a holder 7 inches square, and enough outing or canton flannel for a double lining. About 1½ yards of straight tape one-half inch wide will be needed for the binding and for suspending the holder from the apron.
Fig. 20.—The holder
METHOD OF WORK
The pupils should first carefully measure and turn the material for the covering of the holder and then prepare the lining, basting it all together. They should then put in the running-stitch and finish with the binding. If it is not possible to complete the holder in one period, a second lesson period should be provided, or arrangements may be made to have supervised work done outside of the lesson hours.
Fig. 21.—Cap
LESSON XX: A CAP TO WEAR WITH THE COOKING APRON
SUBJECT MATTER
The simplest cap to make will be the circular one. A pattern should be made by drawing with a pencil and string on a piece of wrapping-paper a circle 21 inches in diameter. The material for the cap should be cut carefully around the circle and finished with a narrow hem. A tape to hold the draw-string should be placed 1¼ inches inside the edge of the hem. A small piece of cardboard cut about one-half inch wide should be used for measuring the position of the tape. Bias strips three quarters of an inch wide should be prepared for the tape, or a commercial tape three eighths of an inch wide may be purchased. The outer edge of the tape should be basted first and the edges joined; then the inner edges should be basted, the edge being kept smooth. Both edges should be neatly sewn with the hemming-stitch by hand or on the machine. An elastic should be inserted in the band, carefully fitted to the head, and the ends fastened neatly.
PRELIMINARY PLAN
This lesson will give a good opportunity to make a cap that will answer for a dust cap or serve as a part of the cooking uniform. If such a cap does not seem desirable and the former lesson has not been completed, the cap may be omitted and the work on the holder continued.
METHOD OF WORK
The pupils should first make the pattern for the cap and then cut out their material. The hem should be basted and stitched with the hemming-stitch. The bias strip should be basted on and sewn with a running-stitch. It will probably not be possible for the pupils to complete the cap in one class period; but, if the material has been cut out and the work started, they may be able to complete it at some other time. The stitches are not new, and the work will serve as an excellent test of the skill they have acquired in the course.
The introduction of Household Science into rural schools has been hindered by the prevalent impression that the subject requires equipment similar to that in the Household Science centres of towns and cities, where provision is made for the instruction of twenty-four pupils at one time and for from ten to fifteen different classes each week. Owing to the expense and the lack of accommodation, it is not possible to install such equipment in rural schools. For this and other reasons it has been concluded that the subject is beyond the possibilities of the rural school. That this is not the case is shown by the fact that many rural schools in the United States, and some in Saskatchewan, as well as a number in our own Province, are teaching the subject successfully, with equipment specially designed to meet existing conditions.
The accommodations and equipment required may be classified as follows:
1. Working tables
2. Cupboards and cabinets for storing the utensils
3. Stoves
4. Cooking and serving utensils
1. The provision for working tables is conditioned by the space available, and every effort must be made to economize this space. The equipment may be placed in the basement or in a small ante-room. In one school in the Province very successful work is being done in a large corridor. When a new school-house is being erected, provision should be made by building a small work-room off the class-room. The possibilities of a small, portable building, in close proximity to the school, should not be overlooked.
Where the school is provided with a large table, this may be made of service. When used as a working table it should be covered with a sheet of white oil-cloth. When used as a dining-table a white table-cloth may be substituted for the oil-cloth. If the school does not possess a table, two or three boards may be placed on trestles, if the space at the front or the back of the room permits, and these may be stored away when not required. A table with folding legs, such as is shown in Figures 22 and 23, may also be used.
Fig. 22.—Working drawing of folding table
The top of the cabinet containing the utensils or an ordinary kitchen table closed in as a cupboard underneath, may be made to serve. Long boards, about eighteen inches wide, placed across the tops of six or eight desks, provide good accommodation. These should be blocked up level and should be provided with cleats at each end, in order to prevent movement. When not in use they may stand flat against the wall and occupy very little space. Separate boards, resting on a desk at each end, may also be placed across the aisles. Each of these will provide working space for one pupil. Tables which drop down flat when not in use may be fixed to the walls of the school-room. As schools vary in many respects, it is not possible to outline a plan which will suit all; but that plan should be chosen which will best meet the requirements of the particular school.
Fig. 23—Folding Table
Fig. 24—Household Science Cabinet for Rural Schools
2. The cupboards and cabinets to contain the utensils may take various forms. A kitchen cabinet costing from twenty-five to thirty-five dollars may be obtained from a furniture store, or one may be made by a local carpenter. A large packing-case painted brown outside and white inside (for cleanliness) is satisfactorily used in some schools. If covered with oil-cloth, the top of this may be used as an additional table. A few shelves placed across a corner of the room and covered with a door or curtain may be used, or it may be possible to devote one shelf of the school cupboard to the storing of the utensils. It is desirable to have a combination cupboard and table, which will contain most of the equipment, including the stove. Figure 24 is a working drawing of such a cabinet, which may be made by a local carpenter or by the older boys of the school.
The directions for making this cabinet are as follows:
Obtain two boxes and cut or re-make them so that each is 30 inches high when standing on end, 12¼ inches across the front inside, and 18 inches from front to back. These will form the two end Sections, A and B. Inside the sides of these boxes nail 1 inch × ⅞ inch strips, to form the slides for the drawer. The slides come within ⅞ of an inch of the front edge. Rails may be nailed across the front. Guide pieces should be nailed to the slides, in order to keep the drawers straight. Divide Section A for one drawer and cupboard. The drawers may be made out of raisin boxes cut down to the required size. To the front of each drawer, nail a piece of beaver board or pine a little larger than the drawer front.
Fig. 25.—Cabinet, showing stove in position for use
Fig. 26.—Cabinet, with stove behind centre partition when not in use
Use any handles that may be conveniently obtained. Cut two pieces 4' 9½" × 1½" × ⅞". Space the Sections as shown, and nail these pieces firmly to the fronts of the larger boxes, A and B, top and bottom. Four end pieces 18" × 1½" will be required. Fill in Section C, in this case, 2' 7½", with the pieces from the box lids or with ordinary flooring. Make a door for the cupboard from similar material. The top is best made from good, clear, white pine. Screw battens across, and screw the whole firmly to the box top from the inside. If more table space is required, make a similar bench top, which can rest on top of the cabinet when not in use. When required, it may be placed over the desks. Steel or glass shoes or wooden skids or battens should be fixed under the cabinet, so that it can be pulled away from the stove and replaced easily. The dimensions given are for a two-flame-burner oil-stove which is 30 inches high, 31 inches across the front, and 16 inches from front to back. The middle Section, C, and the total height of the cabinet may be enlarged or reduced to fit other sizes of stoves.
The material required for, and the approximate cost of, such a cabinet, labour not included, are as follows:
| 2 boxes @ 25 | $0.50 |
| 5 raisin boxes @ 5 | .25 |
| 5 handles at 45c per doz. | .20 |
| 1 cupboard latch | .15 |
| or 1 turn button | .02 |
| About 9 sq. ft. flooring | .25 |
| About 8 sq. ft. pine for top | .50 |
| Pieces for battens, etc. | .25 |
| Steel shoes | .10 |
Figure 27 shows another type of equipment and the space it occupies in the class-room when not in use.
Fig. 27.—Space taken by equipment in class-room
The cupboard and the back of the cabinet contain the equipment necessary for teaching twelve pupils at one time and also for serving one hot dish at the noon lunch to twenty-four pupils. One drawer contains linen, etc., and the other, knives, forks, and spoons. The dimensions of the cupboard and the cabinet are shown in Figures 28 and 29, and the construction of each is such that it can be made easily by any carpenter.
Fig. 28.—Working drawings of cupboard
Fig. 29.—Working drawing of cabinet.
Fig. 30.—Cupboard with drawers and doors open, showing equipment
Figure 30 shows the cupboard and drawers open and the method of storing the equipment. The shelves may be covered with white oil-cloth or brown paper, in order to obviate the necessity for frequent scrubbing. The cupboard may be fixed to the wall with mirror plates or small iron brackets, or it may be screwed through the back.
Fig. 31.—Back of cabinet with equipment in place
Fig. 32.—Back of cabinet with stove removed
Figure 31 shows the back of the cabinet, with the three-flame-burner stove-oven, the one-flame-burner stove, and other utensils in place. The folding table, previously described, rests on the top of the cabinet. Figure 32 shows the back of the cabinet with the stove and oven removed. The method of storing utensils and the construction of the cabinet are clearly shown.
Fig. 33.—Three-flame-burner oil-stove, with kettles and one-flame-burner oil-stove on shelf
Fig. 34.—Household Science equipment with drop-leaf table
Figure 33 shows the three-flame-burner oil-stove with the shelf underneath containing three kettles and the one-flame-burner oil-stove.
Another type of equipment is shown in Figure 34. Each end of the top of this cabinet drops down when the cupboard doors are closed, space being thus economized. The top of the table may be covered with oil-cloth or zinc carefully tacked down on the edges.
The directions for making this cabinet are as follows:
MATERIALS REQUIRED
| Lumber: | ||
| 7 pieces ¾" × 4" ×14' | yellow pine ceiling | |
| 6 pieces 1" × 4" × 12' | yellow pine flooring | |
| 1 piece 1" × 12" ×12' | ||
| 1 piece 1" × 8" × 12' | No. 1 common white pine | |
| 1 piece ½" × 6" ×14' | ||
| 4 white pine laths | ||
| Hardware: | ||
| 7 pairs 1½" × 3" butthinges | 1 lb. 8d finishing nails | |
| 3 cupboard catches | 1 lb. 6d finishing nails | |
| 1 piece zinc (27" × 39") | ¼ lb. box 1" brads | |
| 2 pieces zinc (21" × 27") | ¼ lb. box 1¼" brads | |
| 1 drawer pull | 1 box tacks | |
| 2 ft. stopper chain | ||
STOCK BILL
| Lumber | Cut into the following pieces: | Finished Dimensions | Use |
| 1" × 8" × 12' | 2 | 13-16" × 2" × 32½ | Top side rails |
| 2 | 13-16" × 2" × 18½ | Top end rail | |
| 4 | 13-16" × 2" × 29¾" | Frame posts | |
| 1 | 13-16" × 2" × 30⅞" | Bottom side rail | |
| 2 | 13-16" × 2" × 18½" | Bottom end rails | |
| 1 | 13-16" × 5" × 14⅜" | Drop door | |
| 2 pieces, 1" × 4" × 12' flooring | 7 | ¾" × 3¼" × 32½" | Flooring (bottom) |
| 5 pieces, 1" × 4" × 14' yellow pine ceiling | 24 | ¼" × 3¼" × 31¼" | Ceiling (ends and side) |
| 1" × 12" × 12' | 3 | 13-16" × 10¼" × 32½" | Shelf |
| 1 | 13-16" × 8" × 32½" | Shelf | |
| 3 | 13-16" × 1¾" × 31¼" | Casing | |
| 2 | 13-16" × 1¾" × 14⅜" | Casing | |
| 1 | 13-16" × 5" × 14⅜" | Drawer front | |
| 1 | 13-16" × 5" × 14⅜" | Drawer front | |
| 2 pieces, 1" × 4" × 12' flooring | 8 | ¾" × 3¼" × 36" | Top |
| 2 pieces, 1" × 4" × 14' yellow pine ceiling | 10 | ¾" × 3¼" × 22⅞" | Doors |
| 2 pieces, 1" × 4" × 12' flooring | 12 | ¾" × 3¼" × 24" | Swing tops |
| ½" × 6" × 12' | 2 | 7-16" × 5" × 19⅝" | Drawer slides |
| 1 | 7-16" × 5" × 13½" | Drawer back | |
| 4 | 7-16" × 4¾" × 13½" | Drawer bottom | |
| ½" × 6" × 12' | 1 | 7-16" × 4½" × 13½" | Partitions |
| 3 | 7-16" × 4½" × 10" | Partitions |
TOOLS
| Rule | Steel square | |
| Lead-pencil | Plane | |
| Saw | ½ Chisel and | |
| Hammer | Screw-driver |
DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING
I Cutting and Squaring Stock—
Cut the stock only as needed, in the following order, and square up according to the directions previously given.
| 1. Frame; rip the 1" × 8"× 12' piece for the frame material | |
| 2. Bottom | 6. Casing |
| 3. Ends and sides | 7. Doors |
| 4. Shelves | 8. Swing tops |
| 5. Top | 9. Miscellaneous pieces |
II Assembling—
Frame:
Bottom:
| 1. Cut seven pieces of flooring 32½" long for the bottom and plane off the groove of one piece. |
| 2. Turn the frame upside down and nail this piece with the smooth edge projecting ⅞" over the front side of the frame. Nail the rest of the flooring so that each piece matches tightly. |
Ends:
| 1. For the back, cut eleven pieces of ceiling 31¼" long. |
| 2. Plane off the groove edge of one piece of ceiling and nail it on the back of the frame even with the end. |
| 3. Nail the rest of the ceiling on the back. Be sure that each joint matches tightly. |
Fig. 35.—Frame of cabinet nailed together
Shelves:
Top:
| 1. Cut eight pieces of flooring 36" long for the top. |
| 2. Plane off the groove of one piece and nail it on the top of the frame, so that the smooth edge and the ends project 1" over the front side and ends of the cabinet. |
| 3. Nail the rest of the flooring on for the top, being sure that each joint matches tightly. The last piece must also project 1" over the back side. |
Casing:
| 1. Nail the casing, which is 1-¾" wide, on the front of the cabinet. |
Doors:
| 1. Make each door ¾" × 14⅜" × 22⅞" from five pieces of ceiling 22⅞" long, held together by cleats at the top and bottom. |
| 2. Fit each door carefully, then hang them with butt hinges. Fasten a cupboard catch on each door. |
Drop Door:
| 1. Make the drop door 13-16" × 14⅜" and hinge it with a pair of butt hinges. Put on the stopper chain and catch. |
| The swing tops are each made from six pieces of flooring 24" long cleated together. |
| 1. Plane off the groove edge of one piece and match them all together. |
Fig. 36.—Working details
Putting Zinc on the Top:
| 1. Unscrew the swing tops from the cabinet to put the zinc on. |
| 2. Place the piece of zinc, 27" × 39", on top, extending 1½" over the edges all around. |
| 3. Hold the zinc firmly in place and make a square bend along the front edge with a hammer or mallet, bending the edge of the zinc up under the top. |
| 4. Punch a straight row of holes 1" apart through the zinc and tack it on. |
| 5. Bend the back edge, punch and tack in the same manner as the front edge, but be sure the zinc fits snugly on the top. |
Fig. 37.—Working details
Drawer:
| The drawer front, 13-16" × 5" × 14⅜", with lap ⅜" × ½" cut out on the ends. |
| 1. Nail the sides, ½" × 5" × 19⅝", to the lap of the front and to the ends of the back. |
| 2. Nail the bottom in between the sides ⅛" from the lower edge. This allows the drawer to slide on the edges of the sides. |
| 3. Put the partitions in the drawer as called for by this plan. |
The racks for covers and pie tins shown in the drawings are made from two pieces, 13-16" × 2" × 4", one piece 13-16" × 2" × 10½" for the bottom, and two pieces of lath 12" long for the sides. These racks may be placed on the doors as shown, or may be changed to suit the equipment.
III Finishing—
| 1. Set all the nails and putty the holes. |
| 2. Sandpaper the cabinet carefully. |
| 3. Paint or stain and wax the outside of the cabinet, to harmonize with the surroundings where it is to be used. |
| 4. Paint the inside with two coats of white enamel. |
Fig. 38.—Cabinet completed
Before putting on the enamel, apply a coat of ordinary white-lead paint and allow it to dry thoroughly. If desired, the outside of the cabinet may be finished in white enamel, though this is somewhat more expensive than the paint or stain recommended above.
All the Household Science Cabinets shown have a two-fold purpose. In the first place, they furnish storage space for the utensils and working space for the pupils. In the second place, they offer a most interesting manual training project for a boys' club. The members can make any one of them, thus correlating their practical wood-work and the domestic science of the girls and, in this way, exhibiting the co-operative spirit of the home and the school.
3. In some cases it may be possible to use the school stove for cooking purposes. Some schools use natural gas for heating and, where this is the case, provision for cooking may readily be made. Other schools situated on a hydro-electric line, may, as has been done in one case, use electricity as a source of heat. At present, however, the majority of schools may find it best to use one of the many oil-stoves now on the market. One-, two-, or three-flame-burner stoves may be obtained for general use. The two-, or three-flame-burner stoves are recommended, as they are less likely to be overturned. The one-flame-burner stove, however, is often useful as an additional provision. A good grade of oil should be used, and the stove should be kept scrupulously clean, constant attention being paid to the condition of the wick. Any oil spilt on the stove when it is being filled should be carefully wiped off before lighting. If attention is paid to these details, the stove will burn without any perceptible odour.
4. The number of the utensils and the amount of equipment depend upon the community and the number of pupils to be considered. By careful planning few utensils are needed. They should be as good as the people of the neighbourhood can afford and, in general, should be of the same character as those used in the homes of the district. All the table-cloths, towels, dish-cloths, etc., required should be hemmed by the pupils. Articles for storing supplies may be bought or donated. Glass canisters with close lids are best, but as substitutes, fruit jars, jelly glasses, or tin cans will serve the purpose. It is an easy matter to secure an empty lard-bucket or a syrup-can for flour or meal, empty coffee-cans for sugar or starch, etc., and baking-powder or cocoa-tins for spices. Each should be plainly labelled.
Several typical lists of equipment in Household Science are given here. These may be modified to suit particular circumstances. Considerable expense may be saved if the pupils bring their own individual equipment—soup-bowl, cup and saucer, plate, spoon, knife, fork, and paper napkins. This plan is not advised unless it is absolutely necessary, but, if followed, an effort should be made to have the articles as uniform as possible.
The following equipment is that contained in the cabinet illustrated on page 152 and is sufficient for giving organized instruction to six pupils. If a noon lunch is provided, additional individual equipment will be required.
EQUIPMENT FOR RURAL SCHOOL HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE CABINET—NO. I
| 1 Perfection blue-flame stove (two-flame) | $15.00 |
| 1 Two-burner oven | 4.50 |
| 1 Coal-oil can | .50 |
| 1 Dish-pan | 1.15 |
| 1 Tea-kettle | 1.50 |
| 1 Large sauce-pan and cover | .75 |
| 2 Medium sauce-pans and covers, 30c each | .60 |
| 2 Small sauce-pans and covers, 25c each | .50 |
| 2 Small sauce-pans and covers, 25c each | .50 |
| 2 Pudding bake-dishes, 50c ea. | 1.00 |
| 2 Muffin pans (12 rings, each 30c) | .60 |
| 1 Soap-dish | .25 |
| 4 Small mixing bowls, 16c ea. | .64 |
| 2 Pitchers, 55c ea. | 1.10 |
| 3 Casseroles, 20c, 25c, 30c | .75 |
| 6 Measuring cups, 10c ea. | .60 |
| 6 Custard cups, 90c doz. | .45 |
| 6 White plates, $1.45 doz. | .73 |
| 6 Supply jars, 90c doz. | .45 |
| 2 Vegetable brushes, 5c ea. | .10 |
| 1 Grater | .20 |
| 2 Egg-beaters, 10c ea. | .20 |
| 12 Forks | 2.25 |
| 12 Teaspoons | 1.20 |
| 6 Tablespoons, $2.85 doz. | 1.43 |
| 6 Vegetable knives, 25c ea. | 1.50 |
| 6 Case knives, $3.00 doz. | 1.50 |
| 2 Strainers, 20c ea. | .40 |
| 1 Spatula | .40 |
| 1 Bread knife | .50 |
| 1 Can-opener | .10 |
| 1 French knife | .45 |
| 2 Water pails, $1.15 ea. | 2.30 |
| 6 Dish-towels, 25c ea. | 1.50 |
| 3 Dish-cloths, 10c ea | .30 |
| 3 Rinsing cloths, 10c ea. | .30 |
| 1 yd. oil-cloth | .45 |
| 5 yards cheesecloth | .35 |
EQUIPMENT FOR RURAL SCHOOL HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE CABINET—NO. II
The equipment included in the Cabinet and Cupboard shown in Figure 27, page 154, is as follows:
For Six Pupils
| 1 Cupboard | $15.00 | 3 Pie plates | $0.15 | |
| 1 Cabinet table | 10.00 | 3 Measuring cups (tin) | .30 | |
| 1 Three-burner oil-stove | 21.00 | 1 Measuring cup (glass) | .15 | |
| 1 Portable oven | 2.20 | 1 Double boiler | .85 | |
| 1 Storage tin | 1.35 | 3 Baking-dishes | .38 | |
| 2 Dish-pans | 1.30 | 2 Cake tins | .30 | |
| 2 Draining pans | .90 | 3 Toasters | .30 | |
| 2 Scrub basins | .80 | 1 Tea-pot | .25 | |
| 2 Soap-dishes | .40 | 1 Coffee-pot | .35 | |
| 1 Pail | .55 | 1 Pitcher (2 quarts) | .18 | |
| 2 Pails | 1.80 | 1 " (1 pint) | .10 | |
| 2 Dippers | .70 | 5 Bowls | .60 | |
| 2 Tea-kettles | 2.00 | 6 Custard cups | .60 | |
| 3 Kneading boards | .90 | 1 Butter crock | .30 | |
| 3 Rolling-pins | .45 | 1 Covered pail (1 pint) | .15 | |
| 1 Oil-can | 1.10 | 2 Trays | .20 | |
| 1 Stove mitt | .20 | 1 Grater | .10 | |
| 1 Dust-pan | .10 | 1 Potato masher | .10 | |
| 1 Whisk | .15 | 1 Can-opener | .10 | |
| 2 Scrub-brushes | .30 | 1 French knife | .35 | |
| 3 Vegetable brushes | .15 | 1 Bread " | .35 | |
| 3 Stew pans | 1.05 | 3 Egg-beaters | .15 | |
| 2 Sauce-pans | .50 | 1 Dover egg-beater | .10 | |
| 3 Frying-pans | .75 | 3 Wooden spoons | .15 | |
| 3 Strainers | .39 | 6 Paring knives | .90 |
For Eight Pupils
For Twelve Pupils
In the equipment for twelve pupils, three one-burner oil-stoves at $6.50 each might be used in place of the second large stove. In this case extra provision must be made for storing the stoves when not in use, as the cabinet shown does not provide space for more than one large stove. Care should be taken in using the one-burner stove to avoid upsetting it while it is in use. The equipment given above is generous, and reductions may be made if necessary. In any case it is not advisable that the whole equipment should be purchased at once; only sufficient to make a beginning should be secured, and further utensils may be added as the necessity for their use arises.
If a hot dish is served at the noon lunch, as is most desirable, the following will be needed in addition, in order to serve twenty-four pupils:
| 24 Knives | $2.40 |
| 24 Forks | 1.20 |
| 24 Teaspoons | .40 |
| 12 Tablespoons | .60 |
| 6 Salt and pepper shakers | 1.50 |
| 24 Glasses | 1.50 |
| 24 Plates | 2.20 |
| 4 Plates (large) | .50 |
| 24 Cups and saucers | 4.20 |
| 24 Fruit and vegetable dishes | 1.50 |
HECTOGRAPH
The hectograph is a device for making copies of written work. Teachers whose schools have limited black-board space will find it of great service. Recipes and other rules for work may be copied and distributed to the pupils, and thus kept in a permanent form. Many other uses in connection with the general work of the school will suggest themselves.
The following are the directions for making:
Soak 1½ ounces of white glue in three ounces of water until it is well softened. Cook in a double boiler until the whole mass is smooth. Remove from the fire and add six ounces of glycerine. Mix well, re-heat, skim, and pour into a shallow pan or on a slate. Prick the bubbles as soon as they show. Allow the mixture to stand for twenty-four hours, and it is then ready for use.
Write the material to be copied, in hectograph ink, on a sheet of the same size as that on which the copy is to be made. Write clearly and space carefully. Wipe the hectograph with a damp cloth. Lay a sheet of unglazed paper on the hectograph, rub it carefully, and take off at once. This removes any drops of water, but leaves the surface moist. Lay the written side of the sheet on the hectograph and rub it carefully over its whole surface with a soft cloth, so that every particle of the writing comes in contact with the surface of the hectograph. Leave it there for four or five minutes. Lift one corner and peel off carefully. Lay a plain sheet on the hectograph and rub as before. Take off as before. If the copy is not clear, leave the next sheet on a little longer. When sufficient copies have been made, wash the hectograph with a wet cloth before putting it away. Keep in a cool, dry place.
The best method of approach to Household Science in the rural school is through the medium of the hot noon-day lunch or the preparation of one or two hot dishes to supplement the lunch brought from home. Owing to the fact that many pupils live far from the school, it is impossible for them to go home for the mid-day meal, and they are thus dependent upon lunches which they bring with them. Very frequently the pupils are allowed to eat their lunches where and how they please, and the method chosen is conducive neither to comfort nor to health. In fine weather they do not wish to lose any time from their games, and so they eat their food while playing, or they bolt it, in order that they may get to their play more quickly. In severe weather they crowd round the steps or the stove and do not hesitate to scatter crumbs and crusts. In one case even a teacher has been seen holding a sandwich in one hand and writing on the black-board with the other.
In many cases the lunch does not attract the pupil. It is often carried, without proper wrapping, in a tin pail, and it then absorbs the taste of the tin; again, it is often wrapped in a newspaper and is flavoured with printer's ink; occasionally, it is wrapped in cloth not too clean. Conditions such as these are not fair to the pupils. They come a long way to school, often over poor roads; and it is necessary, for both their physical and their mental development, that they should receive adequate nourishment served as attractively as possible. Many of the defects found among school children can be traced, to a greater or less extent, to lack of nutrition. The United States military draft shows that the number of those physically defective is from seven to twenty per cent. higher in rural districts than in towns and cities, and this difference is not peculiar to that country. May we not reasonably suppose that many of these defects are caused by mal-nutrition, and that this mal-nutrition is in part due to the poor noon-day lunch? As these defects hinder mental as well as physical development, the question of proper nutrition through the medium of the school lunch becomes an educational one.
THE BOX LUNCH
With proper care in the selection of food, the packing of the lunch box, and rational methods of consumption, there is no reason why the box lunch should not be nourishing, attractive, and possess an educational value.
It may be laid down as an axiom that every school lunch should be supervised by the teacher and hap-hazard methods of eating the lunch should be prohibited. Those schools that are fortunate enough to possess a large table can approximate somewhat to the best home conditions, and have the table set in the proper manner, as shown in Lesson VI, page 18. The pupils should sit round the table, at the head of which is the teacher, and the lunch may be made to partake of the nature of a family party. If rightly managed, the meal, even under the unusual difficulties presented in the rural school, may offer the most favourable opportunities to inculcate habits of cleanliness and neatness and to cultivate good manners. The pupils will learn something about the proper selection of food and the importance of thorough mastication. Clean hands and faces and tidy hair should be insisted upon, and individual drinking cups should be encouraged. As a manual training exercise, each pupil may be taught to make his own drinking cup from heavy waxed paper. Grace may be said by the older pupils in turn.
The table should be made to look as attractive as possible. The pupils, in turn, might undertake to have the table-cloth washed at home or, in place of a linen cloth, a covering of white oil-cloth may be used. In some cases the school garden will be able to supply flowers or a growing plant for a centrepiece. Three or four of the larger pupils, either boys or girls, may set the table in ten minutes, while the others are washing their hands and faces and tidying their hair. Some such plan as this will add palatability and cheer to the monotony of the everyday cold and often unattractive lunch and will create a spirit of true and healthy sociability among the pupils.
In schools that do not possess tables large enough to be used as suggested above, each pupil should be required to set one place at his own desk, as shown in the illustration on page 20. A paper napkin may be used for a table-cloth, if a small piece of white oil-cloth is not procurable. Each pupil retains his place until all have finished; he should then dispose of the crumbs and leave his desk tidy. From twenty minutes to half an hour is generally found sufficient for the meal. There should be cheerful conversation and restrained laughter throughout the meal, and acts of courtesy and generosity should be encouraged. At seasons when there are no flies, and on days when the weather is favourable, it is a pleasant change to serve lunch out-of-doors.
The lunch is provided by the home, but the teacher may give some useful lessons in Household Science by talks on the contents of the lunch box and the proper methods of packing the same, so that the food will keep in good condition until the time for its consumption arrives. It is the duty of the school authorities to provide a suitable storage place for the lunch boxes. These boxes should be kept free from dust or flies and in a place where the food will not freeze in winter. Open shelves, so often seen, are not suitable and a properly ventilated cupboard in the school-room should be provided.
CONTENTS OF THE LUNCH BOX
The whole question of the box lunch presents a serious problem, when we consider the large number of children who must depend upon it for their noon-day meal. This meal should be so constituted as to make it a real meal and not a makeshift. The same principles which govern the preparation of the meal should govern the preparation of the lunch box. It is said that the school lunch should consist of "something starchy and something meaty, something fat and something fibrous, something sweet and something savoury".
With so many varieties of breads, meats, cheese, jams, etc., innumerable kinds of sandwiches may be made. For example, there are brown, graham, rye, raisin, nut, and date breads, and equally many kinds of meat. Such variety makes it quite unnecessary to have an egg sandwich or hard-boiled eggs in the lunch box each day. While eggs are very valuable in the diet, a lunch with hard-boiled eggs five times each week becomes monotonous, and the appetite of the consumer flags. With skill and thought one can make little scraps of meat or other "left-overs" into attractive sandwiches. Ends of meat, ground and mixed with salad dressing or cream, make delicious sandwich fillings.
SANDWICH MAKING
The bread should be cut evenly.
The thickness of the slice should vary with the appetite of the consumer.
The crust should not be removed.
The butter should be creamed for spreading.
Both slices should be buttered, in order to prevent the absorption of the filling.
The filling should be carefully placed between the slices.
The sandwiches should be wrapped in waxed paper, to prevent drying.
SUGGESTIONS FOR SANDWICH FILLING
SUGGESTIONS FOR PLANNING
In selecting the food the following suggestions may prove helpful:
Protein—Sandwiches of fish, meat, egg,cheese, nuts, dish of cottage cheese | |
For the older pupils, baked beans | |
Carbohydrates—Bread, cake, cookies,jam, honey, dates, figs, raisins, prunes, candy | |
Fats—Butter, cream, peanut-butter | |
Note.—Whenpossible, a bottle of clean sweet milk should form part of everylunch. | |
SUGGESTIONS FOR DESSERTS
| Cup custards of various flavours |
| Cookies with nuts and fruits |
| Cakes—not too rich |
| Pies well made and with good filling |
| Candy—plain home-made |
| Preserves |
| Fresh fruits |
As often as possible, a surprise should be included, generally in the form of a dessert of which the pupil is fond. A surprise adds to the pupil's pleasure in eating and, indirectly, aids digestion.
PACKING THE LUNCH BOX
Much of the attractiveness of a lunch depends upon the manner of packing. We must consider the fact that the foods must be packed together closely and must remain so packed for several hours. This makes careful packing a necessity.
RULES FOR PACKING
| 1. Be sure that the box is absolutely clean. |
| 2. Line it with fresh paper every time it is used. |
| 3. Wrap each article of food in wax paper. |
| 4. Place in the box neatly, the food that is to be used last in the bottom of the box, unless it is easily crushed. |
| 5. Lay a neatly folded napkin on the top. |
EQUIPMENT FOR PACKING
| Lunch box |
| Waxed paper |
| Paper napkin |
| Drinking cup |
| Knife, fork, and spoon |
| Thermos bottle or jar for milk or other liquid |
The box itself should be of odourless material, permanent, and light in weight, admitting of safe means of ventilation. Paper bags should never be used for food containers, as it is impossible to pack the lunch in them firmly and well and there is danger of their being torn or of insects or flies creeping into them. Boxes of fibre, tin, basket weave, or other material, may be used. The box will require scrubbing, and should be frequently dried and aired well. Many types of lunch boxes have compartments provided for the various kinds of food.
Waxed paper and paper napkins, or the somewhat heavier paper towels of much the same size, are very useful for packing lunches, and may be obtained at a low price, particularly if bought in large quantities. An extra napkin, either of paper or cloth, should be put in the basket, to be spread over the school desk when the lunch is eaten. Napkins can be made out of cotton crêpe at a cost of a very few cents each. The crêpe may be bought by the yard and should be cut into squares and fringed. Such napkins have the advantage of not needing to be ironed.
Paper cups, jelly tumblers with covers which can now be bought in several sizes, and bottles with screw tops, such as those in which candy and other foods are sold, may all be used for packing jellies, jams, honey, etc. The thermos bottle may be used for carrying milk, or, if this is too expensive, a glass jar with a tight cover may be substituted. If the thermos bottle is used, hot drinks may also be carried.
SERVING A HOT DISH
The serving of a hot lunch or of one hot dish need be neither an elaborate nor an expensive matter. Many rural schools in the United States, some of them working under conditions worse than any of ours, are serving at least one hot dish to supplement the lunch brought from home. The advantages of this plan are:
| 1. It enables the pupils to do better work in the afternoon. |
| 2. It adds interest to the school work and makes the pupils more ready to go to school in bad weather. |
| 3. It gives some practical training and paves the way toward definite instruction in Household Science. |
| 4. It gives a better balance to meals, and as compared with a cold lunch it aids digestion. |
| 5. It teaches neatness. |
| 6. It gives opportunity to teach table manners. |
| 7. It strengthens the relationship between the home and the school. |
THE METHOD
The teacher should have a meeting of the school trustees and of the mothers of the pupils and outline the method of procedure. It is only in this way that the co-operation of all can be secured, and without this co-operation there can be no success. This meeting should be addressed by the Public School Inspector; and after the consent of the parents and the trustees has been secured, the scheme may be put into operation. Some thought will have to be given to the organization, in order that the plan may work smoothly. If properly organized, there need be little or no interruption to the ordinary routine of the school.
The pupils, both boys and girls, should be arranged in groups, each group taking the work in turn. Even the smallest pupils should be allowed to take part, as there are many duties which they can perform successfully. If each group is composed of five or six pupils, the work may be arranged as follows: two will prepare the dish, two will get the table or the desks ready (or each pupil may prepare his own desk), and the others will wash the dishes.
The furnishing of supplies is a problem which each teacher will have to solve for herself, according to the conditions which exist in the community. Supplies which can be stored are best purchased by the school trustees; while the mothers of the pupils should furnish the perishable articles, such as milk and butter. As often as possible, the pupils may be asked to bring various articles, such as a potato, an apple, a carrot, an egg, etc. These may be combined and prepared in quantities. The school garden should be relied upon to supply many vegetables in season, thus adding interest and life to both the garden work and the lunch. In some districts the neighbourhood is canvassed for subscriptions in order to provide funds to purchase supplies for the term lunches. Some schools give a concert or entertainment in order to raise funds for this purpose, and in others all the supplies have been purchased by the school trustees.
The pupils who are to prepare the hot dish may make the necessary preparations before school or at recess, and they must so time the cooking that the dish will be ready when required. They should be allowed to leave their desks during school hours to give it attention if necessary. In schools where this method is adopted, it has been found that the privilege has never been abused, nor have the other pupils been less attentive on account of it. However, most of the recipes suggested later require little or no attention while cooking.
At twelve o'clock the assigned pupils get the dish ready for serving and set the table. The others wash their hands, tidy their hair, and get their lunch boxes. All pass to their places. The pupils who have prepared the dish may serve it, using trays to carry each pupil's supply, or the pupils may pass in line before the serving table and to their places, time being thus saved. When the meal is finished, the pupils rise and bring their dishes to the serving table and stack them with the other dishes. Two remain behind to clear up and wash the dishes, while the others go to play. If the desks are used, each pupil is responsible for leaving his own desk clean.
The pupils may be required to keep an account of the cost of the food and to calculate the cost per head per day or per week. A schedule of the market prices of food should be posted in a conspicuous place, and the pupils may take turns in keeping these prices up to date. A separate black-board may be used for this purpose.
The dish chosen should be as simple as possible—a vegetable or cream soup, cocoa, baked potatoes, baked apples, white sauce with potatoes or other vegetables, apple sauce, rice pudding, etc. It may be well, in some cases, to have plans made on Friday for the following week. As a rule, each day a little before or after four o'clock, the recipe for the following day should be discussed, the quantities worked out to suit the number of pupils, and the supplies arranged for. The element of surprise should be made use of occasionally, the pupils not being allowed to know the dish until they take their places.
SUGGESTED MENUS
The following are some suggested menus in which the food brought from home is supplemented by one hot dish. (The name of the hot dish is printed in italics.)
1. Potato soup, meat sandwiches, orange, sponge cake
2. Cream of tomato soup, bread and butter sandwiches, stuffed egg, pear, oatmeal cookies
3. Apple cooked with bacon, bread and butter sandwiches, gingerbread, milk
4. Cocoa, date sandwiches, celery, graham crackers, apple
5. Stewed apples, egg sandwiches, plain cake, prunes stuffed with cottage cheese
6. Custard, brown bread sandwiches, apple, raisins, sauce, molasses cookies
7. Baked beans, bread and butter sandwiches, fruit, sauce, molasses cookies
SUGGESTIONS FOR HOT DISHES FOR FOUR WEEKS
RECIPES SUITABLE FOR THE RURAL SCHOOL LUNCH
All the recipes given have been used with success in preparing rural school lunches. The number that the recipe will serve is generally stated and, where this number does not coincide with the number of pupils in any particular school, the quantities required may be obtained by division or multiplication. The recipes given in the lessons on cooking may also be used in preparing the school lunch, as each recipe states the number it will serve.
White Sauce
1 c. milk | ½ tbsp. butter | |
2 tbsp. flour | ¼ tsp. salt | |
| ⅛ tsp. white pepper | ||
Reserve one quarter of the milk and scald the remainder in a double boiler. Mix the flour to a smooth paste with an equal quantity of the cold milk and thin it with the remainder. Stir this gradually into the hot milk and keep stirring until it thickens. Add the butter, salt, and pepper, and cover closely until required, stirring occasionally. This recipe makes a sauce of medium consistency. To make a thick white sauce, use 3 or 4 tablespoonfuls of flour to one cup of milk.
Cocoa
6 tbsp. (18 tsp.) cocoa | 6 c. milk | |
6 tbsp. (18 tsp.) sugar | 6 c. boiling water | |
| ½ tsp. salt | ||
Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the cocoa, sugar, and salt, then stir in the boiling water and boil for 3 minutes. Add this mixture to the scalded milk. If a scum forms, beat with a Dover egg-beater for one minute. The preparation should begin at half-past eleven, to have the cocoa ready at twelve o'clock. (Will serve eighteen.)
| 1 qt. peeled potatoes cut in thin slices | 4 tbsp. flour | |
| 3 qt. milk | ⅛ tsp. black pepper | |
| 2 tsp. salt | 1 small onion | |
| 4 tsp. butter | ½ tsp. celery seed or a stock of celery |
Before the opening of school, the potatoes should be pared and put into cold water; and the butter, flour, salt, and pepper should be thoroughly mixed. At eleven o'clock, the potatoes, onion, and celery should be put on to boil gently and the milk put into a double boiler to heat. When the vegetables are tender, they should be strained with the cooking liquid into the hot milk and the mixture bound with the flour. The soup should be closely covered until required. (Will serve ten.)
Cream of Pea Soup
| 1 can peas or 1 qt. fresh peas | 2 tbsp. flour | |
| 1 pt. milk | 1 tsp. salt | |
| 2 tbsp. butter | ¼ tsp. pepper |
Heat the peas in their own water, or cook them in boiling salted water until tender. Put the milk to heat in a double boiler. When the peas are tender, rub them, with the cooking liquid, through a strainer into the scalded milk. Add the butter and flour rubbed to a smooth paste and stir until thickened. Season and cover until required. (Will serve six pupils generously.)
Cream of Tomato Soup
1 pt. or 1 can tomatoes | 1 qt. milk | |
2 tbsp. butter | Sprig of parsley | |
3 tbsp. flour | ¼ tsp. white pepper | |
1 tsp. sugar | ½ tsp. soda | |
| 1 tsp. salt | ||
Cook the tomatoes slowly with the seasonings for ten minutes and rub through a strainer. Scald the milk, thicken with the flour and butter rubbed to a paste, re-heat the tomatoes, and add the soda, mix with the milk, and serve at once. (Will serve six pupils generously.)
2 pt. cans corn | 2 slices onion | |
1 pt. cold water | 2 qt. of thin white sauce | |
| Seasonings | ||
The process is that used in making Cream of Pea Soup. When making the thin white sauce, place the onion in the milk and leave it until the milk is scalded. Then remove the onion to the other mixture and make the sauce. This gives sufficient onion flavour. (Will serve eighteen.)
Lima-bean Soup
1 c. Lima beans | 3 tbsp. butter | |
2 qt. water | 2 tbsp. flour | |
2 whole cloves | 3 tbsp. minced onion | |
1 bay leaf | 1 tbsp. " carrot | |
1 tsp. salt | 1 tbsp. " celery | |
| ¼ tsp. pepper | ||
Soak the beans overnight in soft water or in hard water which has been boiled and cooled. If cold, hard water is used, add ¼ tsp. baking-soda to 1 qt. of water. In the morning, drain and put on to cook in 2 qt. of water. Simmer until tender. It takes 2 hours. Cook the minced vegetables in the butter for 20 minutes, being careful not to brown them. Drain out the vegetables and put them into the soup. Put the flour and butter into a pan and stir until smooth. Add this mixture to the soup. Add the cloves, bay leaf, and seasonings, and simmer for 1 hour. Rub through a sieve. One cup of milk may be added. Bring to the simmering point and serve. (Will serve eighteen.)
Note.—If desired, the vegetables may be used without browning and the cloves and bay leaf omitted.
Milk and Cheese Soup
| 4 c. milk | 1⅓ c. grated cheese | |
| 2 tbsp. flour | Salt and pepper to taste |
Thicken the milk with flour, cooking thoroughly. This is best done in a double boiler, stirring occasionally. When ready to serve, add cheese and seasoning. (Will serve six.)
4 tbsp. rice | ½ small onion | |
4 c. milk | 4 stalks celery | |
3 tbsp. butter | ½ bay leaf | |
| Salt and pepper to taste | ||
Scald the milk, add the well-washed rice, and cook for 30 minutes in a closely covered double boiler. Melt the butter and cook the sliced onion and celery in it until tender, but not brown. Add these, with the bay leaf, to the contents of the double boiler, cover, and let it stand on the back of the stove for 15 minutes. Strain, season with salt and pepper, re-heat, and serve. Note that the bay leaf is added and allowed to stand, to increase the flavour, and may be omitted if desired. (Will serve six.)
Rice Pudding
3 c. rice | 2 c. sugar | |
6 c. water | 4 eggs | |
6 c. milk | 2 tsp. salt | |
| 3 c. fruit (chopped raisins) ifdesired | ||
Wash the rice in a strainer placed over a bowl of cold water, by rubbing the rice between the fingers. Lift the strainer from the bowl and change the water. Repeat until the water is clear. Put the water in the upper part of a double boiler directly over the fire, and when it boils rapidly, gradually add the rice to it. Boil rapidly for 5 minutes, then add the milk, to which has been added the sugar, salt, and eggs slightly beaten. Cover, place in the lower part of the double boiler, and cook until kernels are tender—from 45 minutes to 1 hour. If raisins are used, add them before putting the rice in the double boiler. Serve with milk and sugar as desired. (Will serve eighteen.)
Rice Pudding
| 2 c. rice | 4 qt. milk | |
| 1 c. raisins | 1 c. sugar | |
| 1 tsp. salt | 1 tsp. cinnamon |
Prepare the rice and raisins and put them, with the other ingredients, in a buttered pan. Bake all forenoon, stirring occasionally during the first hour. Serve with milk or cream. (Will serve ten.)
Cream of Wheat
| 1½ c. cream of wheat | 1½ tsp. salt | |
| 10 c. boiling water | 1½ c. dates (chopped) |
Put the boiling water and salt in the upper part of the double boiler directly over the heat. When boiling, add the cereal slowly. Stir constantly until the mixture thickens. Add the dates and cook for 5 minutes. Place in the lower part of the double boiler and cook at least 1 hour. Serve with milk and sugar. (Will serve eighteen.)
Scrambled Eggs
9 eggs | 2 tbsp. butter | |
1 c. milk | 1 tsp. salt | |
| Pepper | ||
Beat the eggs until the yolks and whites are well mixed. Add the seasonings and milk. Heat the frying-pan, melt the butter in it, and turn in the egg mixture. Cook slowly, scraping the mixture from the bottom of the pan as it cooks. As soon as a jelly-like consistency is formed, remove at once to a hot dish or serve on toast. (Will serve nine.)
Creamed Eggs
6 hard-cooked eggs | 2 c. milk | |
4 tbsp. butter | 4 tbsp. flour | |
| Salt and pepper | ||
Melt the butter, add the flour, and stir in the milk gradually. Cook well and season with salt and pepper. Cut hard-cooked eggs in small pieces and add them to the white sauce. It may be served on toast. (Will serve six.)
Egg Broth
6 eggs | 1 c. hot milk | |
6 tbsp. sugar | Few grains salt | |
| Vanilla or nutmeg | ||
Beat the eggs and add the sugar and salt. Stir in the hot milk gradually, so that the eggs will cook smoothly. Flavour as desired. (Will serve six.)
Soft-cooked Eggs
Baked Shirred Eggs
Creamed Potatoes
White sauce (medium consistency) | 3 tbsp. butter | |
3 tbsp. flour | 1½ c. milk | |
| Salt and pepper | ||
Make a white sauce of the butter, flour, milk, and seasonings. Cut cold potatoes (about eight) into cubes or slices and heat in the sauce. Serve hot. (Will serve nine.)
Mashed Potatoes
| 1 tsp. butter |
| 1 or more tbsp. hot milk |
| ¼ tsp. salt |
Beat all together until light and creamy. Re-heat, and pile lightly, without smoothing, in a hot dish.
Baked Potatoes
Use potatoes of medium size.
Scrub thoroughly in water with a brush. Place in a pan in a hot oven. Bake from 45 to 60 minutes. When done, roll in a clean napkin and twist until the skin is broken. Serve immediately. (If no oven is available, place a wire rack on the top of the stove. Put the potatoes on this rack and cover them with a large pan. When half cooked, turn.)
Macaroni and Cheese
| 3 c. macaroni (2 pieces) | 3 qt. boiling water | |
| 3 tsp. salt | 6 c. white sauce (medium) |
Cook the macaroni in boiling salted water until tender. Drain, pour cold water over it, and drain it once more. Put the macaroni into a baking dish, sprinkling a layer of grated cheese upon each layer of macaroni. Pour in the sauce and sprinkle the top with cheese. Cook until the sauce bubbles up through the cheese and the top is brown. To give variety, finely-minced ham, boiled codfish, or any cold meat may be used instead of the cheese. (Will serve ten.)
Cornstarch Pudding
1 qt. milk | ½ tsp. salt | |
¾ c. cornstarch | ¾ c. sugar | |
| Vanilla | ||
Scald the milk in a double boiler. Mix the sugar, cornstarch, and salt together. Gradually add to the hot milk and stir constantly until it thickens. Cover, cook for 30 minutes, add vanilla, and pour into cold, wet moulds. When set, turn out, and serve with milk and sugar. (Will serve nine.)
Apple Sauce
9 tart apples | 6 whole cloves (if desired) | |
¾ c. water | ¾ c. sugar | |
| Piece of lemon rind (ifdesired) | ||
Wipe, pare, quarter, and core the apples. Put the water, apples, lemon rind, and cloves into a sauce-pan. Cook covered until the apples are tender, but not broken. Remove the lemon peel and cloves. Add the sugar a few minutes before taking from the fire. The apples may be mashed or put through a strainer. (Will serve nine.)
Note.—The lemon and the cloves may be used when the apples have lost their flavour.
Stewed Prunes or Other Dried Fruit—Apricots, Apples, Pears
¾ lb. fruit (about) | ⅓ c. sugar | |
1½ pt. of water | 1 or 2 slices lemon or | |
| a few cloves and a piece ofcinnamon stick | ||
Wash the fruit thoroughly and soak overnight. Cook in the water in which it was soaked. Cover, and simmer until tender. When nearly cooked, add sugar and lemon juice. The cloves and cinnamon should cook with the fruit. All flavourings may be omitted, if desired. (Will serve nine.)
Soft Custard
2 c. milk | 2 eggs | |
6 tbsp. sugar | ½ tsp. vanilla | |
| A few grains of salt | ||
Scald the milk in a double boiler. Add the sugar and salt to the eggs and beat until well mixed. Stir the hot milk slowly into the egg mixture and return to the double boiler. Cook, stirring constantly, until the spoon, when lifted from the mixture, is coated. Remove immediately from the heat, add vanilla, and pour into a cold bowl. To avoid too rapid cooking, lift the upper from the lower portion of the boiler occasionally. (Will serve six.)
Tapioca Custard Pudding
| 3 c. scalded milk | 4 tbsp. pearl, or minute, tapioca | |
| 2 eggs slightly beaten | 6 tbsp. sugar | |
| 2 tbsp. butter | A few grains of salt |
Minute tapioca requires no soaking. Soak the pearl tapioca one hour in enough cold water to cover it. Drain, add to the milk, and cook in a double boiler for 30 minutes. Add to remaining ingredients, pour into buttered baking-dish, and bake for about 25 minutes in a slow oven. (Will serve eight.)
| 2 c. cooked rice |
| 2 tbsp. butter |
| 2 tbsp. flour |
| 2 c. unstrained or 1 c. strained tomato |
| 1 slice of onion minced |
| Salt and pepper |
Cook the onion with the tomato until soft. Melt the butter, and add the flour, salt, and pepper. Strain the tomato, stir the liquid into the butter and flour mixture, and cook until thick and smooth. Add the rice, heat, and serve. (Will serve six.)
Cracker Pudding
6 soda crackers | 3 eggs | |
3 c. milk | 6 tbsp. sugar | |
| ½ tsp. salt | ||
Roll the crackers and soak them in milk. Beat the yolks and sugar well together and add to the first mixture, with some salt. Make a meringue with white of eggs, pile lightly on top, and put in the oven till it is a golden brown. Serve hot. (Will serve six.)
Note.—Dried bread crumbs may be used in place of the crackers.
Candied Fruit Peel
The candied peel of oranges, lemons, grapefruit, and other fruits makes a good sweet which is economical, because it utilizes materials which might otherwise be thrown away. Its preparation makes an interesting school exercise. The skins can be kept in good condition for a long time in salt water, which makes it possible to wait until a large supply is on hand before candying them. They should be washed in clear water, after removing from the salt water, boiled until tender, cut into small pieces, and then boiled in a thick sugar syrup until they are transparent. They should then be lifted from the syrup and allowed to cool in such a way that the superfluous syrup will run off. Finally, they should be rolled in pulverized or granulated sugar.
A large number of recipes have been given, in order that a selection may be made according to season, community conditions, and market prices, and so that sufficient variety may be secured from day to day.
Attention given to this matter will be well repaid by the improved health of the pupils, the greater interest taken in the school by the parents, and the better afternoon work accomplished. It has been well said: "The school lunch is not a departure from the principle of the obligation assumed by educational authorities toward the child, but an intensive application of the measures adopted for the physical nurture of the child, to the end of securing in adult years the highest efficiency of the citizen".
USEFUL BULLETINS
The Rural School Luncheon: Department of Education, Saskatchewan
The Box Luncheon: New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University
Hints to Housewives: Issued by Mayor Mitchell's Food Supply Committee, New York City
Home Economics in Village and Rural Schools: Kansas State Agricultural College
Home-made Fireless Cookers and Their Use: Farmers' Bulletin, United States Department of Agriculture
Hot Lunches for Rural Schools: Parts I and II, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts
Rural School Lunches: University of Idaho, Agricultural Extension Department
The Rural School Lunch: University of Illinois College of Agriculture
The School Luncheon: Oregon Agricultural College
HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE WITHOUT SCHOOL EQUIPMENT
There is no school so unhappily situated or so poorly equipped that it is unable to teach effectively the lessons previously outlined in the "Care of the Home" and "Sewing". Now that a grant in aid is provided by the Department of Education any rural school may procure one of the sets of equipment for cooking suggested or some modification thereof. As a stepping-stone to the provision of that equipment and as a means of educating the people of the district in regard to the advantages of teaching this branch of Household Science, it may be advisable or even necessary, in some cases, to attempt practical work, even where no equipment is installed by the school authorities.
It should be remembered that the present position of Manual Training and Household Science in urban schools is entirely owing to private initiative and demonstration, by which the people were shown how and why these subjects should be included in the curriculum of the schools. It is reasonable to suppose that the same results will follow if somewhat the same methods are tried in the case of the rural schools, which form such a large part of our educational system. Two methods of giving instruction of this character have, in the United States, been followed by successful results.
FIRST METHOD
In the first of these, the teacher spends the last thirty or forty minutes, generally on Friday afternoons, in the description and discussion of some practical cooking problem which may be performed in the homes of the pupils. Before this plan is adopted, it should be discussed with the pupils who are to take the work. They should be required to promise that they will practise at home; and the consent and co-operation of the parents should be secured, as the success of this home work depends, in the first place, on the willingness of the pupil to accept responsibility, and, in the second place, on the honest and hearty co-operation of the parents.
A meeting of the mothers should be called, in order that the plan may be laid before them and their suggestions received. At this meeting afternoon tea might be served. The teacher should plan the lessons, but occasionally, particularly at festive seasons, the pupils themselves should be allowed to decide what shall be made. When it is possible, the food prepared at home should be brought by the pupil to the school, in order that it may be compared with that made by other pupils and be judged by the teacher. In other cases, the mother might be asked to fill up a previously prepared form, certifying to the amount and character of the work done at home by the pupil each week.
The instructions placed on the black-board should be clear and concise and give adequate information concerning materials, quantities, and methods. They should be arranged in such a way as to appeal to the eye and thus assist the memory. Connected composition should not be attempted, but the matter should be arranged in a series of numbered steps, somewhat as follows:
Recipe: Boiled Carrots
| Carrots | Salt and pepper | |
| Boiling water | Butter |
| 1. Scrub, scrape, and rinse the carrots. |
| 2. Cut them into pieces by dicing them. |
| 3. Place the pieces in a sauce-pan. |
| 4. Set over the fire and cover with boiling water. |
| 5. Cook until the pieces are soft at the centre when pierced with a fork. |
| 6. Serve in a hot vegetable dish. |
After being thoroughly explained, these directions are placed in a note-book, for the guidance of the pupil in her home practice. In some cases, the directions are placed on properly punched cards, so that at the end of the year every pupil will have a collection of useful recipes and plans, each one of which she understands and has worked out. In many lessons of this type demonstrations may be given by the teacher and, if the food cannot be cooked on the school stove, it may be taken home to be cooked by one of the pupils.
Lessons given according to this method, by which the theory is given in school and the practice acquired at home, need not be restricted to cookery. Any of the lessons prescribed in the curriculum for Form III, Junior, may be treated in the same way. Lessons on the daily care of a bed-room, weekly sweeping, care and cleaning of metals, washing dishes, washing clothes, ironing a blouse and, in fact, on all subjects pertaining to the general care and management of the home, may be given in this way.
Each lesson should conclude with a carefully prepared black-board summary, which should be neatly copied into the note-books, to be periodically examined by the teacher. The black-board work of many teachers leaves much to be desired, and time spent in improving this will be well repaid. Examples of summaries of the kind referred to are to be found in the Ontario Teachers' Manual on Household Management. These instructions may be type-written or hectographed by the teacher and given to the pupils, thus saving the time spent in note-taking.
SECOND METHOD
The second of the plans referred to is a modification of what is known as the "Crete" plan of Household Science, so called from the name of the place in Nebraska, U.S.A., where it was first put into operation. By this plan, definite instruction is given in the home kitchens of certain women in the district, under the supervision of the educational authorities. It was adopted, at first, in connection with the high schools of the small towns in that State but, with certain modifications, it is suitable to our rural school conditions.
In every community there are women who are known to be skilful in certain lines of cookery, and the plan makes use of such women for giving the required instruction. They become actually a part of the staff of the school, giving instruction in Household Science, and using the resources of their households as an integral part of the school equipment.
In order to put this plan into operation, a meeting of women interested in the school should be called and if, after the plan has been laid before them and fully discussed, enough women are willing to open their homes and act as instructors, then it is safe to proceed. The subjects should be divided, and a scheme somewhat as follows may be arranged:
| Mrs. A. bread and biscuits |
| Mrs. B. pies and cakes |
| Mrs. C. canning and preserving |
| Mrs. D. gems and corn bread |
| Mrs. E. desserts and salads |
| Mrs. F. cookies and doughnuts |
| Mrs. G. vegetables. |
Six has been found a convenient number for a class, though ten is better, if the homes can accommodate that number. Half-past three is a good time for the classes to meet, as they then may be concluded by five o'clock, thus leaving the housewife free to prepare her evening meal. The day of the week should be chosen to suit the convenience of the instructor. The classes may meet once a week.
Arriving at the home of the instructor at half-past three, the pupils are seated in the most convenient room, and the lesson is given. During this talk the pupils are given not only the recipe, but details as to materials, the preparation thereof, the degree of heat required, the common causes of failure and, in fact, everything that in the mind of a practical cook would be helpful to the class. Notes are taken, and afterwards properly written out and examined by the teacher of the school.
The instructors prepare the food for cooking, and sometimes, as in the case of rolls and so on, they cook the food in the presence of the pupils. When white bread is to be baked, the pupils are asked to call, a few minutes after school, at the home of the instructor, to watch the first step—setting the sponge—and again the next morning before school to see the next step—mixing the bread—and again, about half-past eleven or twelve, to see the bread ready for the oven and, finally, on the way back to school, to see the result—a fine loaf of well-cooked bread.
The pupils try the recipe carefully in their own homes, not varying its terms until they are able to make the dish successfully. When they can do this, they are free to experiment with modifications, and there should be no objection to receiving help from any source; in fact, it is a good thing for the daughter to get her mother to criticize her and offer suggestions in the many little details familiar to every housekeeper, but which cannot always be given by an instructor in one lesson.
By this method the pupils learn in their own homes and handle real cooking utensils on a real stove heated by the usual fire of that home. If it is a good thing—and no one doubts it—to learn Household Science in a school where everything that invention and skill can provide for the pupils is readily at hand, is it not worth while to enter the field of actual life and, with cruder implements, win a fair degree of success?
At the end of five or six months, after the pupils have had an opportunity to become skilful in making some of the dishes which have been taught, it may be well to have an exhibition of their work. Each pupil may, on Saturday afternoon, bring one or more of the dishes she has learned to prepare to the school-house, where they may be arranged on tables for the inspection of the judges. The dishes exhibited should be certified to as being the work of the pupil with no help or suggestion from anybody. Of course, work of this kind cannot be undertaken by the "suit case" teacher. The teacher who packs her bag on Friday at noon, carries it to school with her, and rushes to catch a train or car at four o'clock, not returning to the district until Monday morning, has no time for this kind of service.
Occasionally the entire class may meet with their instructors in the school-room. An oil-stove and the necessary equipment may be obtained, and a demonstration may be given by one of the instructors. By this means much valuable instruction will be given that is not included in the regular course. At this time also many things may be discussed that pertain to the growth of the movement and the general well-being of the pupils.
The plan is flexible and may be modified easily to suit different localities. It calls for no outlay on the part of the school trustees; nor are the instructors necessarily put to any expense, as the articles prepared in giving the lessons may be used in their own homes.
By the adoption of one of the plans outlined, or such modifications of them as the peculiar requirements of the district may demand, every rural school may do something, not only toward giving a real knowledge of some phases of Household Science, but also toward developing the community spirit and arousing an interest in the school, which will benefit all concerned.
At the present time there is urgent need for thrift and economy in all that pertains to the management of the household—particularly in food and fuel. In the average home much fuel could be saved by the proper use of what is known as the fireless cooker. The scientific principle applied has long been known and is, briefly, as follows: If a hot body is protected by a suitable covering, the heat in it will be retained for a long time, instead of being lost by radiation or conduction. This is why a cosy is placed over a tea-pot.
In using a fireless cooker, the food is first heated on the stove until the cooking has begun, and then it is placed in the fireless cooker—a tight receptacle in which the food is completely surrounded by some insulating substance to prevent the rapid escape of the heat, which in this way is retained in the food in sufficient quantity to complete the cooking. Sometimes, when a higher cooking temperature is desired, an additional source of heat, in the form of a hot soapstone or brick or an iron plate such as a stove lid, is put into the cooker with the food.
The same principle is also employed in cookery in other ways. For example, in camp life beans are often baked by burying the pots overnight in hot stones and ashes, the whole being covered with earth; and in the "clam bakes" on the Atlantic Coast, the damp seaweed spread over the embers on the clams prevents the escape of the heat during cooking. The peasants in some parts of Europe are said to begin the cooking of their dinners and then to put them into hay boxes or between feather beds, so that the cooking may be completed while the family is absent in the fields.
The chief advantages in the use of the fireless cooker are these:
1. It saves fuel, especially where gas, oil, or electric stoves are used. Where coal or wood is the fuel, the fire in the range is often kept up most of the day, and the saving of fuel is not so great. In summer, or when the kitchen fire is not needed for heating purposes, the dinner can be started in the stove early in the morning, and then placed in the fireless cooker, the fire in the range being allowed to go out. During the hot weather, the use of a kerosene or other liquid-fuel stove and a fireless cooker is a great convenience, since it not only accomplishes a saving in fuel, but helps to keep the kitchen cooler. The saving in fuel resulting from the use of a fireless cooker is greatest in the preparation of foods such as stews, which require long and slow cooking.
2. It saves time. Foods cooked in this way do not require watching, and may be left, without danger from fires or of over-cooking, while other duties are being performed or the family is away from home.
3. It conserves the flavour of the food and makes it easier to utilize the cheaper cuts of meat which, although not having so fine a texture or flavour, are fully as nutritious, pound for pound, as the more expensive cuts. Long cooking at a relatively low temperature, such as is given to foods in the fireless cooker, improves the flavour and texture of these tougher cuts of meat. Most people do not cook cereals long enough. By this method, the cereal may be prepared at night, cooked on the stove for about fifteen minutes, and then put in the fireless cooker. In the morning it will be cooked and ready to be served.
The fireless cooker may be used to advantage in preparing the following: soups; pot roasts; beef stew; Irish stew; lamb stew; corned beef and cabbage; boiled ham; baked beans; chicken fricassee; vegetables, such as turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets; dried vegetables, such as peas and beans; and dried fruits, such as peaches, apples, apricots, and prunes; cereals; and puddings.
The fireless cookers described in the following pages are not experiments. They have all been tested and found to be most practical.
DIRECTIONS FOR FIRELESS COOKER—NO. I
While there are many good fireless cookers on the market which cost from five to twenty-two dollars, according to size and make, it is possible to construct a home-made cooker which will give very satisfactory results and will be considerably cheaper than one which is purchased in the shops.
Materials required: A box or some other outside container; some good insulating or packing material; an inside container for the kettle, or a lining for the nest in which the kettle is placed; a kettle for holding the food; and a cushion, or pad, of insulating material, to cover the top of the kettle.
THE OUTSIDE CONTAINER
For the outside container a tightly built wooden box, such as that shown in Figure 39, is satisfactory. The walls should be thick and of some non-conducting material. An old trunk, a small barrel, or a large butter or lard firkin or tin will serve the purpose. Another possibility is a galvanized iron bucket with a closely fitting cover (this has the advantage of being fire-proof). A shoe box 15 by 15 by 28 inches is convenient in size, since it may be divided into two compartments.
Fig. 39.—Completed fireless cooker
It should have a hinged cover and, at the front, a hook and staple, orsome other device to hold down the cover tightly; an ordinary clamp window fastener answers this purpose very well. The size of the container, which depends upon the size of the kettle used, should be large enough to allow for at least four inches of packing material all round the nest in which the kettle is placed.
THE INSULATING MATERIAL
For packing or insulating material a variety of substances may be used. Asbestos and mineral wool are the best, and have the additional advantage that they cannot burn. Ground cork (used in packing Malaga grapes), hay, excelsior, Spanish moss, wool, and crumpled paper may also be used satisfactorily. Of these materials crumpled paper is probably the best, as it is clean and odourless and, if properly packed, will hold the heat better than the others. It is wise to line the box with one thickness of heavy paper or with several thicknesses of newspaper, to make it as air-tight as possible. Asbestos sheeting may be used instead. To pack the container with paper, crush single sheets of newspaper between the hands and pack a layer at least four inches deep over the bottom of the outside container, pounding it in with a heavy stick of wood.
Place the inside container for the cooking kettle or the lining for the inside of the nest in the centre of this layer, and pack more crushed paper about it as solidly as possible. The method of packing with paper is shown in Figure 40. If other material is used it should be packed in a similar way.
Where an extra source of heat is to be used, it is much safer to use some non-inflammable material such as asbestos or mineral wool. A cheap substitute and one which is easily obtained are the small cinders sifted from coal ashes, preferably those from soft coal. However, the cinders from hard coal burned in the kitchen range will do. If a fire-proof packing material is not used, a heavy pad of asbestos should be placed at the bottom of the metal lining, and a sheet or two of this paper should be placed between the lining of the nest and the packing material. Whatever is used should come to the top of the inside container, and the box should be filled to within about four inches of the top.
Fig. 40.—Fireless cooker, showing method of packing with paper
THE INSIDE CONTAINER
The inside container for the cooking kettle or the lining for the nest in which it is to be placed should be cylindrical in shape, should be deep enough to hold the cooking kettle and stone, if one is used, and should fit as snugly as possible to the cooking kettle, but at the same time should allow the latter to be moved in and out freely. For this purpose a galvanized iron or other metal bucket may be used, or, better still, a tinsmith may make a lining of galvanized iron or zinc which can be provided with a rim to cover the packing material, as shown in Figure 41. In case no hot stone or plate is to be used, the lining may be made of strong cardboard.
Fig. 41.—Metal lining with rim
THE KETTLE
The kettle to be used for cooking should be durable and free from seams or crevices which are hard to clean. It should have perpendicular sides, and the cover should be as flat as possible and be provided with a deep lid fitting well down into the kettle, in order to retain the steam. A kettle holding about six quarts is a convenient size for general use. Tinned iron kettles should not be used in a fireless cooker, for, although cheap, they are very apt to rust from the confined moisture. Enamelware kettles are satisfactory.
EXTRA SOURCE OF HEAT
Fireless cookers are adapted to a much wider range of cooking if they are provided with an extra source of heat in the form of a soapstone, brick, or an iron plate which is heated and placed underneath the cooking kettle. This introduces a possible danger from fire, in case the hot stove plate should come into direct contact with inflammable packing material such as excelsior or paper. To avoid this danger, a metal lining must be provided for the nest in which the cooking vessels and stone are to be placed.
Fig. 42.—Tightly fitting lid
COVERING PAD
A cushion, or pad, must be provided, to fill completely the space between the top of the packing material and the cover of the box after the kettle is in place. This should be made of some heavy goods, such as denim, and stuffed with cotton, crumpled paper, or excelsior. Hay may be used, but it will be found more or less odorous. Figure 43 shows the vertical cross-section of a home-made fireless cooker.
Fig. 43.—Vertical cross-section of fireless cooker. A. Outside container; B. packing or insulating material; C. metal lining of nest; D. cooking kettle; E. soapstone plate, or other source of heat; F. pad of excelsior for covering top; G. hinged cover of outside container.
DIRECTIONS FOR FIRELESS COOKER—NO. II
(Single Cooker)
Materials required: Galvanized iron can, No. 3, with a cover; some sawdust; a covered agate pail (to be used as a cooking pail): and two yards of denim; any old linen, cotton, or woollen material may be used instead of denim.
METHOD OF MAKING
Place loose sawdust in the bottom of the can to a depth of about three inches. Measure the depth of the cooking pail. Turn a fold two inches greater than this depth the entire length of the denim or other material and make a long bag. Lay the bag flat on the table and fill it with an even layer of sawdust, so that when completed it will still be half an inch wider than the depth of the pail. Roll the bag around the cooking pail, so that a smooth, firm nest is formed when the bag is placed upright in the can on the top of the sawdust. From the remaining denim or other material make a round, flat bag (the material will have to be pieced for this). Fill this bag with sawdust and use it on top of the cooking pail. The bags must be made and fitted into the can in such a way that there will be no open spaces whatever between the sides of the cooking pail and the can, or between the top of the cooking pail and the cover of the can, through which the heat might escape.
DIRECTIONS FOR FIRELESS COOKER—NO. III
(Double Cooker)
Materials required: One long box and two square boxes; the long box must be large enough to hold the other two and still leave two inches of space all around them; five and one-quarter yards of sheet asbestos one yard wide; two covered agate pails to be used as cooking pails; and about one yard of denim or other material.
METHOD OF MAKING
Line the bottoms and sides of all three boxes with sheet asbestos. In the bottom of the long box lay newspapers flat to a depth of about half an inch. Put two inches of sawdust on top of this layer of newspapers. Place the two square boxes inside the long one, leaving at least two inches of space between them. Fill all the spaces between the boxes with sawdust. Tack strips of denim or other material so that they will cover all the spaces that are filled with sawdust.
The outside box must have a hinged lid, which must be fastened down with a clasp. Line the lid with the sheet asbestos to within half an inch of the edge. Put a layer of sawdust one inch deep on top of the asbestos. Tack a piece of denim or other material over the sawdust, still leaving the edge free and clear so that the cover may fit tightly; or the lid may be lined with asbestos and a denim pillow filled with sawdust made to fit tightly into the top of the box.
USE OF THE FIRELESS COOKER IN THE PREPARATION OF LUNCHES
The fireless cooker should prove very useful in the lunch equipment of rural schools, as its use should mean economy of fuel, utensils, time, and effort. It might be made by the pupils and would afford an excellent manual training exercise.
Many of the dishes in the recipes given may be cooked in this way, but more time must be allowed for cooking, as there is a fall of temperature in placing the food in the cooker. When the vessel is being transferred from the stove to the cooker, the latter should be in a convenient position, and the transfer should be made, and the cushion placed in position, very quickly, so that the food will continue boiling. If the quantity of food is small, it should be placed in a smaller tightly covered pail, set on an inverted pan in the larger pail, and surrounded with boiling water. When there is an air space above the food in the cooking dish, there is greater loss of heat, as air gives off heat more readily than water.
The following are examples of the foods that may be cooked in a Fireless Cooker:
Apple sauce—Bring to boiling temperature and place in the cooker, leave two hours.
Apple compote—Cut the apples in halves or quarters so that they need not be turned. Leave them in the cooker about three hours.
Dried fruits—Soak overnight, bring to the boiling-point, and leave in the cooker at least three hours.
Cream of wheat—Boil until thick, place in the cooker, leave overnight and, if necessary, re-heat in double boiler before using.
Rolled oats—Boil five minutes, then place in the cooker. Leave at least three hours and longer if possible.
Macaroni—Boil, then place in the cooker for two hours.
Rice—Boil, then place in the cooker for one hour.
All vegetables may be cooked in the cooker. They must be given time according to their age. A safe rule for all green vegetables is to allow two and a half times as long as if boiled on the stove.
In the home, where the cooking is much greater in amount than it can be in the school, the saving in fuel, by the judicious use of the properly made fireless cooker, is correspondingly much larger. For example: in soups, from 2½ to 3½ hours use of fuel is made unnecessary; pot roast 2½ hours; beef stew 2½ hours; lamb stew 1½ hours; corn beef and cabbage 2½ hours; baked beans 5½ to 7½ hours; chicken fricassee 2 hours; dried peas, beans, and lentils 3 hours; dried fruits 3 hours; rice pudding 1½ hours.
SPECIAL GRANTS FOR RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS
(From the Revised Regulations of the Department of Education, 1918)
(1) The Board of a rural or a village school which is unable to comply with the provisions of the General Regulations, but which maintains classes in Manual Training as applied to the work of the Farm or in Household Science suitable to the requirements of the rural districts, which employs a teacher qualified as below, and which provides accommodations and equipment and a course of study approved by the Minister before the classes are established, will be paid by the Minister the sums provided in the scheme below, out of the grants appropriated therefor: said grants to be expended on the accommodations, equipment, and supplies for Manual Training and Household Science. In no year, however, will the Departmental grants exceed the total expenditure of the Board for these classes.
(2) On the report of the Inspector of Manual Training and Household Science that the organization and the teaching of the classes in Manual Training or Household Science maintained as provided above are satisfactory, an annual grant will be paid by the Minister out of the Grant appropriated according to the following scheme:
(a) (i) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate but is not specially certificated in Manual Training or Household Science—
Initial Grant to board, $40; to teacher, $15. Subsequent Grant: to board, $20; to teacher, $15.
(ii) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate and has satisfactorily completed the work of one Summer Course in Manual Training or Household Science, provided by the Department, and undertakes to complete Part II the following year, or receives permission from the Minister to postpone said part—
Initial Grant: to board, $40: to teacher, $20. Subsequent Grant: to board, $20: to teacher, $20.
(b) (i) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate and in addition the Elementary certificate in Manual Training or Household Science—
Initial Grant: to board, $75; to teacher, $40. Subsequent Grant: to board, $30; to teacher, $40.
(ii) When the teacher holds a Second Class certificate and in addition the Ordinary certificate in Manual Training or Household Science—
Initial Grant: to board, $75; to teacher, $50. Subsequent Grant: to board, $30; to teacher, $50.
(c) When a school taking up Household Science provides at least one hot dish for the pupils staying to lunch from November 1st to March 31st, the above grants to the teacher of Household Science will be increased $10.