CHAPTER VII
Language
Before commencing to describe the more salient features of the Khasi language, its grammar, and syntax, it seems to be of importance to show how intimately connected Khasi is with some of the languages of Further India. In the middle of the last century Logan pointed out affinity between Khasi and these languages, but it has been left to Professor Kuhn to prove this connection to demonstration. The examples of comparative vocabularies which follow are taken from Kuhn's "Beiträge zur Sprachenkunde Hinterindiens," Sir George Scott's "Upper Burma Gazetteer," and Sir George Campbell's lists. It will be seen from the collections of words that follow how Khasi possesses many words in common with Mon or Talaing, Khmêr, Suk, Stieng, Bahnar, Annam, Khamen-Boram, Xong, Samre, Khmu, Lemet, Palaung, and Wa. There is some correspondence, although perhaps to a lesser degree, between Khasi and the Ho-Munda languages and those of Malacca and the Nancowry language of the Nicobar Islands.
Let us now examine the table of numerals. The Khasi word for 1 is wei, but in the Amwi dialect of Khasi it is mi. In Khmu the word is mui, also in Suk; in Mon mwoi and in Xong moi. The word for 2 is identical in Khasi and Lemet, viz., ar. The word for 3, viz. lai, is identical in Khasi and Wa: also compare Lemet lohe. Khasi saw and Lakadong thaw for 4 are, however, deviating forms. In the case of 5, if we cut out the prefix m in the Mon word m'san, we have fairly close agreement with the Khasi san. In the numeral 6, if we cut out the prefix hin of the Khasi (hin)riw, and the initial t of Mon and Suk t'rou, trou, we have close agreement. In the Khasi words for 7 and 8 the syllable hin is but a prefix. This is also probably the case in the Khasi word (khyn)dai for 9, and the shi in the Khasi word shiphew, 10, merely means one.
Numerals.
Sue. Mon or Suk. Stieng. Bahnar. Annam. Khmen Xong. Samre.
Talaing. Boran.
1 mue mwoi mui muôi moin, môt mnay moi moe
ming
2 bar ba bar bar bar hai bar pra pra
3 pei pi pe pêi peng ba peh pe pe
4 puon pan puon puôn puôn bôn pon pôn pon
5 sung m'sun sung pram (po)dam nam pram pram pram
6 thpat t'rou trou prou (to)trou sau krong dam kadon
7 thpol t'pah pho poh (to)po bay grul kanul kanul
8 thkol dc'am tam pham (to)ngam tam kati kati katai
9 thke d'ceit kin ên (to)xin chin kansar kasa katea
10 muchit cah chit jemat min muoi uai rai rai
jet jit chuk
Khan. Lomei. Palaung. Wa. Dialects of Khasi.
Khasi. Lakadong. Amwi. Synteng. Mymar or
Jirang.
1 mui mus(mos) lé te wei bi mi wi mi
2 bar ar è(a) ra(a) ar a o ar ir
3 pe lohe oé lai lai loi la la lei
4 puon pun(pon) phun pon saw thaw siá so so
5 pfuong pan phan hpawn(fan) san than san san san
6 tol tal to laiya(lia) (hin)riw thro thrau ynro threi
7 kul pul phu a-laiya (hin)iew (hum)thloi ynthla ynniaw ynthlei
(alia)
8 ti ta ta s'te(su'te) phra humpya humphyo phra humpyir
9 kash tim tim s'ti(su'ti) (khyn)dai hunsulai hunshia khyndo khyndai
10 kan kel ken(ko) kao (shi)phew shiphai shipho (shi)phaw shiphi
It will be seen that there is considerable similarity in the numerals of the different languages up to six, the correspondence being most strongly marked in the numerals 1, 2, 5, and 6. If we remember that primitive people seldom can count higher than the number of digits of one hand, the dissimilarity in the numerals, as the end of the decade is approached, is probably explained. As the different people speaking these languages advanced in civilization they learned to count further; but by this time they had become in some cases like those of the Khasis, the Palaungs, and Mons, widely separated from one another. As they advanced in civilization, and found the necessity of an improved notation, they manufactured numerals which differed from one another, although they retained the first few numerals they had made use of in their days of savagery. Let us now study some extracts from Kuhn's interesting comparative vocabulary. [42] We find many instances of agreement. I give some examples:—
Heaven.—Palaung, pleng; Khmêr, plieng (rain); Xong, pleng; Khasi, bneng. Mynnar (Jirang) phanliang seems to be very near Khmer phlieng, and Palaung, and Xong pleng.
Day (Sun)—Khmêr, thngay; Mon, tuyai; Annam; ngay; Lemet, ngay pri; Palaung, sengei; Khasi, sngi; Lakadong, sngoi; Kol singi.
Year.—Mon, snam; Annam, nam; Stieng, so'nam; Bahnar, sandm; Khasi, snem.
Lightning:—Mon, l'li; Khasi, leilih.
Stone, Rock.—Mon, tma, k'maw; Stieng, to'mâu; Bahn, tmo, temo; Khmêr, thma; Xong, tmo; Palaung, mau; Ba, maou; Khasi, maw; Wa, hsi-mo, hsi-mao. Also compare Mynnar (Jirang) smaw.
Water.—Palaung, em; Khasi, um; Lakadong, am; Amwi, am; Mynnar (Jirang), um; Rumai, om. Probably the Stieng um, to bathe, can be connected with the Khasi word for water.
Sea, pond, or tank—Khmêr, ping; Khasi, pung.
Rice.—Mon, sro, paddy, seems to be in connection with Khmer, srur (spoken srau or srou). Xong ruko is in Palaung rekao, sakao, or takao. These words remind us of the Khasi khaw, which seems to be borrowed from the Shan khaw (hkao hsau).
Dog.—The common word for this animal will be found to be nearly the same in sound in many of these languages, e.g. Suk. cho; Stieng, sou; Bahnar, ko, cho; Annam, cho; Xong, tcho; Mi, khmu; Lemet, so; Palaung, tsao, hsao; Khasi; ksew. The Mon khluiw is the same as the Khasi ksew, if l is changed into s. The Lakadong and Synteng dialects of Khasi have ksaw, and Mynnar (Jirang) ksow.
Rat, mouse.—Mon, kni, gni; Stieng, ko'nei; Bahnar, kone; Khasi, khnai.
Swine.—Bahnar niung is evidently Khasi 'niang, the abbreviated form of sniang.
Tiger.—Mon, kla; Stieng, klah; Bahnar, kla; Khmêr, khla and Khasi, khla are evidently the same. With this compare the Kol kula, kula, kula.
Bird.—Sue, kiem; Mon, g'cem, ka-teim; Hüei, chiem; Stieng, chum; Bahnar, Annam, chim; Xong, chiem; Palaung and Wa, hsim, and Khasi sim are clearly the same. Also compare Mynnar (Jiraug), ksem which is very near to Mon, g'cem.
Fowl.—Hüei, kat, yar; Suk, yer; Bahnar, ir;. Stieng iêr; Khmu, yer; Lemet, er; Palaung, her, and Khasi, siar, abbreviated into 'iar, are probably the same.
Fish.—The word ka or kha runs through the following languages:—Mon, Stieng, Bahnar, Annam, Khmu, Lemet, Palaung, Wa; and if we cut off the first syllable of the Khasi word for fish, dohkha, we find 'kha, which is the same word as in the languages above mentioned, with an aspirate added. The Khasi doh merely means flesh, and the word dokkha is very frequently abbreviated, cf. 'kha saw, 'kha iong.
Crab.—Mon, kh'tam; Khmêr, ktam; Khasi, tham. If we add the gender sign to the Khasi word, it becomes ka tham, and we have exact correspondence.
Woman.—Mon, brou or brao. Is this the same as the Khasi (ka) briw?
Child.—So, kón; Suk, kon; Mon, kon; Hüei, kuon; Annan, kon; Khmêr, kun; Khasi, khun. Compare Nancowry, kon.
Eye.—The word mat, mat, mat, run through several of these languages, e.g. Mon, mat; Huei, mat; Stieng; mat; Bahnar mat; Annam, mat; Khasi, khmat (dialectic mat). In Nancowry compare olmat, eye, and okmat, eyebrow, and (e)mat (hen) mat (drug), mat, of the Nicobar dialects, also Semang mat, met, med. Kuhn remarks that the word mat is common for "sight," and "eye" all over the Malay Archipelago. It should be remarked that in the Amwi and Lakadong dialects of Khasi the word is mat.
Nose.—If we cut off the aspirate kh from the Khasi khmut, which thus becomes mut, we find some correspondence between Mon, muh (mu); Stieng (tro), muh; Bahnar, muh. Here also compare Ho mua, muta; Mundari, mun; Uraon, moy. In the Anwi and Lakadong dialects of Khasi the word is mur-kong.
Hand.—Xong, ti; Mon, toi; Annam, tay, Khmer, te (from sang te, finger); Palaung, tae, tai, and Khasi, kti (with prefix k) closely correspond. The forms ta and toi of Amwi, and Lakadong, respectively, still more closely correspond with the Mon-Khmer languages than with Khasi. Here compare Nancowry tei and ti, or ti of the Kol languages.
Blood.—Palaung hnam, and Wa nam closely correspond with Khasi snám; here compare Khmêr iham.
Horn:—Mon, grang, the horn of an animal, may be compared with the Khasi reng.
Far.—Distant. Bahnar, hangai; Annam, ngai; Khmêr, chhngay; Lemet, sngay; Sue chngai may be compared with the Khasi jing-ngai. Amwi shnjngoi seems to be a closer form to the above than Khasi jing-ngai. But compare Mynnar (Jirang), chngi, which is clearly very close to Sue chngai, and Khmer chhngay.
To weep, to cry.—Mon, yam; Khmer, yam; Khmu Lemet and Palaung, yam, are clearly the same as Khasi iam, with which also may be compared Ho yam.
It is interesting to note that the Amwi and Lakadong dialects of Khasi, which are spoken by the people who dwell on the southern slopes of the Jaintia Hills, seem more closely to correspond with the Mon-Khmer forms than even with Khasi. The Mynnar or Jirang dialect of Khasi, spoken on the extreme north of the hills, also appears to possess some words which are very similar indeed to some of the Mon-Khmer forms given by Professor Kuhn. Unfortunately, I had time to collect but a few words of this interesting dialect, as I arrived in the portion of the country inhabited by these people only a short time before submitting this monograph to Government. The Mynnar dialect appears to be akin to the Synteng, Lakadong, and Amwi forms of speech. The Mynnars observe also the Synteng ceremony of "Beh-ding-khlam," or driving away the demon of cholera, so that although now inhabiting a part of the country a considerable distance away from that of the Synteng, it is not unlikely that they were originally connected with the latter more closely.
Professor Kuhn comes to the conclusion that there is a distinct connection between Khasi, Mon or Talaing, Khmêr, and the other languages of Indo-China that have been mentioned, which is to be seen not only from similarities in some of the numerals, but from the convincing conformities of many other words of these languages. He goes on to add that more important than these contacts of the mono-syllabic languages of Indo-China with mono-syllabic Khasi is their affinity with the Kol, and Nancowry poly-syllabic languages and with that of the aboriginal inhabitants of Malacca, i.e. the languages of the so-called Orang-Outang, or men of tile woods, Sakei, Semung, Orang-Benua, and others; and that although it is not, perhaps, permissible to derive at once from this connection the relation of the Khasi Mon-Khmêr mono-syllabic group with these poly-syllabic languages, it seems to be certain that a common substratum lies below a great portion of the Indo-Chinese languages as well as those of the Kol and Ho-Munda group. More important than connections between words is, as Dr. Grierson points out in his introduction to the Mon-Khmêr family, the order of the words in the sentence. In both Khasi and Mon that order is subject, verb, object. Taking this fact in conjunction with the similarities of the Khasi and Mon vocabularies, we may conclude that it is proof positive of the connection between Khasi and Mon, or Talaing. In Munda, however, this order is subject, object, verb. Tiffs is a very important difference, for, as Dr. Grierson points out, "the order of words in a sentence follows the order of thought of the speaker; it follows therefore that the Mundas think in an order of ideas different from those of the Khasis and the Mons." Dr. Grierson comes to the stone conclusion with respect to these languages as Professor Kuhn, which is as follows:—"Owing to the existence of these differences we should not be justified in assuming a common origin for the Mon-Khmêr languages on the one hand, and for the Munda, Nancowry, and Malacca languages on the other. We may, however, safely assume that there is at the bottom of all these tongues a common substratum, over which there have settled layers of the speeches of other peoples, differing in different localities. Nevertheless, this substratum was so firmly, established as to prevent its being entirely hidden by them, and frequent undeniable traces of it are still discernible in languages spoken in widely distant tracts of Nearer and Further India. Of what language this original substratum consisted we are not yet in a position to say. Whatever it was, it covered a wide area, larger than the area covered by many families of languages in India at the present day. Languages With this common substratum are now spoken, not only in the modern Province of Assam, in Burma, Siam, Cambodia, and Anam, but also over the whole of Central India, as far west as the Berars." Grierson, having agreed regarding the existence of this common substratum, does not finally determine whether the ancient substratum was the parent of the present Munda language, or of the Mon-Khmêr language. He says, "It cannot have been the parent of both, but it is possible that it was the parent of neither." We are thus still in a state of uncertainty as to what was the origin of these languages.
The brief description which follows of some of the more prominent characteristics of the Khasi language is based chiefly on Sir Charles Lyall's skeleton Grammar contained in Vol. II. of Dr. Grierson's "Linguistic Survey of India." It does not pretend to be an exhaustive treatise on the language; for this students are referred to the excellent grammar compiled by the Rev. H. Roberts.
The Article.—There are four articles in Khasi; three in the singular, u, (masculine), ka (feminine), and i (diminutive of both genders); and one in the plural for both genders, ki.
All Khasi nouns take a pronominal prefix to denote the gender, i.e. the third personal pronoun, u (masculine), ka (feminine), i (diminutive). The great majority of inanimate nouns are feminine, and all abstract nouns. The sun (day), ka sngi, is feminine, the moon (month), u b'nai, is masculine. Sometimes the word varies in meaning according to the gender, e,g. u ngap, a bee; ka ngap, honey.
Genders.—Names of mountains, stones, plants, fruits, stem, and the moon, are masculine, e.g.:—
U kyllang, the Kyllang rock. U mawlein, quartz. U phan, potato. U soh niamtra, orange. U'lur duti, the morning star. U'tiw kulap, rose. U b'nai, the moon.
Names of rivers, lakes, books, places, the sun, and' all abstract nouns are feminine, e.g.:—
Ka wah, river. Ka nan, lake. Ka kitap, book. Ka Shillong, Shillong. Ka sngi, sun Ka jingsneng, advice.
The article i is used either as a diminutive, as i khunlung, a baby, or for denoting endearment, as i mei, mother.
Number.—U, ka, and i stand for the singular number, e.g. u khla (a tiger), ka khoh (a Khasi basket), i khun (a child). Ki is the sign of the plural, as Ki maw, the stones. Ki in some few instances is used honorifically, as ki Siem, the king, ki kthaw, the father-in-law.
Cases are eight in number, and are denoted by prefixes. The declension of the noun lum (hill) is given below by way of example:—
Singular. Plural
Nominative u lum ki lum
Accusative ia u lum ia ki lum
Instrumental da u lum da ki lum
Dative ia, ha, or ia, ha, or
sha u lum sha ki lum
Ablative na u lum na ki lum
Genitive jong u lum jong ki lum
Locative ha u lum ha ki lum
Vocative ko lum ko phi ki lum
The sign of the genitive case, jong, is sometimes omitted for the sake of brevity, e.g. u ksew nga (my dog) for u ksew jong nga. The preposition la gives also the force of the possessive case, e.g. la ka jong ka jong (their own). There are some nouns which change their form, or rather are abbreviated when used in the vocative case, e.g. ko mei, not ko kmei = Oh mother; ko pa, not ko kpa = Oh father. These, however, are all of them nouns showing relationships.
Pronouns.—Personal pronouns are nga (I), ngi (we), me (thou, masculine) pha (thou, feminine), phi, (you, masculine or feminine), u (he, it), ka (she, it), i (diminutive form of u or ka), and ki (they).
The emphatic form of the personal pronoun is formed by prefixing ma, e.g. ma-nga, ma-u, after a verb, but not after a preposition, e.g. dei-ma-nga = it is I. But ai, ia ma nga is an incorrect form.
The Reflexive Pronoun is formed by the word lade (self) being suffixed to the personal pronoun, as u leh sniu ia lade = he does himself harm, or by the addition of the word hi (self) to the personal pronoun, as phi hi pbi ong (you yourself).
The Relative Pronoun is formed by the suffix ba, added to any of the personal pronouns, as kaba, uba, kiba (who, which).
The Demonstrative Pronoun is formed by the addition of the particles denoting the position of things with reference to the speaker, e.g. (1) near = this, ne (u-ne, kane, i-ne, ki-ne); (2) in sight, but further off = that, to (uto, &c.); (3) further away, but still visible = that tai (u-tai, &c.); (4) out of sight or only contemplated in the mind = that, ta (u-ta, &c.); (5) above = that, tei (u-tei, &c.); (6) below = this, thi (ka-thi, &c.); katai-tai, katei-tei, kathie-thie point to an object at a great distance but within sight.
The Interrogative Pronoun is the article followed by no or ei (e.g. u-no, kano, who), u-ei, ka-ei (who, which). Ei is often used without the "article," and no (which is restricted to persons) when declined, regularly drops the "article," e.g. jong-no whose? ia-no, whom? sha-no, to whom? What? neuter, is aiuh, and also kaei.
Adjectives are formed by prefixing ba to the root, thus bha goodness; ba-bha, good; sniu, badness; ba-sniu, bad. When ba is dropped, the word in no longer an adjective but a verb, and in some cases a noun, e.g. uba khraw (adj.) = big, great; u khraw = he becomes great. An adjective may be formed without any of the prefixes ba, uba, &c., e.g. ka miau-tuh = a thieving cat.
An adjective follows the noun it qualifies, and agrees with the noun it qualifies in gender and number.
Comparison.—The comparative is formed by adding kham before an adjective, followed by ban ia (than), or simply ia, and the superlative by adding such adverbs of intensity as tam, eh, eh than, tam eh, shikaddei, which are followed generelly by ia or ban ia.
Numerals.—In Khasi the cardinal number always precedes the noun (e.g. lai sin, three times,) The following are the first ten numerals.
1. Wei.
2. Ar.
3. Lai
4. Sau.
5. San.
6. Hinriu.
7. Hinnieu.
8. Phra.
9. Khyndai.
10. Shipheu.
The word khad is prefixed for forming the numerals from 11 to 19, e.g. khad-wei, khad-ar, eleven, twelve, &c.
The verbal root (which never varies) may be simple or compound. The compound roots are (1) Causals, formed by prefixing pyn to the simple root; as iap, die; pyniap, kill. (2) Frequentatives, formed by prefixing iai; as iam, weep; iai iam, weep continually. (3) Inceptives, by prefixing man; as stad, be wise; manstad, grow wise. (4) Reciprocals, by prefixing ia; as ieit, love; ia-ieit, love one another. (5) Intensives, by prefixing tim particle kyn, lyn, syn, tyn. Any noun or adjective may be treated as a verbal root by means of a prefix of these five classes. Thus kajia, a quarrel (Hindustani loan word, qazía;) ia kajio, to quarrel with one another; bynta, share; pyn-ia-bynta (reciprocal catmal), to divide between several persons. It should be mentioned with reference to the second class or frequentative verbs, that they sometimes take the prefixes, or particles as Roberts prefers to call them, dem, dup, nang, shait, ksaw in place of iai, e.g. dem-wan, to come after; dup-teh, to practise; nang-wad, to go on searching; shait pang, to be always ill; ksaw-bam, to be in the habit of devouring. There are two verbs for "to be," long, implying existence absolutely, and don, implying limited existence, and also meaning "to have." There is only one form of conjugation for all verbs. Tense and mood are indicated by prefixes, number and person by the subject. When the subject is a noun the pronoun is inserted before the verb. The following is the conjugation of the verb "to be" in the present, past, and future tenses:—
Present. Past. Future.
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Nga long Ngi long Nga la long Ngi la long Ngan long Ngin long I am We are I was We were I shall be We shall be
Me (mas.) or Phi long Me or _pha Phi la long Men or _phan Phin long pha (fem.) la long_ long_ long Thou art Ye are Thou wast Ye were Thou shalt be You shall be
U (mas.) or Ki long _U _or _ka Ki la long U'n or _ka'n Kin long ka (fem.) la long_ long_ long He or she is They are He or she was They were He or she will They will be be
The above simple tenses are made definite or emphatic by various means. La, sign of the past, when added to lah, sign of the potential, has the sense of the pluperfect, e.g. nga la lah long, I had been. Yn abbreviated into 'n emphasizes the future, the particle sa also indicates the future; da is the usual sign of the subjunctive mood, lada, la, lymda, tad, ynda, ban, da are other signs of this mood. The sign of the infinitive is ba'n. The imperative is either (1) the simple root, or (2) the root compounded with some word such as to.
Participles.—The present participle is formed by prefixing ba to the root, e.g. ba long, being. The imperfect participle is formed by prefixing such words as ba u, ka da, da kaba, &c. The perfect participle is formed by putting such particles as ba la, haba la, da kaba la before the verb. Verbal nouns of agency are formed by prefixing nong to the root, e.g. u nong knia (the sacrificer). The Passive Voice is formed by using the verb impersonally, and putting the subject into the Accusative case with ia.
Potentiality is indicated by the verb lah, necessity by the verb dei; dang and da show the indefinite present.
The negative is indicated by the particles ym, contracted into 'm, shym, and pat. Ym is put before the verb, e.g. 'ym don briew = there is no one; with a pronoun it is contracted, e.g. u'm wan, he does not come. It follows the sign of the future, e.g. phi'n y'm man, you will not come. Shym and pat are neptive particles, and are used with negative verbs in the past tense, e.g. u'm shymla man, he did not come.
The use of the word "jing."—One of the most striking features of the language is the use of the word jing, which is employed to create a verbal noun out of a verb: for instance, take the verb bam, to eat; if we prefix jing we have jingbam, food. Bat, to hold; jing-bat, a handle. The use of the word nong has already been noticed under the heading "verbs." As an example of another common prefix, it may again be mentioned here. Thus, nong-ai-jingbam means a table servant, literally one who gives food. Again, nong-bat, a holder, literally, one who holds.
Syntax.—The order of words in the sentence is usually (1) subject, (2) verb, and (3) object, in fact, the same as in English, and in this respect it differs entirely from the order in the languages derived from Sanskrit, and that of the languages of the Thibeto-Burman group, as far as I have been able to ascertain. For instance, in the Kachari or Boro language the order in the sentence is (1) subject, (2) object, (3) verb. In Khasi when emphasis is needed, however, the object occasionally precedes the berb, e.g. ia u soh u la die, he has sold the fruit, literally, the fruit he has sold. As stated before, adjectives follow the nouns they qualify, e.g. u lum bajyrong, a high mountain, literally, the hill that is high. Interrogative adverbs may either precede or follow the verb, e.g. naei phi wan, or phi wan naei, where do you come from?
No account of the Khasi language would be complete without some reference to the adverbs which are so very numerous in Khasi. U Nissor Singh, in his admirable little book of "Hints on the Study of the Khasi Language," writes, "Adverbs are so numerous in the Khasi language that I shall not attempt to enumerate them all in this small book. Many of the adverbs, indeed, belong to the untranslatables of the language. We are never in want of a specific term to express the appropriate degree of any quality." To learn how to use the right adverb at the right time is one of the niceties of the language. There is a peculiarity about some of the adverbs of place which should be mentioned: e.g. Hangto, there (within sight); hangne, here; hangta, there (out of sight); hangai, there (at some distance); hangtei, there (upwards); hangthi, there (downwards); also the interrogative adverbs hangno, nangno, whence, contain the inherent root nga, and it seems possible that this nga is the first personal pronoun I. If this is so, hangto would mean literally "to me there," hangthi "to me down there," and similarly nangno, nangne would mean "from where to me there" and "from there to me here."
Adverbs generally follow the words they modify, as u'n leit mynta = he will go now, but there are exceptions to the above rule, such as interrogative adverbs. The following come before those they modify: tang shu, la dang (as soon as, when); kham, shait (used to, ever); pat or put (yet) ; and shym (not); but shuh (more) goes last. Adverbs of past time are formed by prefixing myn, e.g. mynhynne, a short time ago. Adverbs of future time are formed by prefixing la. The particles man, man la, and hala denote repetition.
The Khasis are exceedingly fond of using double words [43] which add much to the finish and polish of a sentence. Old people especially have a predilection this way. It is one of the great diffuculties of the language to learn how to use such double words correctly. The following are some examples:—
Nouns.
kajain ka nep cloth. ka kot ka sla paper. ka lynti ka syngking road. ka iing ka sem house. u babu, u phabu babu. u tymen u san elder. ka stih, ka wait arms (lit.: shield and sword). u badon ba em a well to do person. ka spah ka phew wealth u kha-u-man a relation on the father's side.
Verbs.
pynsyk-pynsain to comfort. ia shoh ia dat to scuffle. byrngem-byrait to threaten. shepting-shepsmiej to be afraid. ihthuh-ihthaw to be familiar. kyrpad-kyrpon to beg. ia lum-ia lang to assemble.
Adjectives.
basniw-basmeh bad. basmat-basting active. donbor-donsor powerful. don burom-don surom noble. bakhraw-batri pertaining to a noble family. baduk-basuk poor, needy. babok-basot righteous. bariwbha-riwmiat. wealthy.
Adverbs.
hur-hur delicately. hain-hain brilliantly (red). prum-prum, prem-prem prominently. rymbiaw-rymboin shrikingly. nior-nior, iar-iar weakly. parum-pareh many. sip-sip, sap-sap having no taste.
The Mikirs appear to have borrowed a small portion of their vocabulary from the Khasis. The following are quoted as examples of possible common roots:—
Mikir. Khasi. belly pòk kpoh. strike (v.) chòk shoh. father po kpa. come (v.) vàng wán. rice beer hor hiar. maternal uncle ni-lur kni.
The Lynngam dialect differs so much from the standard Khasi that some remarks regarding the former will not be out of place. Dr. Grierson, on pages 17 to 19 of his Volume II. of the "Linguistic Survey of India," has indicated some of these differences, which may be recapitulated here as follows. Some of the commonest verbs vary considerably from those used in the standard dialect. There are also many minor differences of pronunciation. A man is u breo, not u briew, a son is a u khon, not u khun. Standard ng is often represented by nj. Thus doinj for ding, fire. A final h often appears as k, and an initial b as p. Thus, baroh (Standard), all, becomes in Lynngam prok. Standard ei becomes aw. Thus wei = waw, one; dei = daw, necessary. The articles are frequently omitted. The pronoun u is used for the plural as well as the singular, instead of the Standard plural ki. The diminutive i is used with inanimate nouns. This is also sometimes the case in the Standard form.
Nouns.—The prefix of the Accusative-dative is se or sa, often contracted to s' instead of ia (Standard). The prefix of the Dative is hanam, hnam, or tnam. The Standard Dative-locative prefix ha is also used, and may be spelt he or hy. Ta or te are also found. For the genitive, besides the Standard jong, are found ha, am-ba, am, and am-nam. Am-nam and am also mean "from."
The plural sometimes takes the suffix met.
Adjectives.—The usual word for male is korang, and for "female" konthaw, in place of the Standard shynrang and kynthei respectively. The following are examples of comparisons:—Re-myrriang, good; Mai-myrriang, better; U re-myrriang, best. The Standard tam is also used for the superlative.
Pronouns.—The Personal Pronouns are:—
Singular Plural 1st Person, ne biaw, iaw. 2nd Person, mi, mei phiaw. 3rd Person u, ju, u-ju kiw.
The Nominative of the pronoun of the second person singular is given once as ba-mi, and once as ma-mi. The ma or ba is the Standard emphatic prefix ma.
Demonstrative Pronouns appear to be be, tei that, and uni, or nih, this. Be is used as a definite article in the phrase be jawmai, the earthquake.
The Relative Pronoun is u-lah, who.
Interrogative Pronouns are net, u-iet, who? and met, what?
Verbs.—The pronoun which is the subject of a verb may either precede or follow it. Thus ne rip, I strike; rip biaw, we strike. The words meaning to be are re, im, and meit in addition to the Standard long. Like the Standard don, im, corresponding to Synteng em, also means to have. As in the Standard, the Present Tense is formed by using the bare root.
The Past Tense is formed in one of five ways, viz.:—
1. By suffixing let, as in ong-let, said. 2. By suffixing lah-let, as in dih-lah-let, went. 3. By prefixing lah, and suffixing let, as in lah-ong-let, said. 4. By prefixing lah, as in lah-kyllei, asked. 5. By prefixing yn (yng, ym), as in yn-nai, gave; yng-kheit, shook; um-pait, broke; yn-jai, fell.
The Future is formed in a very peculiar way. The Standard yn is inserted into the middle of the root, immediately after the first consenant. Thus rip, strike; rynip, will strike. If the root is a compound, it is inserted between the two members, as in pan-yn-sop, will fill. Here observe that the Standard causative prefix pyn becomes pan in Lynngam. The Infinitive the same form as the Future.
Dr. Grierson points out the following most noteworthy fact with reference to the formation of the Lynngam Future and Infinitive, i.e., that similar infixes occur in Malay in the Nancowry dialect of Nicobar, and the Malacca aboriginal languages.
The prefix of the Imperative is nei, as in nei-ai, give; nei-lam, bring. The usual negative particle is ji, which is suffixed, e.g. um-ji is not.
Numerals.
Lynngam Standard (Khasi).
1. Waw, shi Wei, shi.
2. Ar-re or a-re Ar.
3. Lai-re Lai.
4. Saw-re Saw.
5. San-de San.
6 Hyrrew-re Hinriw.
7. Hynnju-re Hinniew.
8. Phra-re Phra.
9. Khondai-re Khyndai.
10. Shi-phu Shi-phew.
The peculiarity about the Lynngam numerals is the suffix re, and the numeral "five" de. None of the other dialects of Khasi posess this peculiarity. Dr. Grierson's Volume may be referred to for a Lynngam Vocabulary. I make the following additions:—
English Lynngam Khasi (Standard).
Hearth paw ka dypei
Earthen pot kheow u khiw
Flesh mim ka doh
Spoon jamplai ka siang
Sleeping-room syrkut ka'rumpei
Drinking-gourd longtang u skaw
,, ,, longjak u klong dih-um
Broom shipuat u synsar
Clothing
Turban khabong jain brung ka jain spong
Ear-ring kurneng ka shohshkor
Apron shiliang ka jymphong
Haversack jolonjwa [44] ka pla
Cap pokhia ka tupia
Girdle pun-poh u saipan
Under Garment jain tongpan ka jympin
(female)
Domestic Terms.
Pestle synraw u synrei
Door phyrdaw ka jingkhang
Fowl house kjor syar ka sem siar
Portion of house
in front of the
hearth nengiaw ka nongpei
Do. behind the
hearth shangla ka rumpei
Store-house siang ka ieng buh kyba
Millet jrai u krai
Indian corn soh rikhawu riw hadem
Arum chew ka shiriew
Agricultural Implements.
Spade wakhew u mokhiew
Bill-hook wait-bah ka wait Lynngam
Do. wait-koh ka wait khmut
Axe dapam u sdi
Basket used in
reaping and
sowing khyrnai ka koh rit.