Aristotle's works: / Containing the Master-piece, Directions for Midwives, and Counsel and Advice to Child-bearing Women with Various Useful Remedies

by pseud. Aristotle

CHAPTER IX.

Sect. I. Of Gripes and Pains in the Bellies of young Children.

This I mention first, as it is often the first and most common distemper which happens to little infants after their birth; many children being so troubled therewith, that it causes them to cry night and day, and at last die of it. The cause of it for the most part comes from the sudden change of their nourishment, for having always received it from the umbilical vessel whilst in the mother’s womb, they come on a sudden not only to change the manner of receiving it, but the nature and quality of what they receive, as soon as they are born; for instead of purified blood only, which is conveyed to them by means of the umbilical vein only, they are now obliged to be nourished by their mother’s milk, which they suck with their mouths, and from which are engendered many excrements, causing gripes and pains; and not only because it is not so pure as the blood with which it was nourished in the womb, because the stomach and the intestines cannot make a good digestion, being unaccustomed to it. It is also caused sometimes by a rough phlegm, and sometimes by worms; for physicians affirm, that worms have been bred in children even in their mother’s womb.

Cure.—If it proceed from the too sudden change of nourishment, the remedy must be to forbear giving the child suck for some days, lest the milk be mixed with phlegm, which is then in the stomach corrupt: and at first it must suck but little, until it is accustomed to digest it. If it be the excrements in the intestines, which, by their long stay, increase these pains, give it at the mouth a little oil of sweet almonds and syrup of roses: if it be worms, lay a cloth dipped in oil of wormwood, mixed with ox-gall upon the belly, or a small cataplasm mixed with the powder of rue, wormwood, coloquintida, aloes, and the seeds of citron incorporated with ox-gall and the powder of lupines. Or give it oil of sweet almonds, with sugar-candy, and a scruple of aniseed: it purgeth new-born babes from green choler and stinking phlegm; and, if it be given with sugar-pap, it allays the griping pains of the belly. Also, anoint the belly with oil of dill, or pelitory stamp, with oil of camomile.

Sect. II. Of Weakness in newly-born Infants.

Weakness is an accident that many children bring into the world along with them, and is often occasioned by the labour of the mother; by the violence and length whereof they suffer so much, that they are born with great weakness, and many times it is difficult to know whether they are alive or dead, their body appearing so senseless and their face so blue and livid, that they seem to be quite choked; and even after some hours, their showing any signs of life is attained with weakness, that it looks like a return from death, and that they are still in a dying condition.

Cure.—Lay the infant speedily in a warm blanket, and carry it to the fire, and then let the midwife take a little wine in her mouth and spout it into its mouth, repeating it often, if there be occasion. Let her apply linen to the breast and belly dipped in wine, and let the face be uncovered, that it may breathe the more freely; also, let the midwife keep its mouth a little open, cleanse the nostrils with small linen tents dipped in white wine, that it may receive the smell of it; and let her chafe every part of its body well with warm cloths, to bring back its blood and spirits, which, being retired inwards, through weakness, often puts it in danger of being choked. By the application of these means, the infant will gradually recover strength, and begin to stir its limbs by degrees, and at length to cry; and though it be but weakly at first, yet afterwards, as it breathes more freely, its cry will become strong.

Sect. III. Of the Fundament being closed up in a newly-born Infant.

Another defect that new-born infants are liable to is, to have their fundaments closed up; by which they can never evacuate the new excrements engendered by the milk they suck, nor that which was amassed in their intestines before birth, which is certainly mortal without a speedy remedy. There have been some female children who have had their fundaments quite closed, and yet have voided the excrements of the guts by an orifice, which nature, to supply that defect, had made within the neck of the womb.

Cure.—Here we must take notice, that the fundament is closed two ways: either by a single skin, through which one may discover some black and blue marks, proceeding from the excrements retained, which, if one touch with the finger, there is a softness felt within, and thereabout it ought to be pierced; or else it is quite stopped by a thick fleshy substance, in such sort that there appears nothing without by which its true situation may be known. When there is nothing but the single skin which makes the closure, the operation is very easy, and the children may do very well; for then an aperture or opening may be made with a small incision-knife, cross ways, that it may the better receive a round form, and that the place may not afterwards grow together, taking care not to prejudice the sphincter or muscles of the rectum. The incision being thus made, the excrements will certainly have issue. But if, by reason of their long stay in the belly, they become so dry that the infant cannot void them, then let a clyster be given to moisten and bring them away; afterwards put a linen tent into the new-made fundament, which, at first, had best be anointed with honey of roses, and towards the end, with a drying cicatrizing ointment, such as unguentum album, or ponphilex, observing to cleanse the infant of its excrements, and dry it again as soon and as often as it evacuates them, that so the aperture may be prevented from turning into a malignant ulcer.

But if the fundament be stopped up in such a manner, that neither mark nor appearance of it can be seen or felt, then the operation is much more difficult; and even when it is done, the danger is much greater, that the infant will not survive it. Then if it be a female, and it sends forth its excrements by the way I have mentioned before, it is better not to meddle, than, by endeavouring to remedy an inconvenience, run an extreme hazard of the infant’s death. But when there is no vent for the excrements, without which death is unavoidable, then the operation is justifiable.

Operation.—Let the operator, with a small incision-knife that hath but one edge, enter into the void place, and turning the back of it upwards, within half a finger’s breadth from the child’s anus, which is the place where he will certainly find the intestine; let him thrust it forward, that it may be open enough to give free vent to the matter there contained, being especially careful of the sphincter; after which, let the wound be dressed according to the method directed.

Sect. IV. Of the Thrush, or Ulcers in the Mouth of the Infant.

This thrush is a distemper that children are very subject to, and it arises from bad milk, or from foul humour in the stomach; for sometimes, though there be not ill humour in the milk itself, yet it may corrupt the child’s stomach because of its weakness, or some other indisposition; in which, acquiring an acrimony instead of being well digested, there arise from thence biting vapours, which, forming a thick viscosity, do thereby produce this distemper.

Cure.—It is often difficult, as physicians tell us, because it is seated in hot and moist places, where the putrefaction is easily augmented; and because the remedies applied cannot lodge there, being soon washed with spittle. But if it arises from too hot quality in the nurse’s milk, care must be taken to temper and cool, prescribing her cool diet, bleeding and purging her also, if there be occasion.

Take lentiles husked, powder them, and lay a little of them upon the child’s gums. Or take bdellium flower half an ounce, and with oil of roses make a liniment. Also wash the child’s mouth with barley and plantain water, and honey of roses, or syrup of dry roses, mixing with them a little verjuice of lemons, as well to loosen and cleanse the vicious humours which cleave to the inside of the child’s mouth, as to cool those parts which are already over-heated. This may be done by means of a small fine rag fastened to the end of a little stick, and dipped therein, whereby the ulcers may be gently rubbed, being careful not to put the child in too much pain, lest an inflammation make the distemper worse. The child’s body must also be kept open, that the humours being carried to the lower parts, the vapours may not ascend, as it is usual for them to do when the body is costive, and the excrements too long retained.

If the ulcers appear malignant, let such remedies be used to do their work speedily, that the evil qualities that cause them being thereby instantly corrected, their malignity may be prevented; and in this case touch the ulcers with plantain water, sharpened with the spirits of vitriol; for the remedy must be made sharp according to the malignity of the distemper. It will be necessary to purge these ill humours out of the whole habit of the child, by giving half an ounce of succory with rhubarb.

Sect. V. Of Pains in the Ears, Inflammation, Moisture, &c.

The brain in infants is very moist, and hath many excrements which nature cannot send out at the proper passages; they get often to the ears, and there cause pains, flux of blood, with inflammation, and matter with pain; this in children is hard to be known, as they have no other way to make it known but by constant crying; you will perceive them ready to feel their ears themselves, but will not let others touch them if they can prevent it; and sometimes you may discern the parts above the ears to be very red.

These pains, if let alone, are of dangerous consequences, because they may bring forth watchings and epilepsy; for the moisture breeds worms there, and fouls the spongy bones, and by degrees causes incurable deafness.

Cure.—Allay the pain with convenient speed, but have a care of using strong remedies. Therefore only use warm milk about the ears, with the decoction of poppy tops, or oil of violets: to take away the moisture, use honey of roses, and let aquamollis be dropped into the ears; or take virgin honey, half an ounce; red wine two ounces; alum, saffron, saltpetre, each a drachm; mix them at the fire; or drop in hemp seed oil with a little wine.

Sect. VI. Of Redness, and Inflammation of the Buttocks, Groin, and the Thighs of a Young Child.

If there be no care taken to change and wash the child’s bed as soon as it is fouled with the excrements, and to keep the child very clean, the acrimony will be sure to cause redness, and beget a smarting in the buttocks, groin, and thighs of the child, which, by reason of the pain will afterwards be subject to inflammations, which follow the sooner, through the delicacy and tenderness of their skin, from which the outward skin of the body is in a short time separated and worn away.

Cure.—First, keep the child cleanly: and, secondly, take off the sharpness of its urine. As to keeping it cleanly, she must be a sorry nurse that needs to be taught how to do it; for if she lets it have but dry, clean, and warm beds, and clothes, as often and as soon as it has fouled and wet them, either by its urine or excrements, it will be sufficient. And as to taking off the sharpness of the child’s urine, that must be done by the nurse’s taking a cool diet, that her milk may have the same quality; and therefore she ought to abstain from all things that may tend to heat it.

But besides these cooling and drying remedies are requisite to be applied to the inflamed parts; therefore let the parts be bathed with plantain water, with a fourth of lime-water added to it, each time the child’s excrements are wiped off; and if the pain be very great, let it only be fomented with lukewarm milk. Some kind of drying powder, or a little milldust strewed upon the parts affected, may be proper enough, and is used by many women. Also, unguentum album, or diapampholigos, spread upon a small piece of leather, in form of a plaster, will not be amiss.

But the chief thing must be the nurse’s taking great care to wrap the inflamed parts with fine rags when she opens the child, that those parts may not gather and be pained by rubbing together.

Sect. VII. Of Vomiting in young Children.

Vomiting in children proceeds sometimes from too much milk, and sometimes from bad milk, and as often from a moist loose stomach; for as dryness retains, so looseness lets go. This is, for the most part, without danger in children; and they that vomit from their birth are the lustiest; for the stomach not being used to meat, and milk being taken too much, crudities are easily bred, or the milk is corrupted; and it is better to vomit these up than to keep them in; but if vomiting last long, it will cause an atrophy, or consumption, for want of nourishment.

Cure.—If this be from too much milk, that which is emitted is yellow and green, or otherwise ill-coloured and stinking; in this case, mend the milk, as has been shown before; cleanse the child with honey of roses, and strengthen its stomach with syrup of milk and quinces made into an electuary. If the humours be hot and sharp, give the syrup of pomegranates, currants, and coral; and apply to the bowels the plaster of bread, the stomach cerate, or bread dipped in hot wine; or oil of mastich, quinces, mint, wormwood, each half an ounce; of nutmegs, by expression, half a drachm; chemical oil of mint, three drops. Coral hath an occult property to prevent vomiting, and is therefore hung about the neck.

Sect. VIII. Of breeding Teeth in young Children.

This is a very great yet necessary evil in all children, having a variety of symptoms joined with it. They begin to come forth, not all at once, but one after the other, about the sixth or seventh month; the fore-teeth coming first, then the eye-teeth, and, last of all, the grinders. The eye-teeth cause more pain to the child than any of the rest, because they have a deep root, and a small nerve which hath communication with that which makes the eye move.

In the breeding of the teeth, first they feel an itching in their gums, then they are pierced as with a needle, and pricked by the sharp bones, whence proceed great pains, watching, inflammation of the gums, fever, looseness, and convulsions, especially when they breed their eye-teeth.

The signs when children breed their teeth are these.

1. It is known by the time, which is usually about the seventh month.

2. Their gums are swelled, and they feel a great heat there, with an itching, which makes them put their fingers into their mouths to rub them, a moisture also distils from the gums into the mouth, because of the pains they feel there.

3. They hold the nipple faster than before.

4. The gums are white when the teeth begin to come; and the nurse, in giving them suck, finds the mouth hotter, and that they are much changed, crying every moment, and cannot sleep, or but very little at a time.

The fever that follows breeding of teeth comes from choleric humours, inflamed by watching, pain, and heat. And the longer teeth are breeding, the more dangerous it is; so that many, in the breeding of them, die of fevers and convulsions.

Cure.—Two things are to be regarded:—one is, to preserve the child from the evil accidents that may happen to it by reason of the great pain; the other, to assist, as much as may be, the cutting of the teeth, when they can hardly cut the gums themselves.

For the first of these, viz. the preventing those accidents of the child, the nurse ought to take great care to keep a good diet and to use all things that may cool and temper milk, that so a fever may not follow the pain of the teeth. And to prevent the humour from falling too much upon the inflamed gums, let the child’s belly be kept always loose by gentle clysters, if it be bound; though oftentimes there is no need of them, because they are at those times usually troubled with a looseness; and yet, for all that, clysters may not be improper.

As to the other, which is to assist in cutting the teeth; that the nurse must do from time to time by mollifying and loosening them, and by rubbing them with the fingers dipped in butter or honey; or let the child have a virgin-wax candle to chew upon; or anoint the gums with the mucilage of quince made with mallow-waters, or with the brains of a hare; also foment the cheeks with the decoction of althœa, and camomile flower and dill, or with the juice of mallows and fresh butter. If the gums are inflamed, add juice of nightshade and lettuce. I have already said, the nurse ought to take a temperate diet: I shall now only add, that barley-broth, water-gruel, raw eggs, prunes, lettuce, and endive, are good for her; but let her avoid salt, sharp, biting, and peppered meats and wine.

Sect. IX. Of the Flux of the Belly, or Looseness in Infants.

It is very common for infants to have the flux of the belly, or looseness, especially upon the least indisposition: nor is it to be wondered at, seeing their natural moistness contributes so much thereto; and even if it be so extraordinary violent, such are in a better state of health than those that are bound. The flux, if violent, proceeds from divers causes: as, 1. From breeding of the teeth, and it is then commonly attended with a fever, in which the concoction is hindered, and the nourishment corrupted. 2. From watching. 3. From pain. 4. From stirring up the humours by a fever. 5. When they suck or drink too much in a fever. Sometimes they have a flux without breeding of teeth, from inward cold in the guts or stomach that obstructs concoction. If it be from the teeth, it is easily known; for the signs in breeding of teeth will discover it. If it be from external cold, there are signs of other causes. If from a humour flowing from the head, there are signs of a catarrh, and the excrements are frothy. If crude and raw humours are voided, and there be wind, belching, and phlegmatic excrements; or if they be yellow, green, and stink, the flux is from a hot sharp humour. It is best in breeding of teeth when the belly is loose, as I have said before: but if it be too violent, and you are afraid it may end in a consumption, it must be stopped; and if the excrements that are voided be black, and attended with a fever, it is very bad.

Cure.—The remedy in this case is principally with respect to the nurse, and the condition of the milk must be chiefly observed; the nurse must be cautioned that she eat no green fruit, nor things of hard concoction. If the child suck not, remove the flux with such purges as leave the cooling quality behind them, as syrup of honey or roses, or a clyster. Take the decoction of millium, myrobalans, of each two or three ounces, with an ounce or two of syrup of roses, and make a clyster. After cleansing, if it proceed from a hot cause, give syrup of dried roses, quinces, myrtles, with a little sanguis draconis. Also anoint with oil of roses, myrtles, mastich, each two drachms; with oil of myrtles and wax make an ointment. Or take red roses and moulin, of each a handful; cypress roots two drachms; make a bag, boil it in red wine, and apply it to the belly. Or, use the plaster of bread, or stomach ointment. If the cause be cold, and the excrements white, give syrup of mastich and quinces, with mint-water. Use outwardly mint, mastich, cummin; or take rose seeds an ounce; cummin, aniseeds, each two drachms; with oil of mastich, wormwood, and wax, make an ointment.

Sect. X. Of the Epilepsy and Convulsions in Children.

This is a distemper that is often fatal to young children, and frequently proceeds from the brain, as when the humours that cause it are bred in the brain, originating either from the parents, or from vapours and bad humours that twitch the membranes of the brain: it is also sometimes caused by other distempers, and by bad diet: likewise the toothache, when the brain consents, causes it, and so does a sudden fright. As to the distemper itself, it is as manifest and well enough known where it is; and as to the cause whence it comes, you may know by the signs of the disease whether it come from bad milk, or worms, or teeth; if these are all absent, it is certain that the brain is first affected; if it comes from the small-pox or measles, it ceaseth when they come forth, if nature be strong enough.

Cure.—For the remedy of this grievous and often mortal distemper, give the following powder, to prevent it, to a child as soon as it is born: take male peony roots, gathered in the decrease of the moon, a scruple; with leaf gold make a powder; take peony roots a drachm; peony seeds, misteltoe of the oak, elk’s hoofs, amber, each a scruple; musk, two grains; make a powder. The best part of the cure is taking care of the nurse’s diet, which must be regular, by all means. If it be from corrupt milk provoke a vomit; to do which, hold down the tongue, and put a quill, dipped in sweet almonds, down the throat. If it come from the worms, give such things as will kill the worms. If there be a fever, with respect to that also, give coral smaraged with elk’s hoof. In the fit, give epileptic water, as lavender water, and rub with oil of amber, or hang a peony root, and elk’s hoof smaraged, about the child’s neck.

As to a convulsion, it is when the brain labours to cast out that which troubles it: the manner is in the narrow of the back, and fountain of the nerves; it is a stubborn disease, and often kills.

Wash the body, when in the fit, with decoction of althea, lily roots, peony and camomile flowerets, and anoint it with goose grease, orris, lilies, foxes, turpentine, mastich, storax, and calamint. The sun-flower is also very good, boiled in water, to wash the child.

PROPER AND SAFE REMEDIES
FOR
CURING ALL THOSE DISTEMPERS
THAT ARE PECULIAR
TO THE FEMALE SEX.

CHAPTER I.
The Diseases of the Womb.

I have already said, that the womb is the field of generation; and if this field be corrupted, it is vain to expect any fruit, though it be ever so well sown. It is therefore not without reason that I intend in this chapter to set down the several distempers to which the womb is obnoxious, with proper and safe remedies against them.

Sect. I. Of the Hot Distemper of the Womb.

This distemper consists in excess of heat; for as heat of the womb is necessary for conception, so if it be too much, it nourisheth not the seed, but disperseth its heat and hinders the conception. This preternatural heat is sometimes from the birth, and causes barrenness; but if it be accidental, it is from hot causes, that bring the heat and the blood to the womb; it arises from internal and external medicines, and from too much hot meat, drink, and exercise. Those that are troubled with this distemper have but few menses, and those are yellow, black, burnt, or sharp; are subject to headache, and abound with choler; and when the distemper is strong upon them, they have but few terms, which are out of order, being bad and hard to flow, and in time they become hypochondriacs, and for the most part barren, having sometimes a frenzy of the womb.

Cure.—The remedy is to use coolers, so that they offend not the vessels that must open the flux of the terms. Therefore, take the following inwardly, succory, endive, violets, water lilies, sorrel, lettuce, saunders, and syrups and conserve made thereof. Also take conserve of succory, violets, water lilies, burrage, each an ounce; conserve of roses, half an ounce, diamargation frigid, diatriascancal, each half a drachm; and with syrup of violets, or juice of citrons, make an electuary. For outward applications, make use of ointment of roses, violets, water lilies, gourd, venus, narvel, applied to the back and loins.

Let the air be cool, her garments thin, and her food endive, lettuce, succory, and barley. Give her no hot meats, nor strong wine, unless mixed with water. Rest is good for her, she may sleep as long as she pleases.

Sect. II. Of the Cold Distemper of the Womb.

This distemper is the reverse of the foregoing, and equally an enemy to generation, being caused by a cold quality abounding to excess, and proceeds from a too cold air, rest, idleness, and cooling medicines. The terms are phlegmatic, thick, and slimy, and do not flow as they should; the womb is windy, and the seed crude and waterish. It is the cause of obstructions, and barrenness, and hard to be cured.

Cure.—Take galengal, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, cloves, each two drachms; ginger, cubebs, nedory, cardamum, each an ounce; grains of paradise, long pepper, each half an ounce; beat them, and put them into six quarts of wine for eight days; then add sage, mint, balm, mother-wort, of each three handfuls: let them stand eight days more, then pour off the wine, and beat the herbs and the spice, and then pour off the wine again, and distil them. Or you may use this: take cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, mace, ginger, cubebs, cardamum, grains of paradise, each an ounce and a half; galengal six drachms, long pepper half an ounce, zedoary five drachms, bruise them, and add six quarts of wine; put them into a cellar nine days, daily stirring them; then add of mint two handfuls, and let them stand fourteen days; pour off the wine, and bruise them, and then pour on the wine again, and distil them. Also anoint with oil of lilies, rue, angelica, bays, cinnamon, cloves, mace, and nutmeg. Let her diet and air be warm, her meat of easy concoction, seasoned with aniseed, fennel, and thyme; and let her avoid raw fruits and milk diet.

Sect. III. Of the Inflation of the Womb.

The inflation of the womb is a stretching of it by wind, called by some a windy mole; the wind proceeds from a cold matter, whether thick or thin, contained in the veins of the womb by which the heat thereof is overcome, and which either flows thither from other parts, or is gathered there by cold meats and drinks. Cold air may be a producing cause of it also, as women that lie-in are exposed to it. The wind is contained either in the cavity of the vessels of the womb, or between the tunicles, and may be known by a swelling in the region of the womb, which sometimes reaches to the navel, loins, and diaphragm, and rises and abates as the wind increaseth or decreaseth. It differs from the dropsy, in that it never swells so high. That neither physician nor midwife may take it for conception, let them observe the signs of the pregnant woman laid down in a former part of this work; and if any sign be wanting, they may suspect it to be an inflation; of which this is a further sign, that in conception the swelling is invariable; also if you strike upon the belly, in an inflation, there will be a noise, but not so in case there be a conception. It also differs from a mole, because in that there is a weight and hardness in the abdomen, and when the patient moves from one side to the other she feels a great weight which moveth; but not so in this. If the inflation continue without the cavity of the womb, the pain is greater and more extensive, nor is there any noise, because the wind is more pent up.

Cure.—This distemper is neither of a long continuance, nor dangerous, if looked after in time; and if it be in the cavity of the womb, is more easily expelled. To which purpose give her diaphnicon, with a little castor, and sharp clysters that expel the wind. If this distemper happen to a woman in travail, let her not purge after delivery, nor bleed, because it is from a cold matter; but if it come after child-bearing, and her terms come down sufficiently, and she has fulness of blood, let the saphæna vein be opened; after which let her take the following electuary: take conserve of betony and rosemary, of each an ounce and a half; candied eringoes, citron peel candied, each half an ounce; diacinium, diaganel, each a drachm; oil of aniseed six drops; and with syrup of citrons make an electuary. For outward application make a cataplasm of rue, mugwort, camomile, dill, calamint, new pennyroyal, thyme, with oil of rue, keir, and camomile. And let the following clyster, to expel the wind, be put into the womb; take angus castus, cinnamon, each two drachms; boil them in wine to half a pint. She may likewise use sulphur, Bath and Spa waters, both inward and outward, because they expel wind.

Sect. IV. Of the Straitness of the Womb, and its Vessels.

This is another effect of the womb, which is a very great obstruction to the bearing of children, hindering both the flow of the menses and conception, and is seated in the vessels of the womb, and the neck thereof. The causes of this straitness are thick and rough humours, that stop the mouth of the veins and arteries. These humours are bred either by gross or too much nourishment, when the heat of the womb is so weak that it cannot attenuate the humours, which, by reason thereof, either flow from the whole body, or are gathered into the womb. Now, the vessels are made straiter or closer several ways: sometimes by inflammation, schirrous, or other tumours; sometimes by compressions, scars, or by flesh and membranes that grow after a wound. The signs by which this is known are, the stoppage of the terms, not conceiving, and crudities abounding in the body, which are all shown by particular signs; for if there is a wound, or the secundine pulled out by force, phlegm comes from the wound; if stoppage of the terms be from an old obstruction by humours, it is hard to be cured; if it be only from the disorderly use of astringents, it is more curable; if it be from a schirrous, or other tumours, that compress or close the vessel, the disease is incurable.

Cure.—For the cure of that which is curable, obstructions must be taken away, phlegm must be purged, and she may be let blood, as will be hereafter directed in the stoppage of the terms. Then use the following medicine: take of aniseed and fennel seed, each a drachm; rosemary, pennyroyal, calamint, betony flowers, each an ounce; saffron, half a drachm, with wine. Or take asparagus roots, parsley roots, each an ounce; pennyroyal, calamint, each a handful; wall-flowers, gilly-flowers, each two handfuls; boil, strain, and add syrup of mugwort an ounce and a half. For a fomentation, take pennyroyal, mercury, calamint, marjoram, mugwort, each two handfuls; rosemary, bays, camomile-flowers, each a handful; boil them in water, and foment the groin and bottom of the abdomen; or let her sit up to the navel in a bath, and then anoint about the groin with oil of rue, lilies, dill, &c.

Sect. V. Of the Falling of the Womb.

This is another evil effect of the womb, which is both very troublesome, and also an hinderance to conception. Sometimes the womb falleth to the middle of the thighs, nay, almost to the knees, and may be known then by its hanging out. Now, that which causeth the womb to change its place is, that the ligaments, by which it is bound to the other parts, are not in order; for there are four ligaments, two above, broad and membranous, that come from the peritoneum, and two below, that are nervous, round and hollow; it is also bound to the great vessels by veins and arteries, and to the back by nerves; but the place is changed when it is drawn another way, or when the ligaments are loose, and it falls down by its own weight. It is drawn on one side when the menses are hindered from flowing, and the veins and arteries are full, namely, those that go to the womb. If it be a mole on one side, the liver and spleen cause it; by the liver veins on the right side, and the spleen on the left, as they are more or less filled. Others are of opinion, it comes from the solution of the connection of the fibrous neck and parts adjacent; and that it is from the weight of the womb descending; this we deny not; but the ligaments must be loose or broken. But women in a dropsy could not be said to have the womb fallen down, if it came only from looseness; but in them it is caused by the saltness of the water, which dries more than it moistens. Now, if there be a little tumour, within or without the privities, like a skin stretched, or a weight felt upon the privities, it is nothing else but a descent of the womb; but if there be a tumour like a goose’s egg, and a hole at the bottom, and there is at first a great pain in the parts to which the womb is fastened, as the loins, the bottom of the abdomen, and the os sacrum, it proceeds from the breaking or stretching of the ligaments; and a little after, the pain is abated, and there is an impediment in walking, and sometimes blood comes from the breach of the vessels, and the excrements and urine are stopped, and then a fever and convulsion ensueth, oftentime proving mortal, especially if it happen to pregnant women.

Cure.—For the cure of this distemper, first put up the womb, before the air alter it, or it be swollen or inflamed: and for this purpose give a clyster to remove the excrements, and lay her upon her back, with her legs abroad, and her thighs lifted up, and head down; then take the tumour in your hand, and thrust it in without violence; if it be swelled by alteration and cold, foment it with a decoction of mallows, althæa, lime, fenugreek, camomile flowers, bay berries, and anoint it with oil of lilies, and hen’s grease. If there be an inflammation, do not put it up, but fright it in, by putting a red hot iron before it and making a show as if you intended to burn it; but first sprinkle upon it the powder of mastich, frankincense, and the like; thus, take frankincense, mastich, each two drachms; sarcocol, steeped in milk, a drachm; pomegranate flowers, sanguis draconis, each half a drachm. When it is put up, let her lie with her legs stretched, and one upon the other, for eight or ten days and make a pessary in the form of a pear, with cork or sponge, and put it into the womb, dipped in sharp wine, or juice of acacia, with powder of sanguis, with galbanum and bdellium. Apply also a cupping-glass, with a great flame, under the navel or paps, or to both kidneys, and lay this plaster to the back: take opoponax, two ounces; storax liquid, half an ounce; mastich, frankincense, pitch, bole, each two drachms; then with wax make a plaster; or, take laudanum, a drachm and a half; mastich, and frankincense, each half a drachm; wood aloes, cloves, spike, each half a drachm; ash-coloured ambergris, four grains; musk, half a scruple; make two round plasters to be laid on each side of the navel: make a fume of snails’ skins salted, or of garlic, and let it be taken in by the funnel. Use also astringent fomentations of bramble leaves, plantain, horse tails, myrtles, each two handfuls; worm-seed, two handfuls; pomegranate flowers, half an ounce; boil them in wine and water. For an injection take comfrey root an ounce; rupture work, two drachms; yarrow, mugwort, each half an ounce; boil them in red wine, and inject with a syringe. To strengthen the womb, take hartshorn, bays, of each a drachm; myrrh, half a drachm; make a powder for two doses, and give it with sharp wine. Or, you may take zedoary, parsnip seed, crabs’ eyes prepared, each a drachm; nutmeg, half a drachm; and give a drachm in powder; but astringents must be used with great caution, lest by stopping the menses, a worse mischief follow. To keep it in its place, make rollers and ligatures as for a rupture; and put pessaries into the bottom of the womb, that may force it to remain. Let the diet be such as has drying, astringent, and glueing qualities, as rice, starch, quinces, pears, and green cheese; but let the summer fruits be avoided; and let her wine be astringent and red.

CHAPTER II.
OF DISEASES RELATING TO WOMEN’S MONTHLY TERMS.

Sect. I. Of Women’s Monthly Terms in General.

That divine Providence, which with a wisdom peculiar to itself has appointed woman to conceive, and to bear and bring forth children, has provided for the nourishment of children during their recess in the womb of their mother, by that redundancy of the blood which is natural to all women; and which, flowing out at certain periods of time (when they are not pregnant), are from thence called terms and menses, from their monthly flux of excrementitious and unprofitable blood. Now, that the matter flowing forth is excrementitious, is to be understood only with respect to the redundancy and overplus thereof, being an excrement only with respect to its quality; for as to its quality, it is as pure and incorrupt as any blood in the veins; and this appears from the final cause of it, which is the propagation and conservation of mankind; and also, from the generation of it, being the superfluity of the last aliment of the fleshy parts. If any ask, if the menses be not of a hurtful quality, how can they cause such venomous effects? If they fall upon trees and herbs, they make one barren and mortify the other. I answer, this malignity is contracted in the womb; for the woman wanting native heat to digest the superfluity, sends it to the matrix, where seating itself till the mouth of the womb be dilated, it becomes corrupt and mortified; which may easily be, considering the heat and moistness of the place; and so this blood being out of its proper vessels, offends in quality.

Sect. II. Of Terms coming out of order, either before or after the usual Time.

Having, in the former part of this work, treated of the suppression and overflow of the monthly terms, I shall content myself with referring the reader thereto, and proceed to speak of their coming out of order, either before or after the usual time.

Both these proceed from an ill constitution of body. Every thing is beautiful in its order, in nature, as well as in mortality; and if the order of nature be broke it shows the body to be out of order. Of each of these effects briefly.

When the monthly terms come before their time, showing a depraved excretion, and flowing sometimes twice a month, the cause is in the blood, which stirs up the expulsive faculty of the womb, or else in the whole body, and is frequently occasioned by the person’s diet, which increases the blood too much, making it too sharp or too hot. If the retentive faculty of the womb be weak, and the expulsive faculty strong, and of a quick sense, it brings them forth the sooner. Sometimes they flow sooner by reason of a fall, stroke, or some violent passion, which the parties themselves can best relate. If it be from heat, thin and sharp humours, it is known by the distemper of the whole body. The looseness of the vessels, and weakness of the retentive faculty, is known from a moist and loose habit of the body. It is more troublesome than dangerous. If it proceed from a sharp blood, let her temper it by a good diet and medicines. To which purpose, let her use baths of iron water, that correct the distemper of the bowels, and then evacuate. If it proceed from the retentive faculty, and looseness of the vessels, it is to be corrected with gentle astringents.

As to the menses flowing after the usual time, the causes are, thickness of the blood and the smallness of its quantity, with the straitness of the passage, and the weakness of the expulsive faculties. Either of these singly may stop the menses, but if they all concur, they render the distemper worse. If the blood abounds not in such a quantity as may stir up nature to expel it, its purging must necessarily be deferred till there be enough. And if the blood be thick, the passage stopped, and the expulsive faculty weak, the menses must needs be out of order, and the purging of them retarded.

For the cure of this, if the quantity of blood be small, let her use a larger diet, and very little exercise. If the blood be thick and foul, let it be made thin, and the humours mixed therewith be evacuated. It is good to purge after the menses have done flowing, and to use calamint; and indeed the oftener she purges the better. She may also use fumes and pessaries, apply cupping-glasses without scarification to the inside of the thighs, and rub the legs and scarify the ancles, and hold the feet in warm water four or five days before the menses come down. Let her also anoint the bottom part of her abdomen with things proper to provoke the terms.

Remedies for Disorders in Women’s Paps.

Make a cataplasm of bean meal and salad oil, and lay it to the place affected. Or anoint with the juice of papilaris. This must be done when the paps are very sore.

If the paps be hard and swelled, take a handful of rue, colewort roots, horehound and mint; if you cannot get all these conveniently, any two will do; pound the handful in honey, and apply it once every day till healed.

If the nipples be stiff and sore, anoint twice a day with Florence oil till healed.

If the paps be flappy and hanging, bruise a little hemlock, and apply it to the breast for three days; but let it not stand above seven hours. Or, which is safer, rusæ juice well boiled, with a little smapios added thereto, and anoint.

If the paps be hard and dead, make a plate of lead pretty thin, to answer the breasts; let this stand nine hours each day, for three days. Or sassafras bruised, and used in like manner.

Receipt for Procuring Milk.

Drink arpleni, drawn as tea, for twenty-one days. Or eat aniseeds. Also the juice of arbor vitæ, a glassful once a day for eleven days, is very good, for it quickens the memory, strengthens the body, and causeth milk to flow in abundance.

Directions for Drawing of Blood.

Drawing of blood was at first invented for good and salutary purposes, although often abused and misapplied. To bleed in the left arm removes long-continued pains and head-aches. It is also good for those who have got falls and bruises.

Bleeding is good for many disorders, and generally proves a cure, except in some very extraordinary cases; and in these cases bleeding is hurtful.

If a woman be pregnant, to draw a little blood will give her ease, good health and a lusty child.

Bleeding is a most certain cure for no less than twenty-one disorders, without any outward or inward applications; and for many more, with application of drugs, herbs and flowers.

When the moon is on the increase, you may let blood at any time, day or night; but when she is on the decline, you must bleed only in the morning.

Bleeding may be performed from the month of March to November. No bleeding in December, January, or February, unless an occasion require it. The months of March, April, and November, are the three chief months of the year for bleeding in; but it may be performed with safety from the 9th of March to the 19th of November.

To prevent the dangers that may arise from the unskilful drawing of blood, let none open a vein but a person of experience and practice. There are three sorts of people you must not let draw blood: first, ignorant and inexperienced pretenders. Secondly, those who have bad sight and trembling hands, whether skilled or unskilled. For when the hand trembles, the lancet is apt to startle from the vein, and the flesh be thereby damaged, which may hurt, canker, and very much torment the patient. Thirdly, let no woman bleed you, but such as has gone through a course of midwifery at college; for those who are unskilful may cut an artery, to the great damage of the patient. Besides, what is still worse, those pretended bleeders, who take it up at their own hand, generally keep unedged and rusty lancets, which will prove hurtful even in a skilful hand. Accordingly, you ought to be cautious in choosing your physician: a man of learning knows what vein to open for each disorder; he knows how much blood to take as soon as he sees the patient; and he can give you suitable advice concerning your disorder.

FORM OF A MALE CHILD IN THE WOMB.
EXPLANATION.
A The uterus, as stretched to near its full extent, containing the fœtus entangled in the funis.—B. B. The superior part of the ossa ilium.—C. C. The actebula. D. D. The remaining posterior parts of the ossa ischium.—E. The coccyx.—F. The inferior part of the rectum.—G. G. The vagina stretched on each side.—H. The os uteri, stretching to its full extent.—I. I. Part of the vesica urinaria.—K. K. The placenta at the superior and posterior parts of the uterus.—L. The Membranes.—M. The funis umbilicalis.

ARISTOTLE’S BOOK OF PROBLEMS,
WITH OTHER
ASTRONOMERS, ASTROLOGERS, AND PHYSICIANS,
CONCERNING
THE STATE OF MAN’S BODY.

Q. Among all living creatures, why hath man only his countenance lifted up towards heaven? A. 1. From the will of the Creator. But, although this answer be true, yet it seemeth not to be of force, because that so all questions might be easily resolved. Therefore, 2. I answer, that, for the most part, every workman doth make his first work worse, and then his second better; so God creating all other animals before man gave them their face looking down to the earth; and then secondly, he created man, unto whom he gave an upright shape, lifted unto heaven, because it is drawn from divinity, and is derived from the goodness of God, who maketh all his works both perfect and good. 3. Man only among all living creatures, is ordained to the kingdom of heaven and therefore hath his face elevated and lifted up to heaven, because that, despising earthly and worldly things, he ought often to contemplate on heavenly things. 4. That the reasonable man is like unto angels, and finally ordained towards God; and therefore he hath a figure looking upward. 5. Man is a microcosm, that is, a little world, and therefore he doth command all other living creatures, and they obey him. 6. Naturally there is unto every thing and every work that form and figure given which is fit and proper for its motion; as unto the heavens roundness, to the fire a pyramidical form, that is, broad beneath and sharp towards the top, which form is most apt to ascend; and so man has his face towards heaven, to behold the wonders of God’s works.

Q. Why are the heads of men hairy? A. The hair is the ornament of the head, and the brain is purged of gross humours by the growing of the hair, from the highest to the lowest, which pass through the pores of the exterior flesh, become dry, and converted into hair. This appears to be the case from the circumstance that in all man’s body there is nothing drier than the hair, for it is drier than the bones; and it is well known that some beasts are nourished with bones, as dogs, but they cannot digest feathers or hair, but void them undigested, being too hot for nourishment. 2. It is answered, that the brain is purged in three different ways; of superfluous watery humours by the eyes, of choler by the nose, and of phlegm by the hair; which is the opinion of the best physicians.

Q. Why have men longer hair on their heads than any other living creatures? A. Arist. de. Generat. Anim. says, that men have the moistest brains of all living creatures, from which the seed proceedeth which is converted into the long hair of the head. 2. The humours of men are fat, and do not become dry easily; and therefore the hair groweth long on them. In beasts, the humours easily dry, and therefore the hair groweth not so long.

Q. Why doth the hair take deeper root in man’s skin than in that of any other living creatures? A. Because it has greater store of nourishment in man, and therefore grows more in the inward parts of man. And this is the reason why in other creatures the hair doth alter and change with the skin, and not in man, unless by a scar or wound.

Q. Why have women longer hair than men? A. 1. Because women are moister and more phlegmatic than men; and therefore there is more matter for hair in them, and, by consequence, the length also of their hair. And, furthermore, this matter is more increased in women than men from their interior parts, and especially in the time of their monthly terms, because the matter doth then ascend, whereby the humour which breedeth the hair doth increase. 2. Because women want beards; so the matter of the beard doth go into that of the hair.

Q. Why have some women soft hair and some hard? A. 1. The hair hath proportion with the skin; of which some is hard, some thick, some subtle and soft, and some gross; therefore the hair which grows out of a thick gross skin, is thick and gross; that which groweth out of a subtle and fine skin is fine and soft; when the pores are open, then cometh forth much humour, and therefore hard hair is engendered; and when the pores are strait, then there doth grow soft and fine hair. This doth evidently appear in men, because women have softer hair than they; for in women the pores are shut and strait, by reason of their coldness. 2. Because for the most part, choleric men have harder and thicker hair than others, by reason of their heat, and because their pores are always open, and therefore they have beards sooner than others. For this reason also, those beasts which have hard hair are the boldest, because such have proceeded from heat and choler, examples of which we have in the bear and boar; and contrariwise, those beasts that have soft hair are fearful, because they are cold, as the hare and the hart. 3. From the climate where a man is born; because in hot regions hard and gross hair is engendered, as appears in the Ethiopians, and the contrary is the case in cold countries towards the north.

Q. Why have some men curled hair and some smooth? A. From the superior degree of heat in some men, which makes the hair curl and grow upward: this is proved by a man’s having smooth hair when he goes into a hot bath, and it afterwards becomes curled. Therefore, keepers of baths have often curled hair, as also Ethiopians and choleric men. But the cause of the smoothness is the abundance of moist humours.

Q. Why have not women beards? A. Because they want heat; which is the case with some effeminate men, who are beardless from the same cause, and have complexions like women.

Q. Why doth the hair grow on those who are hanged? A. Because their bodies are exposed to the sun, which by its heat doth dissolve all moisture into the fume or vapour of which the hair doth grow.

Q. Why is the hair of the beard thicker and grosser than elsewhere; and the more men are shaven, the harder and thicker it groweth? A. Because by so much as the humours or vapours of any liquid are dissolved and taken away, so much the more doth the humour remaining draw to the same; and therefore, the more the hair is shaven, the thicker the humours gather which engenders the hair, and cause it to wax hard.

Q. Why are women smoother and fairer than men? A. Because in women much of the humidity and superfluity, which are the matter and cause of the hair of the body, is expelled with their monthly terms; which superfluity, remaining in men, through vapours passes into hair.

Q. Why doth man, above all other creatures, wax hoary and gray? A. Because man hath the hottest heart of all living creatures; and, therefore, nature being most wise, lest a man should be suffocated through the heat of his heart, hath placed the heart which is most hot, under the brain, which is most cold; to the end that the heat of the heart may be tempered by the coldness of the brain; and contrariwise, that the coldness of the brain may be qualified by the heat of the heart; and thereby there might be a temperature in both. A proof of this is, that of all living creatures man hath the worst breath when he comes to full age. Furthermore, man doth consume nearly half his time in sleep, which doth proceed from the great excess of coldness and moisture in the brain, and from his wanting natural heat to digest and consume that moisture, which heat he hath in his youth, and therefore in that age it is not gray, but in old age when heat faileth; because then the vapours ascending from the stomach remain undigested and unconsumed for want of natural heat, and thus putrefy, of which putrefaction of humours the whiteness doth follow which is called grayness or hoariness. Whereby it doth appear, that hoariness is nothing else but a whiteness of hair, caused by a putrefaction of the humours about the roots of the hair, through the want of natural heat in old age. Sometimes all grayness is caused by the naughtiness of the complexion, which may happen in youth; sometimes through over great fear and care, as appeareth in merchants, sailors, and thieves.

Q. Why doth red hair grow white sooner than hair of any other colour? A. Because redness is an infirmity of the hair; for it is engendered of a weak and infirm matter, that is of matter corrupted with the flowers of the woman; and therefore it waxes white sooner than any other.

Q. Why do wolves grow grisly? A. To understand this question, note the difference between grayness and grisliness: grayness is caused through defect of natural heat, but grisliness through devouring and heat. The wolf being a devouring animal beast, he eateth gluttonously without chewing, and enough at once for three days; in consequence of which, gross vapours are engendered in the wolfs body, which cause grisliness. Grayness and grisliness have this difference; grayness is only in the head, but grisliness all over the body.

Q. Why do horses grow grisly and gray? A. Because they are for the most part in the sun, and heat naturally causes putrefaction; therefore the matter of air doth putrefy, and in consequence they are quickly peeled.

Q. Why are not women bald? A. Because they are cold and moist, which are the causes that the hair remaineth; for moistness doth give nutriment to the hair, and coldness doth bind the pores.

Q. Why are not blind men naturally bald? A. Because the eye hath moisture in it, and that moisture which should pass through by the substance of the eyes doth become a sufficient nutriment for the hair, and therefore they are seldom bald.

Q. Why doth the hair stand on end when men are afraid? A. Because in time of fear the heat doth go from the outward parts of the body into the inward to help the heart, and so the pores in which the hair is fastened are shut up; after which stopping and shutting up of the pores, the standing up of the hair doth follow.

Of the Head.

Q. Why is a man’s head round? A. Because it contains in it the moistest parts of the living creature; and also that the brain may be defended thereby, as with a shield.

Q. Why is the head not absolutely long, but somewhat round? A. To the end that the three creeks and cells of the brain might the better be distinguished: that is, the fancy in the forehead, the discoursing or reasonable part in the middle, and memory in the hindermost part.

Q. Why doth a man lift up his head towards the heavens when he doth imagine? A. Because the imagination is the fore part of the head or brain, and therefore it lifteth up itself, that the creeks or cells of the imagination may be opened, and that the spirits which help the imagination, and are fit for that purpose, having their concourse thither, may help the imagination.

Q. Why doth a man, when he museth or thinketh of things past, look towards the earth? A. Because the cell or creek which is behind, is the creek or chamber of the memory; and therefore that looketh towards the heavens when the head is bowed down, and so that cell is open, to the end that the spirits which perfect the memory should enter in.

Q. Why is not the head fleshy, like other parts of the body? A. Because the head would be too heavy, and would not stand steadily. Also, a head loaded with flesh betokens an evil complexion.

Q. Why is the head subject to aches and griefs? A. By reason that evil humours, which proceed from the stomach, ascend up to the head and disturb the brain, and so cause pain in the head: sometimes it proceeds from overmuch filling the stomach, because two great sinews pass from the brain to the mouth of the stomach, and therefore these two parts do always suffer grief together.

Q. Why have women the headache oftener than man? A. By reason of their monthly terms, which men are not troubled with; and by which a moist, unclean, and venomous fume is produced, that seeks passage upwards, and so causes the headache.

Q. Why is the brain white? A. 1. Because it is cold, and coldness is the mother of white. 2. Because it may receive the similitude and likeness of all colours, which the white colour can best do, because it is most simple.

Q. Why are all the senses in the head? A. Because the brain is there, on which all the senses depend, and are directed by it; and consequently, it maketh all the spirits to feel, and governeth all the membranes.

Q. Why cannot a person escape death if the brain or heart be hurt? A. Because the brain and heart are the two principal parts which concern life; and, therefore, if they be hurt, there is no remedy left for cure.

Q. Why is the brain moist? A. Because it may easily receive an impression, which moisture can best do, as it appeareth in wax, which doth easily receive the print of the seal when soft.

Q. Why is the brain cold? A. 1. Because that by this coldness it may clear the understanding of man, and make it subtle. 2. That by the coldness of the brain the heat of the heart may be tempered.

Of the Eyes.

Q. Why have you one nose and two eyes? A. Because light is more necessary for us than smelling; and therefore it doth proceed from the goodness of Nature, that if we receive any hurt or loss of one eye, the other may remain.

Q. Why have children great eyes in their youth, which become small as they grow up? A. It proceeds from the want of fire, and from the assemblage and meeting together of the light and humour; the eyes being lightened by the sun, which doth lighten the easy humour thereof and purge them; and, in the absence of the sun, those humours become dark and black, and the sight not so good.

Q. Why does the blueish gray eye see badly in the day-time, and well in the night? A. Because grayness is light and shining of itself, and the spirits with which we see are weakened in the day-time and strengthened in the night.

Q. Why are men’s eyes of divers colours? A. By reason of diversity of humours. The eye hath four coverings and three humours. The first covering is called consolidative, which is the outermost, strong and fat. The second is called a horny skin or covering, of the likeness of a horn; which is a clear covering. The third, uvea, of the likeness of a black grape. The fourth is called a cobweb. The first humour is called abungines, from its likeness unto the white of an egg. The second glarial; that is, clear, like unto crystalline. The third, vitreous; that is, clear as glass. And the diversity of humours causeth the diversity of the eye.

Q. Why are men who have but one eye good archers? and why do good archers commonly shut one eye? And why do such as behold the stars look through a trunk with one eye? A. This matter is handled in the perspective arts; and the reason is, as it doth appear in The Book of Causes, because that every virtue and strength united and knit together is stronger than when dispersed and scattered. Therefore all the force of seeing dispersed in two eyes, the one being shut, is gathered into the other; and so the light is fortified in him; and by consequence he doth see better and more certainly with one eye being shut, than when both are open.

Q. Why do those that drink and laugh much shed most tears? A. Because that while they drink and laugh without measure, the air which is drawn in doth not pass out through the wind-pipe, and so with force is directed and sent to the eyes, and by their pores passing out, doth expel the humours of the eyes; which humour being so expelled brings tears.

Q. Why do such as weep much, urine but little? A. Because the radical humidity of a tear and of urine are of one and the same nature; and therefore, where weeping doth increase, urine diminishes. And that they are of one nature is plain to the taste, because they are both salt.

Q. Why do some that have clear eyes see nothing? A. By reason of the oppilation and naughtiness of the sinews with which we see; for the temples being destroyed, the strength of the light cannot be carried from the brain to the eye.

Q. Why is the eye clear and smooth like glass? A. 1. Because the things which may be seen are better beaten back from a smooth thing than otherwise, that thereby the sight should strengthen. 2. Because the eye is moist above all parts of the body, and of a waterish nature; and as the water is clear and smooth, so likewise is the eye.

Q. Why do men and beasts who have their eyes deep in their head see best far off? A. Because the force and power by which we see is not dispersed in them, and doth go directly to the thing which is seen. Thus, when a man doth stand in a deep ditch or well, he doth see in the day-time the stars of the firmament; because then the power of the sight and of the beams are not scattered.

Q. Wherefore do those men who have eyes far out in their head not see far distant? A. Because the beams of the sight which pass from the eye are scattered on every side, and go not directly unto the thing that is seen, and therefore the sight is weakened.

Q. Why are many beasts born blind, as lions’ whelps and dogs’ whelps? A. Because such beasts are not yet of perfect ripeness and maturity, and the course of nutriment doth not work in them. Thus, the swallow, whose eyes, if they were taken out when they are young in their nest, would grow in again. And this is the case in many beasts who are brought forth before their time, as it were dead, as bears’ whelps.

Q. Why do the eyes of a woman that hath her flowers stain new glass? And why doth a basilisk kill a man with his sight? A. 1. When the flowers do run from a woman, then a most venomous air is distilled from them, which doth ascend into the woman’s head; and she having pain in her head, doth wrap it up with a cloth or handkerchief; and, because the eyes are full of insensible holes, which are called pores, there the air seeketh a passage and infects the eyes, which are full of blood. The eyes also appear dropping and full of tears, by reason of the evil vapour that is in them; and these vapours are incorporated and multiplied till they come to the glass before them; and by reason that such a glass is round, clear, and smooth, it doth easily receive that which is unclean. 2. The basilisk is a very venomous and infectious animal, and there pass from his eyes venomous vapours, which are multiplied upon the thing which is seen by him, and even unto the eye of man; the which venomous vapours or humours entering into the body do infect him, and so in the end the man dieth. And this is also the reason why the basilisk, looking upon a shield perfectly well made with fast clammy pitch, or any hard smooth thing, doth kill itself, because the humours are beaten back from the hard smooth thing unto the basilisk, by which beating back he is killed.

Q. Why is the sparkling in cats’ eyes and wolves’ eyes seen in the dark and not in the light? A. Because that the greater light doth darken the lesser; and therefore in a greater light the sparkling cannot be seen; but the greater the darkness, the easier it is seen, and is made more strong and shining.

Q. Why is the sight retreated and refreshed by a green colour? A. Because green doth merely move the sight, and therefore doth comfort it; but this doth not black nor white colours, because these colours do vehemently stir and alter the organ and instrument of the sight, and therefore make the greater violence; and by how much the more violent the thing is which is felt or seen, the more it doth destroy and weaken the sense.

Of the Nose.

Q. Why doth the nose stand out farther than any other part of the body? A. 1. Because the nose is as it were, the sink of the brain, by which the phlegm of the brain is purged; and therefore it doth stand forth, lest the other parts should be defiled. 2. Because the nose is the beauty of the face, and doth smell.

Q. Why hath man the worst smell of all creatures? A. Because man hath most brains of all creatures; and, therefore, by exceeding coldness and moisture, the brain wanteth a good disposition, and by consequence, the smelling instrument is not good; yea, some men have no smell.

Q. Why have vultures and comorants a keen smell? A. Because they have a very dry brain; and therefore, the air carrying the smell is not hindered by the humidity of the brain, but doth presently touch its instrument; and, therefore, vultures, tigers, and other ravenous beasts, have been known to come five hundred miles after dead bodies.

Q. Why did nature make the nostrils? A. 1. Because, the mouth being shut, we draw breath in by the nostrils to refresh the heart. 2. Because the air which proceedeth from the mouth doth savour badly, because of the vapours which rise from the stomach, but that which we breathe from the nose is not noisome. 3. Because the phlegm which doth proceed from the brain is purged by them.

Q. Why do men sneeze? A. That the expulsive virtue and power of the sight should thereby be purged, and the brain also, from superfluities: because, as the lungs are purged by coughing, so is the sight and brain by sneezing; and therefore physicians give sneezing medicaments to purge the brain; and thus it is, such sick persons that cannot sneeze die quickly, because it is a sign their brain is wholly stuffed with evil humours, which cannot be purged.

Q. Why do not such as are apoplectic sneeze; that is, such as are subject easily to bleed? A. Because the passages or ventricles of the brain are stopped; and if they could sneeze, their apoplexy would be loosed.

Q. Why does the heat of the sun provoke sneezing, and not the heat of the fire? A. Because the heat of the sun doth dissolve, but not consume, and therefore the vapour dissolved is expelled by sneezing; but the heat of the fire doth dissolve and consume, and therefore doth rather hinder sneezing than provoke it.

Of the Ears

Q. Why do beasts move their ears, and not men? A. Because there is a certain muscle near the under-jaw which doth cause motion in the ear; and therefore that muscle being extended and stretched, men do not move their ears, as it hath been seen in divers men; but all beasts do use that muscle or fleshy sinew, and therefore do move their ears.

Q. Why is rain prognosticated by the pricking up of asses’ ears? A. Because the ass is of a melancholic constitution, and the approach of rain produceth that effect upon such a constitution. In the time of rain all beasts prick up their ears, but the ass before it comes.

Q. Why have some animals no ears? A. Nature giveth unto every thing that which is fit for it; but if she had given birds ears, their flying would have been hindered by them. Likewise fish want ears, because they would hinder their swimming, and have only certain little holes through which they hear.

Q. Why have bats ears, although of the bird kind? A. Because they are partly birds in nature, in that they fly, by reason whereof they have wings; and partly they are hairy, and seem to be of the nature of mice, therefore nature hath given them ears.

Q. Why have men only round ears? A. Because the shape of the whole and of the parts should be proportionable, and especially in all things of one nature; for as a drop of water is round, so the whole water; and so, because a man’s head is round, the ear inclines towards the same figure; but the heads of beasts are somewhat long, and so the ears are drawn into length likewise.

Q. Why hath nature given all living creatures ears? A. 1. Because with them they should hear. 2. Because by the ear choleric superfluity is purged; for as the head is purged of phlegmatic superfluity by the nose, so from choleric by the ears.

Of the Mouth.

Q. Why hath the mouth lips to compass it? A. Because the lips cover and defend the teeth; for it would be unseemly if the teeth were always seen. Also, the teeth being of a cold nature, would soon be hurt if they were not covered with lips.

Q. Why has a man two eyes, two ears, and but one mouth? A. Because a man should speak but little, and hear and see much. And by hearing and the light we see the difference of things.

Q. Why hath a man a mouth? A. 1. Because the mouth is the gate or door of the stomach. 2. Because the meat is chewed in the mouth, and prepared and made ready for the first digestion. 3. Because the air drawn into the hollow of the mouth for the refreshing of the heart is made pure and subtle.

Q. Why are the lips moveable? A. For the purpose of forming the voice and words, which cannot be perfectly done without them. For, as without a, b, c, there is no writing, so without the lips no voice can be well formed.

Q. What causes man to yawn or gape? A. It proceeds from the thick fume and vapours that fill the jaws; by the expulsion of which is caused the stretching out and expansion of the jaws, and opening of the mouth.

Q. Why doth a man gape when he seeth another doing the same? A. It proceeds from the imagination. And this is proved by the similitude of the ass, who, by reason of his melancholy, doth retain his superfluity for a long time, and would neither eat nor make water unless he should hear another doing the like.

Of the Teeth.

Q. Why do the teeth only, amongst all other bones, experience the sense of feeling? A. That they may discern heat and cold, that hurt them, which other bones need not.

Q. Why have men more teeth than women? A. By reason of the abundance of heat and blood, which is more in men than women.

Q. Why do the teeth grow to the end of our life, and not the other bones? A. Because otherwise they would be consumed with chewing and grinding.

Q. Why do the teeth only come again when they fail, or be taken out, and other bones being taken away grow no more? A. Because all other bones are engendered of the humidity which is called radical, and so they breed in the womb of the mother; but the teeth are engendered of nutritive humidity, which is renewed and increased from day to day.

Q. Why do the fore-teeth fall in youth, and grow again, and not the cheek teeth? A. From the defect of matter, and from the figure; because the fore-teeth are sharp, and the others broad. Also, it is the office of the fore-teeth to cut the meat, and therefore they are sharp; and the office of the other to chew the meat, and therefore they are broad in fashion, which is fittest for that purpose.

Q. Why do the fore-teeth grow soonest? A. Because we want them sooner in cutting than the others in chewing.

Q. Why do the teeth grow black in human creatures in their old age? A. It is occasioned by the corruption of the meat, and the corruption of phlegm, with a choleric humour.

Q. Why are colt’s teeth yellow, and of the colour of saffron, when they are young, and become white when they grow up? A. Because horses have abundance of watery humours in them, which in their youth are digested and converted into grossness; but in old age heat diminishes, and the watery humours remain, whose proper colour is white.

Q. Why did nature give living creatures teeth? A. To some to fight with, and for defence of their lives, as unto wolves and bats; unto some to eat with, as unto horses; unto some for the forming of voice, as unto men.

Q. Why do horned beasts want their upper teeth? A. Horns and teeth are caused by the same matter, that is, nutrimental humidity, and therefore the matter which passeth into horns turneth not into teeth, consequently they want the upper teeth. And beasts cannot chew well; therefore, to supply the want of teeth, they have two stomachs, from whence it returns, and they chew it again; then it goes into the other to be digested.

Q. Why are some creatures brought forth, with teeth, as kids and lambs; and some without, as men? A. Nature doth not want unnecessary things, nor abound in superfluous; and therefore because these beasts, not long after they are fallen, do need teeth, they are fallen with teeth; but men, being nourished by their mother, for a long time, do not stand in need of teeth.

Of the Tongue.

Q. Why is the tongue full of pores? A. Because the tongue is the means whereby we taste; and through the mouth, in the pores of the tongue, doth proceed the sense of tasting. Again, it is observed, that frothy spittle is sent into the mouth by the tongue from the lungs, moistening the meat, and making it ready for digestion.

Q. Why do the tongues of such as are sick of agues judge all things bitter? A. Because the stomachs of such people are filled with choleric humours; and choler is very bitter, as appeareth by the gall; therefore, this bitter fume doth infect their tongues; and so the tongue being full of those tastes, doth judge every thing bitter.

Q. Why doth the tongue water when we hear sour and sharp things spoken of? A. Because the imaginative virtue or power is of greater force than the power and faculty of tasting; and when we imagine a taste, we conceive the power of tasting as a means; there is nothing felt by the taste, but by means of the spittle the tongue doth water.

Q. Why do some persons stammer and lisp? A. Sometimes through the moistness of the tongue and brain, as in children, who cannot speak plainly nor pronounce many letters. Sometimes it happeneth by reason of the shrinking of certain sinews which go to the tongue, which are corrupted with phlegm.

Q. Why are the tongues of serpents and mad dogs venomous? A. Because of the malignity and tumosity of the venomous humour which predominates in them.

Q. Why is a dog’s tongue good for medicine, and a horse’s tongue pestiferous? A. By reason of some secret property, or that the tongue of a dog is full of pores, and so doth draw and take the viscosity of a wound. It is observed that a dog hath some humour in his tongue, with which, by licking, he doth heal; but the contrary effect is in a horse’s tongue.

Q. Why is spittle white? A. By reason of the continual movement of the tongue, whereof heat is engendered, which doth make this superfluity white; that is seen on the froth of water.

Q. Why is spittle unsavoury and without taste? A. If it had a certain determinate taste, then the tongue would not taste at all, but only give the taste of spittle, and could not distinguish others.

Q. Why does the spittle of one that is fasting heal an imposthume? A. Because it is well digested, and made subtle.

Q. Why do some abound in spittle more than others? A. This doth proceed of a phlegmatic complexion, which doth predominate in them; and such are liable to a quotidian ague, which ariseth from the predominance of phlegm: the contrary, in those that spit little, because heat abounds in them, which consumes the humidity of the spittle; and so the defect of spittle is the sign of fever.

Q. Why is the spittle of a man who is fasting more subtle than of one who is full? A. Because the spittle is without the viscosity of meat, which is wont to make the spittle of one who is full, gross and thick.

Q. From whence proceedeth the spittle of man? A. From the froth of the lungs, which, according to the physicians, is the seat of the phlegm.

Q. Why have not birds spittle? A. Because they have very dry lungs.

Q. Why doth the tongue sometimes lose the use of speaking? A. It is occasioned by a palsy or apoplexy, which is a sudden effusion of blood, and by gross humours; and sometimes also by infection of spiritus animalis in the middle cell of the brain, which hinders the spirits from being carried to the tongue.

Of the Roof of the Mouth.

Q. Why are fruits, before they are ripe, of a bitter or sour relish, and afterwards sweet? A. A sour relish or taste proceeds from coldness and want of heat in gross and thick humidity; but a sweet taste is produced by sufficient heat; therefore, in the ripe fruit humidity is subtle through the heat of the sun, and such fruit is commonly sweet; but before it is ripe, as humidity is gross or subtle for want of heat, the fruit is bitter or sour.

Q. Why are we better delighted with sweet tastes than with bitter or any other? A. Because a sweet thing is hot and moist, and through its heat dissolves and consumes superfluous humidities, and by this humidity immundicity is washed away; but a sharp eager taste, by reason of the cold which predominates in it, doth bind overmuch, and prick and offend the parts of the body in purging, and therefore we do not delight in that taste.

Q. Why doth a sharp taste, as that of vinegar, provoke appetite rather than any other? A. Because it is cold, and doth cool. For it is the nature of cold to desire and draw, and therefore it is the cause of appetite.

Q. Why do we draw in more air than we breathe out? A. Because much air is drawn in that is converted into nutriment, and with the vital spirits is contained in the lungs. Therefore a beast is not suffocated so long as it receives air with its lungs, in which some part of the air remaineth also.

Q. Why doth the air seem to be expelled and put forth, seeing the air is invisible, by reason of its variety and thinness? A. Because the air which is received in us, is mingled with vapours and fumes from the heart, by reason whereof it is made thick, and so is seen. And this is proved by experience, because that in winter we see our breath; for the coldness of the air doth bind the breath mixed with fume, and so it is thickened and made gross, and by consequence is seen.

Q. Why have some persons stinking breath? A. Because of evil fumes that arise from the stomach. And sometimes it doth proceed from the corruption of the airy parts of the body, as the lungs. The breath of lepers is so infected, that it would poison birds if near them, because the inward parts are very corrupt.

Q. Why are lepers hoarse? A. Because the vocal instruments are corrupted, that is, the lights.

Q. Why do persons become hoarse? A. Because of the rheum descending from the brain filling the conduit of the lights: and sometimes through imposthumes of the throat, or rheum gathering in the neck.

Q. Why have the females of all living creatures the shrillest voice, the crow only excepted, and a woman a shriller and smaller voice than a man? A. By reason of the composition of the veins the vocal arteries of voice are formed, as appears by this similitude, that a small pipe sounds shriller than a great. Also in women, because the passage where the voice is formed is made narrow and strait, by reason of cold, it being the nature of cold to bind; but in men, the passage is open and wider through heat, because it is the property of heat to open and dissolve. It proceedeth in women through the moistness of the lungs, and weakness of the heat. Young and diseased men have sharp and shrill voices from the same cause.

Q. Why doth the voice change in men at fourteen, and in women at twelve? A. Because then the beginning of the voice is slackened and loosened; and this is proved by the similitude of the string of an instrument let down or loosened which gives a great sound; and also because eunuchs, capons, &c. have softer and slenderer voices than others, in consequence of the absence of generating powers.

Q. Why do small birds sing more and louder than great ones, as appears in the lark and nightingale? A. Because the spirits of small birds are subtle and soft, and the organ conduit strait, as appeareth in a pipe; therefore their notes following easily at desire they sing very soft.

Q. Why do bees, wasps, locusts, and many other such like insects, make a noise, seeing they have no lungs, nor instruments of voice? A. Because in them there is a certain small skin, which, when struck by the air, causeth a sound.

Q. Why do not fish make a sound? A. Because they have no lungs, but only gills, nor yet a heart; and therefore they need not the drawing in of the air, and by consequence they make no noise, because a noise is the percussion of the air which is drawn.

Of the Neck.

Q. Why hath a living creature a neck? A. Because the neck is the supporter of the head, and therefore the neck is in the middle between the head and the body, to the intent that by it and by its sinews, motion and sense of the body might be conveyed through all the body; and that by means of the neck, the heart, which is very hot, might be separated from the brain.

Q. Why do some creatures want necks, as serpents and fishes? A. Because they want hearts, and therefore want that assistance which we have spoken of; or else they have a neck in some inward part of them, which is not distinguished outwardly.

Q. Why is the neck full of bones and joints? A. That it may bear and sustain the head the better. Also, because the backbone is joined to the brain in the neck, and from thence it receives marrow, which is of the substance of the brain.

Q. Why have some creatures long necks, as cranes, storks, and such like? A. Because such birds seek their food at the bottom of waters. And some creatures have short necks, as sparrows, hawks, &c. because such are ravenous, and therefore for strength have short necks; as appeareth in the ox, which has a short neck and strong.

Q. Why is the neck hollow, and especially before, about the tongue? A. Because there are two passages, whereof the one doth carry the meat to the nutritive instrument, or stomach and liver, which is called by the Greeks Œsophagus; and the other is the wind-pipe.

Q. Why is the artery made with rings and circle? A. The better to bow and give a good sounding.

Of the Shoulders and Arms.

Q, Why hath a man shoulders and arms? A. To lift and carry burdens.

Q. Why are the arms round? A. For the swifter and speedier work.

Q. Why are the arms thick? A. That they may be strong to lift and bear burdens, and thrust and give a strong blow; so their bones are thick, because they contain much marrow, or they would be easily corrupted and injured.

Q. Why do the arms become small and slender in some diseases, as in mad men and such as are sick of the dropsy? A. Because all the parts of the body do suffer the one with the other; and therefore one member being in grief, all the humours do concur and run thither to give succour and help to the aforesaid grief.

Q. Why have brute beasts no arms? A. Their fore feet are instead of arms, and in their place.

Of the Hands.

Q. For what use hath a man hands, and an ape also like unto a man? A. The hand is an instrument that a man doth especially make use of, because many things are done by the hands and not by any other part.

Q. Why are some men ambo-dexter, that is, they use the left hand as the right? A. By reason of the great heat of the heart, and for the hot bowing of the same; for it is that which makes a man as nimble of the left hand as of the right.

Q. Why are the fingers full of joints? A. To be more fit and apt to receive and keep what are put in them.

Q. Why hath every finger three joints, and the thumb but two? A. The thumb hath three, but the third is joined to the arm, therefore is stronger than the other, fingers; and is called pollox, or polico, that is to excel in strength.

Q. Why are the fingers of the right hand nimbler than the fingers of the left? A. It proceedeth from the heat that predominates in those parts, and causeth greater agility.

Of the Nails.

Q. From whence do nails proceed? A. Of the tumosity and humours, which are resolved and go into the extremities of the fingers, and they are dried through the power of the external air, and brought to the hardness of horn.

Q. Why do the nails of old men grow black and pale? A. Because the heat of the heart decaying, causeth their beauty to decay also.

Q. Why are men judged to be good or evil complexioned by the colour of their nails? A. Because they give witness of the goodness or badness of the heart, and therefore of the complexion; for if they be somewhat red, they betoken choler well tempered; but if they be yellowish or black, they signify melancholy.

Q. Why do white spots appear in the nails? A. Through mixture of phlegm with the nutriment.

Of the Paps and Dugs.

Q. Why are the paps placed upon the breasts? A. Because the breast is the seat of the heart, which is most hot; and therefore the paps grow there, to the end that the menses being conveyed thither, as being near to the heat of the heart, should the sooner be digested, perfected, and converted into the matter and substance of the milk.

Q. Why are the paps below the breasts in beasts, and above the breasts in woman? A. Because woman goes upright, and has two legs only: and therefore if her paps were below her breasts, they would hinder her going; but beasts having four feet prevents that inconveniency.

Q. Why have not men as great paps and breasts as women? A. Because men have not monthly terms, and therefore have no vessel deputed for them.

Q. Whether are great, small or middle-sized paps best for children to suck? A. In great ones the heat is dispersed, and there is no good digestion of the milk; but in small ones the power and force is strong, because a virtue united is strongest, and by consequence there is a good digestion of the milk.

Q. Why do the paps of young women begin to grow about 13 or 15 years of age? A. Because then the flowers have no course to the teats, by which the young one is nourished, but follow their ordinary course, and therefore wax soft.

Q. Why hath a woman who is pregnant of a boy, the right pap harder than the left? A. Because the male child is conceived in the right side of the mother: and therefore the flowers do run to the right pap and make it hard.

Q. Why doth it show weakness of the child, when the milk doth drop out of the paps before the woman is delivered? A. Because the milk is the proper nutriment of the child in the womb of the mother; therefore if the milk run out, it is a token that the child is not nourished, and consequently is weak.

Q. Why doth the hardness of the paps betoken the health of the child in the womb? A. Because the flowers are converted into milk, and that milk doth sufficiently nourish the child, and thereby strength is signified.

Q. Why are women’s paps hard when they be pregnant, and soft at other times? A. Because they swell then, and are puffed up; and the great moisture which proceeds from the flowers doth run into the paps, which at other seasons remaineth in the matrix or womb, and is expelled by the place deputed for that end.

Q. By what means doth the milk of the paps come to the matrix or womb? A. There is a certain knitting and coupling of the paps with the womb, and there are certain veins which the midwives do cut in the time of the birth of the child, and by those veins the milk flows in at the navel of the child, and so it receives nourishment by the navel.

Q. Why is it a sign of a male child in the womb, when the milk that runneth out of a woman’s breast is thick, and not much, and of a female when it is thin? A. Because a woman that goeth with a boy, hath a great heat in her, which doth perfect the milk and make it thick; but she who goes with a girl hath not so much heat, and therefore the milk is undigested, imperfect, watery, and thin, and will swim above the water if it be put into it.

Q. Why is the milk white, seeing the flowers are red, of which it is engendered? A. Because blood which is well purged and concocted becomes white, as appeareth in flesh whose proper colour is red, and being boiled is white. Also, because every humour which is engendered of the body, is made like unto that part in colour where it is engendered, as near as it can be; but because the flesh of the paps is white, therefore the colour of the milk is white.

Q. Why doth a cow give milk more abundantly than other beasts? A. Because she is a great eating beast, and where there is much monthly superfluity engendered, there is much milk; because it is nothing else but that blood purged and tried.

Q. Why is not milk wholesome? A. 1. Because it curdeth in the stomach, whereof an evil breath is bred. 2. Because the milk doth grow sour in the stomach, where evil humours are bred, and infect the breath.

Q. Why is milk bad for such as have the headache? A. Because it is easily turned into great fumosities, and hath much terrestrial substance in it, the which ascending doth cause the headache.

Q. Why is milk fit nutriment for infants? A. Because it is a natural and usual food, and they were nourished by the same in the womb.

Q. Why are the white-meats made of a new-milked cow good? A. Because milk at that time is very spongy, expels many fumosities, and, as it were, purges at that time.

Q. Why do physicians forbid the eating of fish and milk at the same time? A. Because they produce a leprosy, and because they are phlegmatic.

Q. Why have not birds and fish milk and paps? A. Because paps would hinder the flight of birds. And although fish have neither paps nor milk, the females cast much spawn, which the male touches with a small gut, and causes their kind to continue in succession.

Of the Back.

Q. Why have beasts backs? A. 1. Because the back is the way and mien of the body, from which are extended and spread throughout all the sinews of the backbone. 2. Because it should be a guard and defence for the soft parts of the body, as for the stomach, liver, lights and such like. 3. Because it is the foundation of all the bones, as the ribs, fastened to the backbone.

Q. Why hath the backbone so many joints or knots, called spondelia? A. Because the moving and bending it, without such joints, could not be done; and therefore they are wrong who say that elephants have no such joints, for without them they could not move.

Q. Why do fish die after their backbones are broken? A. Because in fish the backbone is instead of the heart; now the heart is the first thing that lives, and the last that dies; and when that bone is broken, fish can live no longer.

Q. Why doth a man die soon after the marrow is hurt or perished? A. Because the marrow proceeds from the brain, which is the principal part of a man.

Q. Why have some men the piles? A. Those men are cold and melancholy, which melancholy first passes to the spleen, its proper seat, but there cannot be retained, for the abundance of blood; for which reason it is conveyed to the backbone, where there are certain veins which terminate in the back, and receive the blood. When those veins are full of the melancholy blood, then the conduits of nature are opened, and the blood issues out once a month, like women’s terms. Those men who have this course of blood, are kept from many infirmities, such as the dropsy, plague, &c.

Q. Why are the Jews much subject to this disease? A. Because they eat much phlegmatic and cold meats, which breed melancholy blood, which is purged with the flux. Another reason is, motion causes heat, and heat digestion; but strict Jews never move, labour, nor converse much, which breeds a coldness in them, and hinders digestion, causing melancholic blood, which is by this means purged out.

Of the Heart.

Q. Why are the lungs light, spongy, and full of holes? A. That the air may be received into them for cooling the heart, and expelling humours, because the lungs are the fan of the heart; and as a pair of bellows are raised up by taking in the air, and shrunk by blowing it out, so likewise the lungs draw the air to cool the heart, and cast it out, lest through too much air drawn in, the heart should be suffocated.

Q. Why is the flesh of the lungs white? A. Because they are in continual motion.

Q. Why have those beasts only lungs that have hearts? A. Because the lungs are no part for themselves, but for the heart; and therefore it were superfluous for those creatures to have lungs that have no hearts.

Q. Why do such creatures as have no lungs want a bladder? A. Because such drink no water to make their meat digest, and need no bladder for urine; as appears in such birds who do not drink at all, viz. the falcon and sparrow-hawk.

Q. Why is the heart in the midst of the body? A. That it may impart life to all parts of the body; and therefore it is compared to the sun, which is placed in the midst of the planets, to give light to them all.

Q. Why only in men is the heart on the left side? A. To the end that the heat of the heart may mitigate the coldness of the spleen; for the spleen is the seat of melancholy, which is on the left side also.

Q. Why is the heart first engendered; for the heart doth live and die last? A. Because the heart is the beginning and original of life, and without it no part can live. For of the seed retained in the matrix, there is engendered a little small skin, which compasses the seed; whereof the heart is made of the purest blood; then of blood not so pure, the liver; and of thick and cold blood the marrow and brain.

Q. Why are beasts bold that have little hearts? A. Because in a little heart the heat is well united and vehement, and the blood touching it doth quickly heat it, and is speedily carried to the other parts of the body, which gives courage and boldness.

Q. Why are creatures with a large heart timorous, as the hare? A. The heart is dispersed in such a one, and not able to heat the blood which cometh to it; by which means fear is bred.

Q. How is it that the heart is continually moving? A. Because in it there is a certain spirit which is more subtle than air, and by reason of its thickness and rarefaction seeks a larger space, filling the hollow room of the heart, hence the dilating and opening of the heart; and because the heart is earthly, the thrusting and moving ceasing, its parts are at rest, tending downwards. As a proof of this, take an acorn, which, if put into the fire, the heat dissolves its humidity, therefore it occupies a greater space, so that the rind cannot contain it, but puffs up and throws it into the fire. The like of the heart. Therefore the heart of a living creature is triangular, having its least part towards its left side, and the greater towards the right; and doth also open and shut in the least part, by which means it is in continual motion; the first motion is called diastole, that is, extending the breast or heart; the other systole, that is, shutting of the heart; and from these all the motions of the body proceed, and that of the pulse which physicians feel.

Q. How comes it that the flesh of the heart is so compact and knit together? A. Because in thick compacted substances heat is strongly received and united. And because the heart with its heat should moderate the coldness of the brain, it is made of that fat flesh apt to keep a strong heat.

Q. How comes the heart to be the hottest part of all living creatures? A. It is so compacted as to receive heat best, and because it should mitigate the coldness of the brain.

Q. Why is the heart the beginning of life? A. It is plain that in it the vital spark is bred, which is the seat of life; and therefore the heart having two receptacles, viz. the right and the left, the right hath more blood than spirits; which spirit is engendered to give life and vivify the body.

Q. Why is the heart long and sharp like a pyramid? A. The round figure hath an angle, therefore the heart is round, for fear any poison or hurtful matter should be retained in it; and because that figure is fittest for motion.

Q. How comes the blood chiefly to be in the heart? A. The blood in the heart has its proper or efficient place, which some attribute to the liver; and therefore the heart doth not receive blood from any other parts, but all other parts from it.

Q. How comes it that some creatures want a heart? A. Although they have no heart, yet they have somewhat that answers for it, as appears in eels and fish that have the backbone instead of the heart.

Q. Why does the heart beat in some creatures when the head is off, as in birds and hens? A. Because the heart lives first and dies last, and therefore beats longer than other parts.

Q. Why doth the heat of the heart sometimes fail of a sudden, as in those who have the falling sickness? A. This proceeds from the defect of the heart itself, and of certain small sinks with which it is covered, which being infected and corrupted, the heart faileth on a sudden: sometimes only by reason of the parts adjoining; and therefore, when any venomous humour goes out of the stomach, that turns the heart and parts adjoining, that causeth the fainting.

Of the Stomach.

Q. For what reason is the stomach large and wide? A. Because in it the food is first concocted or digested as it were in a pot, to the end that that which is pure should be separated from that which is not; and therefore, according to the quantity of food, the stomach is enlarged.

Q. How comes it that the stomach is round? A. Because if it had angles and corners, food would remain in them, and breed ill humours, so that a man would never want agues, which humours are evacuated and consumed, and not hid in any such corners, by the roundness of the stomach.

Q. How comes the stomach to be full of sinews? A. Because the sinews can be extended and enlarged; and so is the stomach when it is full; but when empty it is drawn together; and therefore nature provides those sinews.

Q. How comes the stomach to digest? A. Because of the heat which is in it, and comes from the parts adjoining, that is, the liver and the heart. For as we see in metals, the heat of the fire takes away the rust and dross from iron, the silver from tin, and gold from copper; so also by digestion the pure is separated from the impure.

Q. For what reason doth the stomach join the liver? A. Because the liver is very hot, and with its heat helps digestion, and provokes appetite.

Q. Why are we commonly cold after dinner? A. Because then the heat goes to the stomach to further digestion, and so the other parts grow cold.

Q. Why is it hurtful to study soon after dinner? A. Because when the heat labours to help the imagination in study, it ceases from digesting the food, which remains undigested; therefore people should walk some time after meals.

Q. How cometh the stomach slowly to digest meat? A. Because it swims in the stomach. Now, the best digestion is in the bottom of the stomach, because the fat descends not there: such as eat fat meat are very sleepy, by reason that digestion is hindered.

Q. Why is all the body wrong, when the stomach is uneasy? A. Because the stomach is knit with the brain, heart, and liver, which are the principal parts in man; and when it is not well the others are indisposed. Again, if the first digestion be hindered, the others are also hindered; for in the first digestion is the beginning of the infirmity of the stomach.

Q. Why are young men sooner hungry than old men? A. Young men do digest for three causes; 1. For growing: 2. For restoring of life: and, 3. For conservation of life. Also, young men are hot and dry, and therefore the heat doth digest more, and by consequence they desire more.

Q. Why do physicians prescribe that men should eat when they have an appetite? A. Because much hunger and emptiness will fill the stomach with naughty rotten humours, which are drawn in instead of meat; for, if we fast over night, we have an appetite to meat, but none in the morning; as then the stomach is filled with naughty humours, and especially its mouth, which is no true filling, but a deceitful one. And therefore, after we have eaten a little, our stomach comes to us again; for the first morsel, having made clean the mouth of the stomach, doth provoke the appetite.

Q. Why do physicians prescribe that we should not eat too much at a time, but by little and little? A. Because when the stomach is full, the meat doth swim in it, which is a dangerous thing. Another reason is, that very green wood doth put out the fire, so much meat chokes the natural heat and puts it out; and therefore the best physic is to use temperance in eating and drinking.

Q. Why do we desire change of meats according to the change of times; as in winter, beef, pork, mutton; in summer, light meats, as veal, lamb, &c.? A. Because the complexion of the body is altered and changed according to the time of the year. Another reason is, that this proceeds from the quality of the season; because the cold in winter doth cause a better digestion.

Q. Why should not the meat we eat be as hot as pepper and ginger? A. Because as hot meat doth inflame the blood, and dispose it to a leprosy; so, on the contrary, meat too cold doth mortify and chill the blood. Our meat should not be over sharp, because it wastes the constitution; too much sauce doth burn the entrails, and inclineth to often drinking; raw meat doth the same; and over sweet meats to constipate and cling the veins together.

Q. Why is it a good custom to eat cheese after dinner, and pears after all meat? A. Because by reason of its earthliness and thickness it tendeth down towards the bottom of the stomach, and so putteth down the meat; and the like of pears. Note, that new cheese is better than old; and that old soft cheese is very bad, and causeth the headache and stopping of the liver; and the older the worse. Whereof it is said, that cheese digesteth all things but itself.

Q. Why are nuts good after cheese, as the proverb is, After fish nuts, and after flesh cheese? A. Because fish is of hard digestion, and doth easily putrefy and corrupt; and nuts are a remedy against poison.

Q. Why is it unwholesome to wait long for one dish after another, and to eat of divers kinds of meat? A. Because the first begins to digest when the last is eaten, and so digestion is not equally made. But yet this rule is to be noted, dishes light of digestion, as chickens, kids, veal, soft eggs, and such like, should be first eaten: because, if they should be first served and eaten, and were digested, they would hinder the digestion of the others; and the light meats not digested would be corrupted in the stomach, and kept in the stomach violently, whereof would follow belching, loathing, headache, bellyache, and great thirst. It is very hurtful too, at the same meal, to drink wine and milk because they are productive of leprosy.

Q. Whether is meat or drink best for the stomach? A. Drink is sooner digested than meat, because meat is of great substance, and more material than drink, and therefore meat is harder to digest.

Q. Why is it good to drink after dinner? A. Because the drink will make the meat readier to digest. The stomach is like unto a pot which doth boil meat, and therefore physicians do counsel to drink at meals.

Q. Why is it good to forbear a late supper? A. Because there is little moving or stirring after supper, and so the meat is not sent down to the bottom of the stomach, but remaineth undigested, and so breeds hurts; therefore a light supper is best.

Of the Blood.

Q. Why is it necessary that every living thing that hath blood have also a liver? A. Because the blood is first made in the liver, its seat, being drawn from the stomach by certain principal veins, and so engendered.

Q. Why is the blood red? A. 1. It is like the part in which it is made, viz. the liver, which is red. 2. It is likewise sweet, because it is well digested and concocted; but if it hath a little earthy matter mixed with it, that makes it somewhat salt.

Q. How is women’s blood thicker than men’s? A. Their coldness thickens, binds, congeals, and joins together.

Q. How comes the blood to all parts of the body through the liver, and by what means? A. Through the principal veins, as the veins of the head, liver, &c. to nourish all the body.

Of the Urine.

Q. How doth the urine come into the bladder, seeing the bladder is shut? A. Some say by sweating; others, by a small skin in the bladder, which opens and lets in the urine. Urine is a certain and not deceitful messenger of the health and infirmity of man. Men make white urine in the morning, and before dinner red, but after dinner pale, and also after supper.

Q. Why is it hurtful to drink much cold water? A. Because one contrary doth hinder and expel another; water is very cold, and lying so in the stomach hinders digestion.

Q. Why is it unwholesome to drink new wine? A. 1. It cannot be digested; therefore it causes the belly to swell, and a kind of bloody flux. 2. It hinders making water.

Q. Why do physicians forbid us to labour presently after dinner? A. 1. Because motion hinders the virtue and power of digestion. 2. Because stirring immediately after dinner causes the different parts of the body to draw the meat to them, which often breeds sickness. 3. Because motion makes the food descend before it is digested. But after supper it is good to walk a little, that the food may go to the bottom of the stomach.

Q. Why is it good to walk after dinner? A. Because it makes a man well disposed, and fortifies and strengthens the natural heat, causing the superfluities of the stomach to descend.

Q. Why is it wholesome to vomit? A. It purges the stomach of all naughty humours, expelling them, which would breed agues if they should remain in it; and purges the eyes and head, clearing the brain.

Q. How comes sleep to strengthen the stomach and digestive faculty? A. Because in sleep the heat draws inwards, and helps digestion: but when awake, the heat returns, and is dispersed through the body.

Of the Gall and Spleen.

Q. How come living creatures to have a gall? A. Because choleric humours are received into it, which through their acidity helps the guts to expel superfluities, also it helps digestion.

Q. How comes the jaundice to proceed from the gall? A. The humour of the guts is blueish and yellow; therefore when its pores are stopped, the humours cannot go into the sack thereof, but are mingled with the blood, wandering throughout all the body, and infecting the skin.

Q. Why hath a horse, mule, ass, or cow, no gall? A. Those creatures have no gall in one place, as in a purse or vessel, yet they have one dispersed in small veins.

Q. How comes the spleen to be black? A. It is occasioned by terrestrial and earthy matter of a black colour. According to physicians, the spleen is the receptacle of melancholy, and that is black.

Q. Why is he lean who hath a large spleen? A. Because the spleen draws much water to itself, which would turn to fat; therefore, men that have a small spleen are fat.

Q. Why does the spleen cause men to laugh, as says Isidorus: “We laugh with the spleen, we are angry with the gall, we are wise with the heart, we love with the liver, we feel with the brain, and speak with the lungs.” A. The reason is, the spleen draws much melancholy to it, being its proper seat, the which melancholy proceeds from sadness, and is there consumed; and the cause failing, the effect doth so likewise. And by the same reason the gall causes anger, for choleric men are often angry, because they have much gall.

Of Monsters.

Q. Doth nature make any monsters? A. She doth; if she did not, then would she be deprived of her end. For of things possible, she doth always propose to bring forth that which is most perfect and best; but in the end, through the evil disposition of the matter, not being able to bring forth that which she intended, she brings forth that which she can. As it happened in Albertus’s time, when, in a certain village, a cow brought forth a calf, half a man; then the countrymen suspecting a shepherd, would have burnt him with the cow; but Albertus, being skilful in astronomy, said, that this did proceed from a special constellation, and so delivered the shepherd from their hands.

Q. Are there one or two? A. To find out, you must look into the heart; if there are two hearts, there are two men.

Of Infants.

Q. Why are some children like their father, some like their mother, some to both, and some to neither? A. If the seed of the father wholly overcome that of the mother, the child doth resemble the father; but if the mother’s predominate, then it is like the mother; but if it be like neither, that doth happen sometimes through the four qualities, sometimes through the influence of some heavenly constellation.

Q. Why are children oftener like the father than the mother? A. It proceeds from the imagination of the mother, as appeared in a queen who had her imagination on a blackamoor; and in an Ethiopian queen, who brought forth a white child, because her imagination was upon a white colour; as is seen in Jacob’s skill in casting rods of divers colours into the water when his sheep went to ram.

Q. Why do children born in the eighth month for the most part die quickly; and why are they called the children of the moon? A. Because the moon is a cold planet, which has dominion over the child, and therefore doth bind it with its coldness, which is the cause of its death.

Q. Why doth a child cry as soon as it is born? Because of the sudden change from heat to cold; which cold doth affect its tenderness. Another reason is, because the child’s soft and tender body is wringed and put together coming out of the narrow and strait passage of the matrix; and especially, the brain being moist, and the head being pressed and wrinkled together, is the cause that some humours distil by the eyes, which are the cause of tears and weeping.

Q. Why doth the child put its fingers into its mouth as soon as it cometh into the world? A. Because that coming out of the womb it cometh out of a hot bath, and entering into the cold, puts its fingers into its mouth for want of heat.

Of the Child in the Womb.

Q. How is the child engendered in the womb? A. The first six days the seed hath the colour of milk; but in the six following a red colour, which is near unto the disposition of flesh; and then it is changed into a thick substance of blood. But in the twelve days following, this substance becomes so thick and round, that it is capable of receiving shape and form.

Q. Doth the child in the womb void excrements or make water? A. No; because it hath not the first digestion which is in the stomach. It receives no food by the mouth, but by the navel; therefore, makes no urine, but sweats, which is but little, and is received in a skin in the matrix, which at the birth is cast out.