SUMMARY OF CHAPTER VIII.

In early Tertiary times the area now covered by the European Alps was covered by the sea. Islands slowly rose above the surface of the waters, which finally coalesced to form a peninsula connected with the mainland in the east. Animals now began to invade the new territory which continued to rise, while the sea retired farther and farther to the north and south. During the Pliocene Epoch the sea ceased to wash the northern shores of the Alps, and both emigration and immigration became possible in that direction, and also from and to the west.

The Alpine fauna and also the flora are made up of a number of elements, the eastern one being the oldest. The latter is represented in the Alps by the older and newer Oriental migration. The general range of the Alpine Steinbock, Chamois, Marmot, Vole, Shrew, and Hare are specially referred to. The Alpine birds are few in number, and all of them are readily traceable to an Asiatic ancestry. Among the Amphibia, the Salamanders are considered of Alpine origin.

Dr. Kobelt tells us that a uniformity of character marks the Alpine molluscan fauna. Campylaea,—often considered a sub-genus of Helix,—Pomatias, Zonites, are looked upon as truly Alpine genera. For very long periods the Alps seem to have received no addition to their molluscan fauna from other areas. The case is very different with the Lepidoptera, some of the most striking species being evidently Asiatic immigrants. Some examples of Coleoptera and Orthoptera are mentioned, and their origin discussed.

We find as the result of these considerations that the majority of the Alpine species are either indigenous or have come from Asia with the Oriental migration. None of the northern or western immigrants appear to be among the characteristic Alpine species, and it seems that the Siberian migrants have not retired to the Alps, as some naturalists have been led to suppose. It is evident that the fauna must have survived the Glacial period on the Alps, though according to geological evidence glaciers of enormous size originated on these mountains.

The identity of many Alpine species with Scandinavian ones appears at first sight due to a direct migration from the Alps to Scandinavia or vice versâ. Perhaps such a migration has taken place to some extent, but it is probable that from a Central Asiatic centre some species spread across Arctic America into Northern Europe, and also westward to the Alps. The Grouse family forms an interesting example.

There are two older theories which explain the similarity between the Scandinavian and Alpine faunas. Forbes's view, which gained most adherents among naturalists, was that the Scandinavian and Alpine animals were driven into the plain by the cold during the Glacial period, and when they ultimately regained their homes, some individuals of the northern species moved southward, and a few of the southern ones northward. By the more recent theory of Nehring, the Siberian animals which invaded our continent from the east, and then spread northward to Scandinavia and southward to the Alps, formed the nucleus of the faunas of these two areas. The objections to both of these views are fully set forth in this chapter.

A few remarks on the botanical aspect of the Alpine problem conclude the chapter. The origin of the flora has been explained in a very similar manner to that of the fauna. But already Ball and Krasan have raised their voices against the current theories, as the facts of distribution appear to them more satisfactorily explained on lines more consonant with those which I have used in discussing the origin of the Alpine fauna. One of the most important conclusions obtained by this study of the flora in conjunction with the fauna, is that I have emphasised in most of the preceding chapters—viz., that the Glacial period in Europe was not a time of extreme cold, and that its destructive effect on the animals and plants was by no means such as is currently believed.

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(Titles of Works and Papers referred to in the Text.)

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Geikie, J.—a. "The Great Ice Age," 1894. b. On Changes of Climate during the Glacial Period, "Geological Magazine," vol. ix., 1872.

Haacke, W.—Der Nordpol als Schöpfungs-zentrum der Landfauna, "Biologisches Centralblatt," vol. vi., 1887.

Harlé, E.—Sur la succession de diverses faunes à la fin du quaternaire, dans le sud-ouest de la France, "Societé d'Histoire Naturelle," Toulouse, 1893.

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Karpinski, A.—Übersicht d. physiko-geograph. Verhältnisse d. Europ. Russlands, etc., "Beiträge z. Kenntniss d. Russ. Reichs" (3 Folge), vol. iv., 1888.

Kendall, P. F., and Bell, A.—On the Pliocene Beds of St. Erth, "Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.," vol. xlii, 1886.

Kennard, A. S., and Woodward, B. B.—The Mollusca of the English Cave-Deposits, "Proc. Malacological Soc.," vol. ii., 1897.

Kew, H. W.—"The Dispersal of Shells," 1893.

Kinahan, G. H.—On possible land-connections in recent geological times between Ireland and Great Britain, "Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc.," vol. xxiv., 1896.

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Merriam, C. H.—The Geographic Distribution of Life in North America, "Proc. Biological Soc. Washington," vol. vii., 1892.

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Nathorst, A. G.—Kritische Bemerkungen über die Geschichte d. Vegetation Grönlands, "Botanische Jahrbücher," vol. xiv., 1891.

Nehring, A.—"Tundren und Steppen der Jetzt und Vorzeit," 1890.

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Pohlig, H.—Dentition und Kraniologie des Elephas antiquus (part 2), "Nova Acta Acad. Carol.-Leop.," vol. liii., 1889.

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Sars, G. O.—Crustacea Caspica, "Bull. Acad. Imp. d. Sciences St. Petersburg," vol. xiii., 1893-94.

Scharff, R. F.—a. On the Origin of the European Fauna, "Proc. Royal Irish Acad." (3rd. ser.), vol. iv., 1897. b. Some Remarks on the Distribution of British Land and Freshwater Mollusca, "Conchologist," vol. ii., 1893. c. Étude sur les mammifères de la Région Holarctique, "Mém. de la Soc. Zool. de France," vol. viii., 1894.

Schulz, A.—"Grundzüge einer Entwicklungsgeschichte d. Pflanzenwelt Mittel-europas," 1894.

Sharpe, R. Bowdler.—British Museum Catalogue (Birds).

Simroth, H.—Eine Bearbeitung d. Russischen Nacktschnecken fauna, "Ann. Musée Zool. St. Petersburg," 1896.

Sjögren, H.—Ueber das diluviale Aralo-Kaspische Meer und die nord-europäische Vereisung, "Jahrb. d. Kais. K. Geol. Reichsanstalt," vol. xl., 1890.

Sollas, W. J.—On the Origin of Freshwater Faunas, "Trans. Royal Dublin Soc." (2nd ser.), vol. iii., 1884.

Speyer, A. and A.—"Die Geographische Verbreitung der Schmetterlinge Deutschlands und der Schweiz," vol. i., 1858.

Struckmann, C.—Ueber die Verbreitung d. Rennthiers, in d. Gegenwart, etc., "Zeitschr. d. deutsch. Geol. Gesell.," vol. iii., 1883.

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Tcherski, J. D.—Das Janaland und die Neusibirischen Inseln, "Mém. Acad. Imp. St. Petersburg," vol. xl., 1892.

Thomas, O., and Barrett-Hamilton, G. E. H.—The Irish Stoat distinct from the British species, "Zoologist," 1895.

Wallace, A. R.—"Island Life," 2nd edit., 1892.

Warming, E.—Ueber Grönlands Vegetation, "Botanische Jahrbücher," vol. x., 1888-89.

White, F. B.—Some Thoughts on the Distribution of the British Butterflies, "The Entomologist," vol. xiv., 1881.

Woodward, B. B.—On the Pleistocene (non-marine) Mollusca of the London District, "Proc. Geologists' Association," vol. ii. (vide also [Kennard and Woodward]).

Wright, J.—Boulder-clay a marine deposit, "Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow," vol. x., 1896.

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Small 12mo, Cloth, with Embossed Design on Cover, each containing Two Stories by Count Tolstoy, and Two Drawings by H. R. Millar. In Box, Price 2s. each.

Volume I. contains—

Volume II. contains—

Volume III. contains—

Volume IV. contains—

Volume V. contains—

London: Walter Scott, Limited, Paternoster Square.

The Emerald Library.

Crown 8vo, Gilt Top, Half Bound in Dark Green Ribbed Cloth, with Light Green Cloth Sides, 2s. each.

London: Walter Scott, Limited, Paternoster Square.