Physiological economy in nutrition, with special reference to the minimal proteid requirement of the healthy man / an experimental study

by R. H. Chittenden

FOOTNOTES

[1] Die Ernährung des Menschen. Munich, 1876.

[2] Untersuchungen ü. d. Ernähr. schwedischer Arbeiter. Stockholm, 1891.

[3] Ein Beitrag zur Lehre vom Eiweissbedarf des gesunden Menschen. Pflüger’s Archiv f. d. gesammte Physiologie. Band 48, p. 578.

[4] D. Militärärztl. Zeitschr., 1901, p. 622. Quoted by Hirschfeld, Archiv. f. Physiologie, 1903, p. 381.

[5] Large calories, or kilogram-degree units of heat.

[6] Jahresbericht für Thierchemie, 1891, p. 369. The figures given in the above table represent the diet for men doing a moderate amount of work.

[7] Ueber die Ernährung der Italiener. Pflüger’s Archiv. f. d. gesammte Physiologie, Band 99, p. 1 (1903).

[8] Bulletin No. 46. United States Department of Agriculture, p. 63.

[9] L’Alimentation et les Régimes chez l’Homme sain et chez les Malades, Paris, 1904.

[10] Untersuchungen über den Eiweissbedarf des Menschen. Pflüger’s Archiv f. die gesammte Physiologie. Band 41, p. 533.

[11] Beiträge zur Ernährungslehre des Menschen. Virchow’s Archiv für pathol. Anat. u. Physiol. Band 114, p. 311.

[12] Vergleichende Untersuchungen über die Ernährung mit gemischter und rein vegetablischer Kost mit Berücksichtigung des Eiweissbedarfes. Virchow’s Archiv für pathol. Anat. u. Physiol. Band 116, p. 370.

[13] Die Ernährung der Soldaten vom physiologischen und volkswirthschaftlichen Standpunkt. Achiv f. Physiologie 1903, p. 380.

[14] Ueber die Kost eines Vegetariers. Zeitschr. f. Biologie. Band 25, p. 261.

[15] Ueber den Eiweissbedarf des Erwachsenen mit Berücksichtigung der Beköstigung in Japan. Archiv f. Hygiene. Band 8, p. 78.

[16] Untersuchungen über die Ernährung der Japaner. Zeitschr. f. Biologie. Band 25, p. 102.

[17] Ein Beitrag zur Frage der Ernährung bei verringerter Eiweisszufuhr. Archiv f. Physiologie, Jahrgang 1901, p. 323.

[18] Untersuchungen über Stoffwechsel und Ernährung in Krankheiten. Zeitschr. f. klin. Medizin. Band 16, p. 550.

[19] Untersuchungen über den Eiweissbedarf des gesunden Menschen. Berlin, 1891.

[20] Ein Stoffwechselversuch an Vegetarianern. Biochemisches Centralblatt Band 2, p. 144 (1903).

[21] Ueber das Stickstoffgleichgewicht beim erwachsenen Menschen. Skandinavisches Archiv f. Physiol. Band 10, p. 91.

[22] Untersuchungen über die Eiweissumsetzung des Menschen. Skandinavisches Archiv f. Physiol. Band 14, p. 121 (1903).

[23] Ueber die Folgen einer ausreichenden, aber eiweissarmen Nahrung. Ein Beitrag zur Lehre vom Eiweissbedarf. Virchow’s Archiv für pathol. Anat. u. Physiol. Band 132, p. 91.

[24] Weitere Untersuchungen über die Schädlichkeit eiweissarmer Nahrung. Pflüger’s Archiv f. die gesammte Physiol. Band 54, p. 61.

[25] Ueber die Folgen einer ausreichenden, aber eiweissarmen Nahrung. Skandinavisches Archiv f. Physiol. Band 13, p. 375.

[26] Zur Bewertung der vegetarischen Diät. Berliner klin. Wochenschr. 1901. p. 647 and 670. See also, Albu, die vegetarische Diät. Leipzig, 1902, p. 65.

[27] See Zeitschr. f. Biologie. Band 25, p. 255.

[28] Further Investigations among Fruitarians at the California Agricultural Experiment Station. 1901-1902. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 132.

[29] See Horace Fletcher, The A-B-Z of our own Nutrition. (1903.) New York. p. 48.

[30] For a fuller account of this study, see Chittenden, Physiological Economy in Nutrition. Popular Science Monthly, June, 1903.

[31] All figures for nitrogen throughout the book, whether referring to food, urine, or fæces, were obtained by exact chemical analysis, using the Kjeldahl-Gunning method.

Uric acid was determined by the method of Folin, i. e., precipitation of the urine with ammonium sulphate, etc., and titration with potassium permanganate.

Phosphoric acid was estimated by titration with a standard uranium solution, using potassium ferrocyanide as an indicator.

At times, as will be seen from the tables, nitrogen, uric acid, etc., were not determined in each day’s urine. In such cases, an aliquot part of each twenty-four hours’ urine was taken and the analyses made with the mixed samples for the given period, the figures thus obtained showing the average daily composition for that period.

[32] All foodstuffs were analyzed from large samples, to diminish as much as possible the errors of analysis. Nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl-Gunning method, the figures given being the average of closely agreeing duplicate analyses.

While nitrogen was thus determined in every sample of food by direct chemical analysis, the fuel value of the food was calculated mainly by use of the data furnished by the Bulletin issued from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. No. 28

[33] The fæces of this period were separated by lampblack. They were dried on a water-bath after admixture with alcohol and a little sulphuric acid, nitrogen being determined by the Kjeldahl-Gunning method on samples of the dry mixture from the six-day period.

[34] The figures given for weight of fæces during this balance period are tabulated for convenience as above, but naturally the last yield was not obtained until the 8th of March. The total of 182 grams, however, is the exact amount of air-dry fæces collected between the two charcoal layers, marking off accurately the balance period.

[35] This balance is complicated by the loss of the urine on March 3. Consequently one-seventh of the total nitrogen of the fæces of the period, namely 1.401 grams, was deducted from the total fæcal nitrogen.

[36] This balance is somewhat complicated by the fact that on March 4 the urine was lost, so that this day had to be thrown out. Correction on the fæces, however, was made by deducting one-seventh of the total fæcal nitrogen, on the assumption that the nitrogen-content was essentially the same for each day of the seven-day period.

[37] Hamburg steak contained 52 grams meat, 4 grams fat, 63 grams onions, 111 grams bread, each man eating 230 grams.

[38] One cup, total weight 454 grams, but containing small portions of milk and sugar.

[39] Rice or hominy on being moistened and cooked gains in weight 120 per cent; or rather, after the excess of moisture has evaporated and the rice is fried, it shows a gain of that amount. But for boiled rice or hominy, without drying or frying, there is an increase in weight of 230 per cent, as usually prepared.

[40] In each bowl of soup were 90 grams of oysters, 20 grams of butter, and 190 grams of milk.

[41] U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 98.

See also “Investigations on the Nutrition of Man in the United States.” By C. F. Langworthy and R. D. Milner. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. Washington, 1904, p. 14.

[42] This average covers the period from April 13 to May 24 only, as Mr. Bellis was compelled to withdraw from the experiment on the latter date, owing to an accident in the gymnasium.

[43] The fæces of the period were separated as customary by the ingestion of lampblack.

[44] Italics inserted by R. H. C.

[45] See Hahn, Massen, Nencki, und Pawlow: Archiv f. exper. Pathol. u. Pharm. Band XXXII. (1893), p. 161. Also, Nencki, Pawlow, und Zaleski: Ibid. Band XXXVII., p. 26.

[46] The physiological effect of creatin and creatinin, etc. Bulletin No. 66, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations.

[47] Untersuchungen zur Physiologie und Pathologie der Harnsäure bei Säugethieren. Archiv f. exper. Pathol. u. Pharm. Band XLI., p. 406.

[48] See Burian and Schur., Archiv f. die gesammte Physiologie. Band LXXXVII., p. 239.

[49] The alloxuric bases in aseptic fevers. Amer. Journal of Physiology Vol. X., p. 452.

[50] Ptomaines and Leucomaines, or the Chemical Factors in the Causation of Disease. Third Edition, 1896. Lea Brothers, p. 550.

[51] The Practitioner. London. July, 1903. p. 61.

[52] Centralblatt für Physiologie. Band XVII, p. 715. 1904.

[53] The Practitioner, July, 1903, p. 83.