THE INCAS
By OSGOOD HARDY, M. A.
Instructor in Spanish in the Sheffield Scientific School, and Chief Assistant and Interpreter of the Peruvian Expeditions of 1914-1915, under the auspices of Yale University and the National Geographic Society
MENTOR GRAVURES
RUINS OF A TYPICAL INCA CITY · SACSAHUAMAN, THE INCAS’ GREATEST FORTRESS, CUZCO, PERU · ENTRANCE TO DOMINICAN CHURCH, CUZCO, PERU · DOORWAYS IN INCA RUINS OF ROSASPATA · LLAMAS COMING INTO CUZCO · RUINS OF THE GREAT INCA TEMPLE OF VIRACOCHA, NEAR SICUANI, PERU
NOTE.—All pictures in this Mentor are reproduced by permission of the National Geographic Society and the South American Exploration Fund of Yale University, under whose auspices the Peruvian Expeditions directed by Dr. Hiram Bingham have taken place.
NOTE ON PRONUNCIATION.—The letter “ä” with two dots above is pronounced as in “father”; the “ā” with a horizontal line above is pronounced as in “ray.”
Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New York, N. Y., under the act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1918, by The Mentor Association, Inc.
There is probably no part of the world that stimulates more curiosity in an archeologist or even in a casual traveler than that part of South America which was once inhabited by the Incas of Peru. Tiahuanaco’s (tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko) finely carved gateway and its ponderous stone platforms, Sacsahuaman’s (saks-ä-wa´-män) gigantic walls, Ollantaytambo’s (ol-yän-tie-tam´-bo) monolithic fortress, and Machu Picchu’s (mä´-choo peek´-choo) picturesque grandeur fill one with an admiration for their builders which is only equaled by the sorrow that today, over three centuries after the advent of Pizarro (pee-sä´-ro) and his conquistadores (con-kees-tä-do´-rays), we can do little more than make conjectures concerning the ancient Peruvians.
RUINS OF PATALLACTA—A Typical Inca Temple
And, furthermore, it is doubtful if we can ever go very far in solving the problem of man in the Andes. Although they made great progress in architecture, agriculture, engineering, and the science of government, the ancient Peruvians did not achieve the art of writing, nor did they even reach the stage of hieroglyphics. Their records were kept on quipus (kee-poos), variously colored strings with many different kinds of knots. These seem, however, to have been used only for accounting purposes. Thus far, the quipus in possession of our archeologists have been of no particular aid in deciphering the history of their makers. Accordingly, what we know of the Incas consists of traditions gathered together by early Spaniards, and the work of present-day students who, by modern archeological methods, are slowly bringing some light to bear on this apparently insolvable problem.
PISAC
Terraces below the principal ruins, still used for growing wheat and barley
DOORWAY
In ruins, now known as Rosaspata, but which Dr. Bingham has shown are probably those known to the Incas as “Vitcos,” the last home of the Incas
Origin of American Aborigines
Although there are many ideas advanced as to the origin of the American aborigine, it is commonly believed that he came from northeastern Asia and gradually moved southward. Archeologists and geologists are all agreed that he arrived at the close of the glacial epoch, long after the disappearance of the prehistoric animals which Dr. Matthew described for Mentor readers some time ago. When he came to this continent he had probably already reached the higher stages of the Stone Age, and was possibly already in the Bronze Age. Just how long it has been since his arrival we cannot tell.
Although the number of traditions concerning the origin of the Inca empire is legion, the two best known are the Titicaca (tee-tee-kä´-kä) and Tampu-tocco (täm-poo-tok´-ko) legends. The former has been given us by the immortal Prescott, relying on the Commentaries of the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (gär-sil´-ä-so day lä vay-gä). From him we know there was a time when the ancient races of the continent were all plunged in deplorable barbarism. “The Sun, the grand luminary and parent of mankind, taking compassion on their degraded condition, sent two of his children, Manco Ccapac (män´-ko k-kä´-päk) and Mama Occlo (mä´-mä ok´-klo), to gather the natives into communities and teach them the arts of civilized life. The celestial pair, brother and sister, husband and wife, advanced along the high plains in the neighborhood of Lake Titicaca to about the 16th degree south. They bore with them a golden wedge, and were directed to take up their residence on the spot where the sacred emblem should without effort sink into the ground. They proceeded but a short distance—as far as the valley of Cuzco (koos´-ko), the spot indicated by the performance of the miracle; there the wedge speedily sank into the earth and disappeared forever. On this spot the children of the Sun established their residence, and laid the foundations of the city of Cuzco.”
RUINS OF PATALLACTA
Showing niches with holes for bar locks in the upper room of the temple on top of the rock
INCA FORTRESS WALL, SACSAHUAMAN
The gigantic size of the stones and the precision with which they are fitted, without mortar, bear testimony to the engineering genius of the Inca megalithic builders
The Titicaca myth, however, does not receive as much consideration today as the Tampu-tocco (täm´-poo-tok´-ko) myth. The former is characterized by the late Sir Clements Markham as an obvious invention to account for the ancient ruins and statues in the vicinity of Tiahuanaco (tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko), and on the islands of Titicaca and Koati (ko-ä´-tee). “It has no historical value,” he says, “while the Tampu-tocco myth is as certainly the outcome of a real tradition, and is the fabulous version of a distant historical event.”
CUZCO, PERU
PALACE OF THE INCA ROCCA
A large gravure picture of this massive structure will be found in The Mentor (No. 132) on “Peru”
The story is somewhat as follows. At a distance from Cuzco is a place called “Tampu-tocco” (“House of the Windows”). This was long considered to be identical with “Paccari-tampu” (päk´-kä-ree-tam´-poo) (“House of the Dawn”), but the explorations and study of Dr. Bingham have shown that the evidence is in favor of his statement that Machu Picchu is Tampu-tocco. From this locality, at a date placed by students somewhere between 950 B. C. and 200 A. D., came four brothers accompanied by four sisters. Their leader, Manco (män´-ko) (the princely), succeeded in making away with his three brothers, so that at length, on their arrival at Cuzco, where the golden rod which this Manco also carried sank into the ground, the first Inca and his sisters were able to found their kingdom without rivals. Under the leadership of Manco and his successors, sometimes known as “Pre-Megaliths,” the empire grew. In the seventeenth or nineteenth reign a change in dynasty took place, and thenceforth the megalithic monarchs, who were often distinguished and skilful astrologers and reformers, ruled with the title of Amauta (ä-mä-oo´-tä).
About 450 A. D. came the end of this dynasty. Pachacuti (pä-chä-koo´-tee) VI, a ruler of peoples on the east, south and west and subject tribes, had risen in revolt. The invaders ultimately retired, but the power of Cuzco was broken, and the ruler slain. The city was left to the priests, and the inhabitants, under a new sovereign, took refuge at Tampu-tocco, where some twenty-four princes ruled in succession. At length, when the provinces once under the control of the princes of Cuzco had relapsed into barbarism, a woman of high birth named Siyu-yacu (see´-yoo-yä´-koo), contrived a plot to place on the throne one who would initiate a bold attempt to recover the power once possessed by their forefathers. The individual selected was Siyu-yacu’s own son, Rocca (rok´-kä). The plot was successful, and Rocca, later known as Sinchi Rocca (seen´-chee rok´-kä) or the Great Rocca, was the first of the Inca sovereigns whose reign looms up clearly enough to remove it from the realm of traditions and give it a place, although slightly hazy, in history. From the accession of Rocca to the throne, about 1100 A. D., down to the murder of Tupac Amaru (too´-päk ä´-mä-roo) in 1671 by the Viceroy Francisco de Toledo (frän-sees´-ko day to-lay-do), the course of events is fairly well authenticated. It is to this period that a discussion of the Incas must necessarily be confined.
ALPACAS
A semi-domesticated animal resembling sheep, and yielding a long, fine wool, usually brown or black
GROUP OF LLAMAS IN JULIACA
When the Spanish Came
When the Spaniards arrived, the little kingdom of Cuzco had already grown to an empire that extended to the equator on the north, and was bounded on the south by the River Maule (mä´-oo-lay) in southern Chile (chee´-lay). On the west it extended to the Pacific Ocean, and on the east faded away in the torrid forests of the Amazon and the rolling hills of the Argentine uplands. The Incas had succeeded in conquering the many tribes scattered over this whole region, and for the most part had enforced the use of their own language, the Quichua (kee´-choo-a). They had evolved a system of government which, expanding from that of a village community, had met the needs of a vast empire; and they had done it so gradually that the inhabitants at large had been conscious of little change save in the direction of increased prosperity and security.
MACHU PICCHU RUINS
General view, showing growth covering ruins
Inca Government and Religion
The Inca government was a despotism. The Inca—the chief magistrate of the dominant tribe—had absolute powers, and as a direct descendant of the Sun was also vested with sacred attributes. Surrounding him and under him were his immediate family. His official wife was his sister, and from their offspring was chosen the successor of the Inca. The elder was usually designated, although this rule was broken in several instances where the younger brother seemed more able. Next in the social scale were the nobles, or orejones (o-ray-ho´-naze), as they were called by the Spaniards. These officials wore very large earrings. The lobe of the ear was often distorted so that ornaments several inches in diameter were inserted. Under the orejones came the caracas (cä-rä´-cäs), or inspectors, who had charge of the census, the estimation of local resources, and the imposition and collection of tribute. Their work was chiefly administrative, and the actual government was left to district magistrates and judges, who acted as tax-collectors also. Finally, there were the common people. These were divided for military purposes into 10s, 100s, 1,000s, and 10,000s, and the mobilization of the Inca armies was almost Teutonic in its ease and precision.
OLLANTAYTAMBO—The Town and Fortress
As might be expected, the Inca religion included the worship of many things. The priestly historians always characterize it as extremely vile; but those of Inca ancestry insist that it was remarkably pure and spiritual, consisting of only one true worship, that of the Sun. Only those that have experienced life in the Peruvian highlands and have endured the enervation of its cold altitudes can realize how certainly must the early peoples have turned to the worship of that force which alone makes life endurable or possible on the Peruvian plateau.
The places of worship were usually temples, so located as to catch the first rays of the rising sun. Huacas (wä´-käs), such as large rocks or springs, were, of course, worshiped where they were situated, and oft-times were surrounded by temples. In the case of stones, shelves or platforms were carved, on which the priests stood while making their offerings to the Sun god.
The worship was carried on by priests and mamaconas (mä-mä-ko´-näs), the latter, the priestesses, directed the lives of the virgins of the Sun. The most beautiful girls of the kingdom were gathered together from all parts of the land. The most attractive became the wives of the Inca, after they had passed through a severe training in the various feminine arts; others took the vows and became mamaconas, while the rest either became wives of the nobles or were sent back to their homes.
MACHU PICCHU
Sacred Plaza and Intihuatana Hill
OLLANTAYTAMBO—The Fortress
Many different feasts were celebrated, the most famous being those of Intip Raymi (een´-teep rye´-mee) and Situa (see´-too-a). The former was celebrated in June at the winter solstice, the object being to secure the return of the Sun. It lasted for nine days, was celebrated by all the ruling caste, and was always successful. Situa was celebrated in August, and the movable huacas were transported to Cuzco from all over the empire. There were also many feasts of local and family significance, as those of name-giving and adolescence.
The rites of worship were sacrifice, prayers, confession, and fasting. Although there has been a great deal of controversy over this point, it is generally accepted that, unlike the Mexican peoples, the Incas did not make human sacrifices. Offerings of food, libations and animal sacrifices were the customary procedure. Some of the Inca prayers which have come down to us are remarkable for their beauty and spiritual qualities. Confession was made to a priest. Fasting was usually observed by those desirous of entering some sacred spot, as at the end of a pilgrimage, and is said to have been at times of twenty days’ duration. The more famous pilgrimages were those to Pachacamac (pä-chä-kä´-mac) and Titicaca.
Peasant and Labor Conditions
OLLANTAYTAMBO
Lower terrace of Fortress
“The condition of the peasant in Peru,” summarizes Mr. T. A. Joyce, “approximated nearer to the ideals of the doctrinaire socialist than in any country of the world. But it was at a price which, perhaps, the native of no other country would consent to pay. From the cradle to the grave the life of the individual was marked out for him; as he was born, so would he die, and he lived his allotted span under the ceaseless supervision of officials. His dress was fixed according to his district; he might not leave his village except at the bidding of the state, and then only for state purposes; he might not even seek a wife outside of his own community. An individual of ability might, perhaps, rise to be one of the subordinate inspectors, but the higher ranks were inexorably closed to him.”
THE CONCACHA STONE
A famous “Huaca” (meaning “holy”). The name was applied to material objects, such as rocks, etc., which were worshiped
Because of this despotism, which placed all the labor in the hands of the state, the Incas were able to achieve marvels in the way of building, road-making, irrigation works, and agricultural engineering. Inherently an agricultural people, the greatest efforts of the ancient Peruvians seem to have been exerted, not in building tombs for the dead, as did the Egyptians, but in making conditions better for the living. It is true that a great deal of labor was expended on the wonderful palaces of their rulers. Each successive Inca thought it necessary to rear an edifice for himself. But the greater part was employed for the benefit of the country as a whole, in irrigation and other projects. Water was brought many miles, and regions which today are desolate through the Spaniards’ failure to keep in repair the ditches and canals were flourishing agricultural communities in the days of the Incas. Rampant streams that threatened to destroy fertile valleys were penned within stone walls. Roads made throughout the whole dominion were useful, of course, for the transportation of troops, but especially valuable because the intershipment of crops was thereby made easy.
MACHU PICCHU
Intihuatana Hill and Stairway
Agriculture and Architecture
As might be expected in a mountainous country, where a wide stretch of level ground is but seldom encountered, the construction of miles upon miles of terraces was necessary. “Many slopes,” writes Mr. O. F. Cook, of the United States Department of Agriculture, “have more than fifty terraces, forming huge staircases as high as the Washington Monument, resting against the lower slopes of mountains that tower thousands of feet above.”
RUINS ON KOATI ISLAND
The famous Island of the Moon
The stonework of the prehistoric builders excites the wonder and admiration of the beholder—admiration for the grand and beautiful simplicity of the Inca masonry, wonder as to the methods employed in its accomplishment. What the means were we do not know—at best we can only conjecture. The modern Indians—in fact, many of the upper class of Peruvians—prefer to explain it by magical methods, such as softening the rocks by rubbing them with the juice of some plant or fruit. Only the combined labor of hundreds of people, understanding the lever and the inclined plane, could have moved some of the huge rocks that form many of the walls. And moving them would be the easiest part of the work. How they succeeded in fitting these monoliths together, so that in places the joints are too fine for the naked eye to discern, is quite beyond the ken of the modern stone-worker. Formerly it was thought that the larger terraces were chiefly for defensive purposes; but the fact that these, as well as those more plainly agricultural in character, show the underlying strata of stones to be covered with fine agricultural soils that must have been brought from a distance, would indicate, according to some of our scientists, that these also were used to produce crops. The importance attached to agriculture can be understood from the fact that the majority of the terraces equal in fineness of masonry even the palaces of the Incas. Lacking timber, the Incas used stone as the chief building material, and, although they had not evolved the pure arch, they had learned to secure strength through the keying together of irregular blocks, and, as Dr. Bingham writes, “had developed many ingenious devices, such as lock-holes for fastening a bar back of the door; ringstones, which were inserted in the gables to enable the rafters to be tied on; and projecting cylinder stones, which could be used as points to which to tie the roof and keep it from blowing off.”
RUINS OF TORONTOY
Showing window, a projecting cylinder stone and lock-hole
Sculpture existed only in a rude form, and the decoration of Inca pottery did not equal that of the coast people. Their ceramic products are marked by simple and graceful lines, rather Grecian in effect, and of striking simplicity and utility. They had arrived at a high degree of skill in the manufacture of textiles, for the llama and alpaca provided them with excellent raw material.
Although they were unfamiliar with refined methods of heat treatment, and so were compelled to sacrifice extra hardness and strength by increasing the tin content, they had learned the art of cold working, and produced many kinds of bronze implements. Some of these were of an excellent temper, and, together with obsidian knives, were used for trepanning. Inca methods of warfare, the use of slings and war clubs, naturally caused many wounds which could be relieved only by such operations.
In war their skill was defensive rather than offensive. They built salients and re-entrant angles in their walls, and dry moats are often encountered.
They domesticated the South American camel (the llama), which enabled them to carry out engineering and agricultural works far more difficult than they could have accomplished had they been obliged to depend on human bearers. In addition to maize, potatoes, and cassava, they had many other important crops, such as pineapples, peanuts, and cotton. Great is the treasure of precious and base metals which has come, and is to come, from Peru. But that sinks into insignificance beside the value of one corn and potato crop throughout the world. And in the future it seems not at all unlikely that the Incas, famous for centuries for their system of government, their masonry, and the treasures which the Spaniards took from them, will be yet more famous for the extent to which they developed agriculture.
RUINS OF TORONTOY
The man is seated on a carved rock, probably an altar
INCA IMPLEMENTS
We can do no better, in closing this account of the old Peruvian empire, than to quote from Mr. Prescott’s imperishable work, “The Conquest of Peru,” the following summary of the characteristics of Inca culture:
“Under the rule of the Incas, the meanest of the people enjoyed a far greater degree of personal comfort than was possessed by similar classes in other nations on the American continent—greater probably, than in feudal Europe. Under their scepter, the higher order of the state had made advances in many of the arts that belong to a cultivated community. By the well-sustained policy of the Incas, the rude tribes of the forest were gradually gathered within the folds of civilization, and of these materials was constructed a flourishing and populous empire, such as was to be found in no other part of America.”
INCA POTTERY AND INSTRUMENTS
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
| EARLY MAN IN SOUTH AMERICA | By Ales Hrlicka |
| Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 52 | |
| HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF PERU | By W. H. Prescott |
| THE INCAS OF PERU | By Sir Clements R. Markham |
| SOUTH AMERICAN ARCHEOLOGY | By Thomas A. Joyce |
| STAIRCASE FARMS OF THE ANCIENTS | By O. F. Cook |
| National Geographic Magazine, Volume 29, No. 5 | |
| FURTHER EXPLORATIONS IN THE LAND OF THE INCAS | By Dr. Hiram Bingham |
| National Geographic Magazine, Volume 29, No. 5 | |
| THE STORY OF MACHU PICCHU | By Dr. Hiram Bingham |
| National Geographic Magazine, Volume 27, No. 2 |