TABLE OF CYCLICAL DATES FROM A.D. 4

CYCLE BEGINNING
Cyclical Signs	4	64
	304	364	124	184	244
	604	664	424	484	544
	904	964	724	784	844
	1204	1264	1024	1084	1144
	1504	1564	1324	1384	1444
	1804	1864	1624	1684	1744
	04	64	24	84	44
	05	65	25	85	45
	06	66	26	86	46
	07	67	27	87	47
	08	68	28	88	48
	09	69	29	89	49
	10	70	30	90	50
	11	71	31	91	51
	12	72	32	92	52
	13	73	33	93	53
	14	74	34	94	54
	15	75	35	95	55
	16	76	36	96	56
	17	77	37	97	57
	18	78	38	98	58
	19	79	39	99	59
	20	80	40	100	60
	21	81	41	101	61
	22	82	42	102	62
	23	83	43	103	63
	24	84	44	104	64
	25	85	45	105	65
	26	86	46	106	66
	27	87	47	107	67
	28	88	48	108	68
	29	89	49	109	69
	30	90	50	110	70
	31	91	51	111	71
	32	92	52	112	72
	33	93	53	113	73
	34	94	54	14	74
	35	95	55	15	75
	36	96	56	16	76
	37	97	57	17	77
	38	98	58	18	78
	39	99	59	19	79
	40	100	60	20	80
	41	101	61	21	81
	42	102	62	22	82
	43	103	63	23	83
	44	104	64	24	84
	45	105	65	25	85
	46	106	66	26	86
	47	107	67	27	87
	48	108	68	28	88
	49	109	69	29	89
	50	110	70	30	90
	51	111	71	31	91
	52	112	72	32	92
	53	113	73	33	93
	54	114	74	34	94
	55	115	75	35	95
	56	116	76	36	96
	57	117	77	37	97
	58	118	78	38	98
	59	119	79	39	99
	60	120	80	40	100
	61	121	81	41	101
	62	122	82	42	102
	63	123	83	43	103

It will be seen that cyclical dates without any indication of the particular cycle intended are merely tantalising. On the other hand when the reign is specified as well, the combination gives the most precise form of date. But unfortunately there are many cases in which the reign name is absent, and we can only judge the cycle by the style of the ware, a calculation which is always open to dispute. It is not often that the cycle is so clearly indicated by an indirect method as in the oft–quoted mark yu hsin ch´ou nien chih

= made in the hsin ch´ou year recurring (yu).This can only be 1721, when the hsin ch´ou year actually recurred in the (sixty–first year of) reign of K´ang Hsi.[453]

(b) The more usual form of date mark is that which gives the reign name of an Emperor. On ascending the throne the Emperor discarded his family name and assumed a title by which his reign was thenceforth known. This is the name which appears in the date marks, and it is known as the nien (period) hao (name). After his death the Emperor received another title, the miao hao, or name under which he was canonised; but though reference might be made to him in history under his miao hao, it is obvious that the posthumous name cannot occur on contemporary date marks.

In reckoning the date of an Emperor's reign it was not usual to include officially the year in which his predecessor had died, but to date the reign from the first day of the year following. Thus, though K´ang Hsi became Emperor in 1661, his reign is dated officially from 1662.

The Imperial date mark is usually written in six characters beginning with the name of the dynasty and ending with the words nien chih (made in the period): the nien hao coming in the middle:—

1 2 3 4 5 6
e.g. Ta ming ch´êng hua nien chih = made (chih)

in the Ch´êng Hua period (nien) of the great Ming (dynasty).

Occasionally the word nien is replaced by yü

(Imperial), yü chih meaning made by Imperial command; and in place of chih we sometimes find the word tsao

or more rarely tso

both of which have the same meaning "made."

The six characters may be written in two lines of three, or in three lines of two, or again in one long line read from right to left; and for reasons of space, and sometimes for no apparent reason, the first two characters are omitted, e.g.

. The omission of the nien hao is rare except on a few Japanese copies of Chinese porcelain, e.g.

ta ming nien chih = made in the great Ming dynasty.

As already mentioned, the seal forms of the mark were frequently employed from the eighteenth century onwards (see p. [209]). An archaic form of seal character occurs in the Yung Lo mark which is given below.

The use of the nien hao on the Imperial wares made at Ching–tê Chên was made obligatory by a command issued in the Ching–tê period (1004–1007), when the name of the town was altered to Ching–tê Chên.

Ming Dynasty

HUNG WU, 1368–1398.

Same in seal characters.

YUNG LO, 1403–1424.

Same in archaic characters.

HSÜAN TÊ, 1426–1435.

Same in seal characters.

CH´ÊNG HUA, 1465–1487.

Same in seal characters (the first two omitted).

HUNG CHIH, 1488–1505.

CHÊNG TÊ, 1506–1521.

CHIA CHING, 1522–1566.

LUNG CH´ING, 1567–1572.

WAN LI, 1573–1619.

T´IEN CH´I, 1621–1627.

CH´UNG CHÊNG, 1628–1643.

Ch´ing Dynasty.

SHUN CHIH, 1644–1661.

Same in seal characters.

K´ANG HSI, 1662–1722.

Same in seal characters.

YUNG CHÊNG, 1723–1735.

Same in seal characters.

CH´IEN LUNG, 1736–1795.

Same in seal characters.

CHIA CH´ING, 1796–1820.

Same in seal characters.

TAO KUANG, 1821–1850.

Same in seal characters.

HSIEN FÊNG, 1851–1861.

Same in seal characters.

T´UNG CHIH, 1862–1874.

Same in seal characters.

KUANG HSÜ, 1875–1909.

Same in seal characters.

(2) Hall marks.

The "hall mark," which is of frequent occurrence on both porcelain and pottery, is so called because it includes the word t´ang

(hall) or some equivalent such as chai

(a study), t´ing

(a pavilion), hsien or hsüan

(a porch, balcony or pavilion), kuan

(a residence or hostelry), fang

(a room or house), chü

(a dwelling). The word t´ang as explained in Giles's Dictionary is "a hall: especially a hall of justice or court; the ancestral hall; an official title." T´ang ming is "the family hall name—a fancy name usually consisting of two characters followed by t´ang (e.g. wu tê t´ang chin = Chin of the military valour hall), and referring to some event in family history. It is generally inscribed in one of the principal rooms of the house, and is used in deeds, on graves, boundary stones, etc."

The hall mark, then, may contain the studio name of the maker or of the recipient of the ware, or it may have reference literally to the building for which the ware was intended. The last interpretation can be generally applied to the marks referring to halls or pavilions in the precincts of the Imperial palace. Again, the hall may be the shop of a dealer who ordered the goods. But in the absence of prepositions, it is not always—not often, I should perhaps say—possible to determine which of these alternatives is implied in any particular hallmark; e.g.

Lin yü t´ang chih may mean "made in the Abundant–Jade Hall," or "for" the same, or by a man whose studio name was Lin–yü t´ang.

As to the antiquity of hall marks, it was not considered anachronistic to cut one on a Han granary urn which is now in the British Museum; but unfortunately as the cutting was done after the ware was baked it is now impossible to say at what period it was executed. A Sung example is quoted in the Ni ku lu (written in the middle of the sixteenth century) as inscribed on a Ting Chou vase in the handwriting of the Mi family, viz., jên ho kuan

(Hotel of Benevolence and Harmony). A similar mark similarly placed is

jên ts´un t´ang (Hall of Benevolence), on a Tz´ŭ Chou jar in the Eumorfopoulos Collection.

Hall marks on Ming porcelain are rare. There is, however, one which occurs fairly often on late Ming porcelains of various kinds, including pieces decorated in blue and blue and white, underglaze red, blue and enamel colours, pierced designs and slip. This is

yü t´ang chia ch´i, "beautiful vessel for the Jade Hall."

It is improbable that the yü t´ang was a factory name, as the specimens so marked have little homogeneity. Giles's Dictionary tells us that yü t´ang is a name for the Han Lin College at Peking, which was so called in memory of Chou Chih–lin of the Sung dynasty, upon whom the Emperor bestowed these two characters in admiration of his qualities. From this we might infer that the wares so marked were made for the Han Lin; but why, one asks, in that case should the examples in our collections be so many and so evidently of the same period? On the whole I prefer to regard the mark as of general (and complimentary) significance, i.e. "beautiful vessel for the home of pure worth," like another mark much affected on late Ming porcelain fu kuei chia ch´i ("fine vessel for the rich and honourable!").

Hall marks are very frequent on the porcelains of the Ch´ing dynasty, and enough are given below to illustrate their various forms. Many of them are no doubt hall names of makers and decorators, and as such belong to the category of artists' signatures.

Special interest attaches to those hall marks which have been identified as referring to pavilions in the precincts of the Imperial palace. We are told by Bushell [454] that the "fashion of inscribing upon porcelain made for the Imperial palace the name of the particular pavilion for which it was intended seems to have begun in the reign of Yung Chêng," and observation shows that these hall marks only become frequent on the later porcelains. In fact most of the examples with which I am acquainted are nearer in style to the Tao Kuang than to the Yung Chêng wares, and the majority of the hall marks written in red on the glaze will be found to be of early nineteenth century date.

HALL MARKS

Yü t´ang chia ch´i = fine vessel for the jade hall (late Ming).

Yü hai t´ang chih = made for the Yü–hai (jade sea) hall (about 1700).

Ts´ai hua t´ang chih = made for the hall of bright painting (nineteenth century).

Ts´ai jun t´ang chih = made for the hall of bright colours (nineteenth century).

Nan hsiang t´ang = south aspect hall (on eighteenth century pottery).

Chih lan chai chih = made for the epidendrum hall (seventeenth century).

Ku yüeh hsüan chih = made by Ku–yüeh–hsüan. (See Vol. ii., p. 215.)

Yu ch´ai = quiet pavilion—a studio name of a painter.

Wan shih chü = myriad rocks retreat; studio name of a painter.

Chu shih chü = red rocks retreat; studio name of a painter.

PALACE HALL MARKS

Ch´êng tê t´ang chih = ordered for the Ch´êng–tê (complete virtue) hall.

Ching wei t´ang chih = made for the Ching–wei (reverent awe) hall.

Hsü hua t´ang chih tsêng = made for the Hsü–hua hall, for presentation.

Tan ning chai chih = made for the Tan–ning (peace and tranquillity) pavilion.

Ssŭ pu chai chih = made for the Ssŭ–pu pavilion (i.e. pavilion for meditation for the correction of faults).

Shên tê t´ang chih = made for the Shên–tê (cultivation of virtue) hall. (See Vol. ii., p. 264.)

Shên tê t´ang po ku chih = antique made for the Shên–tê hall.

(3) Potters' names, etc.

Marks which include potters' names (apart from the uncertain hall marks) are rare on Chinese porcelain though frequent enough on pottery. But it will be remembered that at Ching–tê Chên at any rate the porcelain passed through so many hands that the individuality of the work was lost, and consequently a personal mark would be, as a rule, misleading. The question of signatures in the field of the decoration has been discussed [455] with the conclusion that they belong rather to the artists who painted the original copied by the pot–painters than to the pot–painter himself.

Perhaps we should include here a fairly common type of mark, usually in the form of a small seal of a conventional and quite illegible character, which goes by the name of "shop marks." But it is not clear whether they refer to the maker or the firm who ordered the porcelain.

POTTERS' MARKS

Ma chên shih tsao = made by ma ch´ên–shih (on a T´ang vase).

Chang chia tsao = made by the Chang family (on Tz´ŭ Chou ware). (See Vol. i., p. [105].)

Wang shih ch´ih ming = Mr. Wang Ch´ih–ming (on Tz´ŭ–Chou ware).

I shêng = harmonious prosperity. Perhaps a potter's name (on Kuangtung ware).

MARKS ON KUANGTUNG WARE

Ko ming–hsiang chih = made by Ko Ming–hsiang (eighteenth century).

Ko yüan hsiang chih = made by Ko Yüan–hsiang (eighteenth century).

Huang yün chi = mark of Huang–yün (nineteenth century).

Li Ta–lai = potter's name.

Hou–ch´ang = potter's name.

POTTERS' MARKS—continued.

Yi hsing tzŭ sha = brown earth (lit. sand) of Yi–hsing.

Ming–yüan = a late Ming potter at Yi–hsing.

Hui mêng–chên = name of a late Ming potter at Yi–hsing, copied on modern wares.

Ch´ên Ming Yüan chih = made by Ch´ên Ming–Yüan, Yi–hsing.

Yü lan pi chih = secretly made by Yü–lan; Yi–hsing (nineteenth century).

Wan li ting yu ch´ên wên ching su = Ch´ên Wên–ching modelled it in the ting–yu year of Wan Li (i.e. 1597).

MARKS ON FUKIEN WHITE PORCELAIN

Chao–chin = a potter's name.

Chung t´un shih = Chung–t´un family.

(?) Li–chih = a potter's name.

Shan jên ch´ên–wei = the hermit Ch´ên–wei.

Lai–kuan = potter's name.

Chao tsung ho yin = seal of Ho Chao–tsung.

POTTERS' NAMES, ETC.

Chiang ming kao tsao = made by Chiang Ming–kao (about 1700).

Ch´ên kuo chih tsao = made by Ch´ên Kuo–chih (about 1700).

Tao kuang ting wei wên lang shan chih = made by Wên Lang–shan in the ting–wei year of Tao Kuang (i.e. 1847).

Yü fêng yang lin = Yang Lin of Yü–fêng. (See Vol. ii., p. 212.)

(?) Trader's mark on export porcelain. (See Vol. ii., p. 136.)

Wang tso t´ing tso = made by Wang Tso–t´ing (early nineteenth century).

Wang ping jung tso = made by Wan Ping–jung (early nineteenth century).

Ling nan hui chê = Ling–nan (Canton) painting. Seal of Pai–shih (white rock). (See Vol. ii., p. 211.)

Fu fan chih tsao = made on the borders of Fukien. (See Vol. ii., p. 108.)

Three examples of "shop marks."

(4) Marks of dedication, felicitation, etc.

In many cases the place of a date mark, hall mark, or potter's name is taken by a word or phrase commending or describing the ware or invoking a benediction on the possessor. Such marks may be conveniently subdivided into marks of (a) dedication, (b) felicitation, (c) commendation; to which may be added (d) symbols used as marks.

(a) Marks of dedication indicating the destination or intention of the ware contain the name of a place or person or some word suggesting the use to which the vessel was dedicated. This group naturally overlaps that of the hall marks, there being no essential difference between a palace hall mark and such a mark as Shu fu

(Imperial palace) which was inscribed on the Imperial porcelain of the Yüan dynasty.

A few marks of dedication are mentioned in the Po wu yao lan[456] e.g.

t´an (altar) on the altar cups of the Hsüan Tê period;

ch´a (tea),

chiu (wine),

tsao t´ang (decoction of jujubes), and

chiang t´ang (decoction of ginger), which were inscribed inside the altar cups of the Chia Ching period, besides

chin lu (golden seal),

ta chiao (great sacrifice), and

t´an yung (altar use), which were written beneath them; all indicating the offerings and the altars for which the cups were destined.

Dedications to temples, institutions, and even to individuals, often of considerable length, also occur not infrequently.

(b) Marks of felicitation include good wishes such as ch´ang ming fu kuei (long life, riches and honour), wan fu yu t´ung (may infinite happiness embrace all your affairs), both of which have been noted on Ming porcelain; words of good omen such as fu, lu, shou, separately or together,

chi (good luck),

ch´ing (prosperity), etc.

(c) Marks of commendation are also frequent, especially in the K´ang Hsi period and on blue and white porcelain. They allude to the beauty of the ware, comparing it with jade or gold or gems, or to the subject of the decoration; and they vary in length from a single character such as

yü (jade) to a sentence like ch´i shih pao ting chih chên (a gem among precious vessels of rare stone).

(d) A sacred symbol or emblematic ornament often replaces the mark on K´ang Hsi porcelain; but as these will be found among the symbols, etc., described in vol. ii., ch. xvii., there is no need to discuss them any further. The most frequently used are the pa pao (Eight Precious Things), and the pa chi hsiang (the Eight Buddhist Emblems of Happy Augury).

MARKS OF FELICITATION, ETC.