APPENDIX

A. A POSTSCRIPT ON MYTHOLOGY IN BEOWULF

(1) Beowulf the Scylding and Beowulf son of Ecgtheow

It is now ten years since Prof. Lawrence attacked the mythological theories which, from the time when they were first enunciated by Kemble and elaborated by Müllenhoff, had wielded an authority over Beowulf scholars which was only very rarely disputed[^[523]].

Whilst in the main I agree with Prof. Lawrence, I believe that there is an element of truth in the theories of Kemble. It would, indeed, be both astonishing and humiliating if we found that a view, accepted for three-quarters of a century by almost every student, had no foundation. What is really remarkable is, not that Kemble should have carried his mythological theory too far, but that, with the limited information at his disposal, he at once saw certain aspects of the truth so clearly.

The mythological theories involve three propositions:

(a) That some, or all, of the supernatural stories told of Beowulf the Geat, son of Ecgtheow (especially the Grendel-struggle and the dragon-struggle), were originally told of Beowulf the Dane, son of Scyld, who can be identified with the Beow or Beaw[^[524]] of the genealogies.

(b) That this Beow was an ancient "god of agriculture and fertility."

Now (c) would not necessarily follow, even granting (a) and (b); for though a hero of story be an ancient god, many of his most popular adventures may be later accretion. However, these two propositions (a) and (b) would, together, establish a very strong probability that the Grendel-story and the dragon-story were ancient culture-myths, and would entitle to a sympathetic hearing those who had such an interpretation of them to offer.

That Beow is an ancient "god of agriculture and fertility," I believe to be substantially true. We shall see that a great deal of evidence, unknown to Kemble and Müllenhoff, is now forthcoming to show that there was an ancient belief in a corn-spirit Beow: and this Beow, whom we find in the genealogies as son of Scyld or Sceldwa and descendant of Sceaf, is pretty obviously identical with Beowulf, son of Scyld Scefing, in the Prologue of Beowulf.

So far as the Prologue is concerned, there is, then, almost certainly a remote mythological background. But before we can claim that this background extends to the supernatural adventures attributed to Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow, we must prove our proposition (a): that these adventures were once told, not of Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow, but of Beowulf or Beow, son of Scyld.

When it was first suggested, at the very beginning of Beowulf-criticism, that Beowulf was identical with the Beow of the genealogies, it had not been realized that there were in the poem two persons named Beowulf: and thus an anonymous scholar in the Monthly Review of 1816[^[525]], not knowing that Beowulf the slayer of Grendel is (at any rate in the poem as it stands) distinct from Beowulf, son of Scyld, connected both with Beow, son of Scyld, so initiating a theory which, for almost a century, was accepted as ascertained fact.

Kemble's identification was probably made independently of the work of this early scholar. Unlike him, Kemble, of course, realized that in our poem Beowulf the Dane, son of Scyld, is a person distinct from, is in fact not related to, Beowulf son of Ecgtheow. But he deliberately identified the two: he thought that two distinct traditions concerning the same hero had been amalgamated: in one of these traditions Beowulf may have been represented as son of Scyld, in the other as son of Ecgtheow, precisely as the hero Gunnar or Gunter is in one tradition son of Gifica (Giuki), in another son of Dankrat.

Of course such duplication as Kemble assumed is conceivable. Kemble might have instanced the way in which one and the same hero reappears in the pages of Saxo Grammaticus, with somewhat different parentage or surroundings, as if he were a quite different person. The Lives of the Two Offas present another parallel: the adventures of the elder Offa have been transferred to the younger, so that, along with much that is historical or semi-historical, we have much in the Life of Offa II that is simply borrowed from the story of Offa I. In the same way it is conceivable that reminiscences of the mythical adventures of the elder Beowulf (Beow) might have been mingled with the history of the acts of the younger Beowulf, king of the Geatas. A guarantee of the intrinsic reasonableness of this theory lies in the fact that recently it has been put forward again by Dr Henry Bradley. But it is not enough that a theory should be conceivable, and be supported by great names. I cannot see that there is any positive evidence for it at all.

The arguments produced by Kemble are not such as to carry conviction at the present day. The fact that Beowulf the Geat, son of Ecgtheow, "is represented throughout as a protecting and redeeming being" does not necessarily mean that we must look for some god or demigod of the old mythology—Frey or Sceaf or Beow—with whom we can identify him. This characteristic is strongly present in many Old English monarchs and magnates of historic, Christian, times: Oswald or Alfred or Byrhtnoth. Indeed, it might with much plausibility be argued that we are to see in this "protecting" character

of the hero evidence of Christian rather than of heathen influence[^[526]].

Nor can we argue anything from the absence of any historic record of a king Beowulf of the Geatas; our records are too scanty to admit of argument from silence: and were such argument valid, it would only prove Beowulf fictitious, not mythological—no more necessarily an ancient god than Tom Jones or Mr Pickwick.

There remains the argument of Dr Bradley. He points out that

"The poem is divided into numbered sections, the length of which was probably determined by the size of the pieces of parchment of which an earlier exemplar consisted. Now the first fifty-two lines, which are concerned with Scyld and his son Beowulf, stand outside this numbering. It may reasonably be inferred that there once existed a written text of the poem that did not include these lines. Their substance, however, is clearly ancient. Many difficulties will be obviated if we may suppose that this passage is the beginning of a different poem, the hero of which was not Beowulf the son of Ecgtheow, but his Danish namesake[^[527]]."

In this Bradley sees support for the view that "there were circulated in England two rival poetic versions of the story of the encounters with supernatural beings: the one referring them to Beowulf the Dane" [of this the Prologue to our extant poem would be the only surviving portion, whilst] "the other (represented by the existing poem) attached them to the legend of the son of Ecgtheow."

But surely many objections have to be met. Firstly, as Dr Bradley admits, the mention of Beowulf the Dane is not confined to the Prologue; this earlier Beowulf "is mentioned at the beginning of the first numbered section" and consequently Dr Bradley has to suppose that "the opening lines of this section have undergone alteration in order to bring them into connection with the prefixed matter." And why should we assume that the "passus" of Beowulf correspond to pieces of

parchment of various sizes of which an earlier exemplar consisted? These "passus" vary in length from 43 lines to 142, a disproportion by no means extraordinary for the sections of one and the same poem, but very awkward for the pages of one and the same book, however roughly constructed. One of the "passus" is just twice the average length, and 30 lines longer than the one which comes next to it in size. Ought we to assume that an artificer would have made his book clumsy by putting in this one disproportionate page, when, by cutting it in two, he could have got two pages of just about the size he wanted? Besides, the different "passus" do not seem to me to show signs of having been caused by such mechanical reasons as the dimensions of the parchment upon which they were written. On the contrary, the 42 places where sections begin and end almost all come where a reader might reasonably be expected to pause: 16 at the beginning or end of a speech: 18 others at a point where the narrative is resumed after some digression or general remark. Only eight remain, and even with these, there is generally some pause in the narrative at the point indicated. In only two instances does a "passus" end at a flagrantly inappropriate spot; in one of these there is strong reason to suppose that the scribe may have caused the trouble by beginning with a capital where he had no business to have done so[^[528]]. Generally, there seems to be some principle governing the division of chapter from chapter, even though this be not made as a modern would have made it. But, if so, is there anything extraordinary in the first chapter, which deals with events three generations earlier than those of the body of the poem, being allowed to stand outside the numbering, as a kind of prologue?

The idea of a preface or prologue was quite familiar in Old English times. The oldest MSS[^[529]] of Bede's History have, at the end of the preface, Explicit praefatio incipiunt capitula. So we have in one of the two oldest MSS[^[530]] of the Pastoral Care "Ðis is seo forespræc." On the other hand, the prologue or preface might be left without any heading or colophon, and the next

chapter begin as No. I. This is the case in the other MS of the Pastoral Care[^[531]]. Is there, then, such difficulty in the dissertation on the glory of the ancient Danish kings being treated as what, in fact, it is: a prologue or preface; and being, as such, simply left outside the numbering?

Still less can we argue for the identification of our hero, the son of Ecgtheow, with Frotho, and through him with Beow, from the supposed resemblances between the dragon fights of Beowulf and Frotho. Such resemblances have been divined by Sievers, but we have seen that it is the dissimilarity, not the resemblance, of the two dragon fights which is really noteworthy[^[532]].

To prove that Beow was the original antagonist of Grendel there remains, then, only the mention in the charter of a Grendles mere near a Bēowan hamm[^[533]]. Now this was not known to Kemble at the time when he formed his theory that the original slayer of Grendel was not Beowulf, but Beow. And if the arguments upon which Kemble based his theory had been at all substantial, this charter would have afforded really valuable support. But the fact that two names occur near each other in a charter cannot confirm any theory, unless that theory has already a real basis of its own.

(2) Beow

Therefore, until some further evidence be discovered, we must regard the belief that the Grendel and the dragon stories were originally myths of Beow, as a theory for which sufficient evidence is not forthcoming.

But note where the theory breaks down. It seems indisputable that Beowulf the Dane, son of Scyld Scefing, is identical with Beo(w) of the genealogies: for Beo(w) is son of Scyld[^[534]] or Sce(a)ldwa[^[535]], who is a Scefing. But here we must stop. There is, as we have seen, no evidence that the Grendel or dragon adventures were transferred from him to their present hero,

Beowulf the Geat, son of Ecgtheow. It would, of course, be quite possible to accept such transference, and still to reject the mythological interpretation of these adventures, just as it would be possible to believe that Gawain was originally a sun-hero, whilst rejecting the interpretation as a sun-myth of any particular adventure which could be proved to have been once told concerning Gawain. But I do not think we need even concede, as Boer[^[536]] and Chadwick[^[537]] do, that adventures have been transferred from Beowulf the Dane to Beowulf the Geat. We have seen that there is no evidence for such transference, however intrinsically likely it may be. Till evidence is forthcoming, it is useless to build upon Kemble's conjecture that Beowulf the Scylding sank into Beowulf the Wægmunding[^[538]].

But it is due to Kemble to remember that, while he only put this forward as a tentative conjecture, what he was certain about was the identity of Beowulf the Scylding with Beow, and the divinity of these figures. And here all the evidence seems to justify him.

"The divinity of the earlier Beówulf," Kemble wrote, "I hold for indisputable.... Beo or Beow is ... in all probability a god of agriculture and fertility.... It strengthens this view of the case that he is the grandson of Sceáf, manipulus frumenti, with whom he is perhaps in fact identical[^[539]]."

Whether or no Beow and Sceaf were ever identical, it is certain that Beow (grain) the descendant of Sceaf (sheaf) suggests a corn-myth, some survival from the ancient worship of a corn-spirit.

Now bēow, 'grain, barley,' corresponds to Old Norse bygg, just as, corresponding to O.E. trīewe, we have O.N. tryggr, or corresponding to O.E. glēaw, O.N. glǫggr. Corresponding to the O.E. proper name Bēow, we might expect an O.N. name, the first letters in which would be Bygg(v)-.

And pat he comes, like the catastrophe of the Old Comedy. When Loki strode into the Hall of Ægir, and assailed with clamour and scandal the assembled gods and goddesses, there were present, among the major gods, also Byggvir and his wife

Beyla, the servants of Frey, the god of agriculture and fertility. Loki reviles the gods, one after the other: at last he exchanges reproaches with Frey. To see his lord so taunted is more than Byggvir can endure, and he turns to Loki with the words:

Know thou, that were my race such as is that of Ingunar-Frey, and if I had so goodly a seat, finer than marrow would I grind thee, thou crow of ill-omen, and pound thee all to pieces[^[540]].

Byggvir is evidently no great hero: he draws his ideas from the grinding of the homely hand-mill, with which John Barleycorn has reason to be familiar:

A miller used him worst of all,

For he crushed him between two stones[^[541]].

Loki, who has addressed by name all the other gods, his acquaintances of old, professes not to know who is this insignificant being: but his reference to the hand-mill shows that in reality he knows quite well:

What is that little creature that I see, fawning and sneaking and snuffling: ever wilt thou be at the ears of Frey, and chattering at the quern[^[542]].

Byggvir replies with a dignity which reminds us of the traditional characteristics of Sir John Barleycorn, or Allan O'Maut. For:

Uskie-bae ne'er bure the bell

Sae bald as Allan bure himsel[^[543]].

Byggvir adopts the same comic-heroic pose:

Byggvir am I named, and all gods and men call me hasty; proud am I, by reason that all the children of Odin are drinking ale together[^[544]].

But any claims Byggvir may make to be a hero are promptly dismissed by Loki:

Hold thou silence, Byggvir, for never canst thou share food justly among men: thou didst hide among the straw of the hall: they could not find thee, when men were fighting[^[545]].

Now the taunts of Loki, though we must hope for the credit of Asgard that they are false, are never pointless. And such jibes as Loki addresses to Byggvir would be pointless, if applied to one whom we could think of as in any way like our Beowulf. Later, Beyla, wife of Byggvir, speaks, and is silenced with the words "Hold thy peace—wife thou art of Byggvir." Byggvir must have been a recognized figure of the old mythology[^[546]], but one differing from the monster-slaying Beow of Müllenhoff's imagination.

Byggvir is a little creature (et lítla), and we have seen above[^[547]] that Scandinavian scholars have thought that they have discovered this old god in the Pekko who "promoted the growth of barley" among the Finns in the sixteenth century, and who is still worshipped among the Esthonians on the opposite side of the gulf as a three year old child; the form Pekko being derived, it is supposed, from the primitive Norse form *Beggwuz. This is a corner of a very big subject: the discovery, among the Lapps and Finns, of traces of the heathendom of the most

ancient Teutonic world, just as Thomsen has taught us to find in the Finnish language traces of Teutonic words in their most antique form.

The Lappish field has proved the most successful hunting ground[^[548]]: among the Finns, apart from the Thunder-god, connection with Norse beliefs is arguable mainly for a group of gods of fruitfulness[^[549]]. The cult of these, it is suggested, comes from scattered Scandinavian settlers in Finland, among whom the Finns dwelt, and from whom they learnt the worship of the spirits of the seed and of the spring, just as they learnt more practical lessons. First and foremost among these stands Pekko, whom we know to have been especially the god of barley, and whose connection with Beow or Byggvir (*Beggwuz) is therefore a likely hypothesis enough[^[550]]. Much less certain is the connection of Sämpsä, the spirit of vegetation, with any Germanic prototype; he may have been a god of the rush-grass[^[551]] (Germ. simse). Runkoteivas or Rukotivo was certainly the god of rye, and the temptation to derive his name from Old Norse (rugr-tivorr, "rye-god") is great[^[552]]. But we have not evidence for

the worship among Germanic peoples of such a rye-god, as we have in the case of the barley-god Byggvir-Beow. These shadowy heathen gods, however, do give each other a certain measure of mutual support.

And, whether or no Pekko be the same as Byggvir, his worship is interesting as showing how the spirit of vegetation may be honoured among primitive folk. His worshippers, the Setukese, although nominally members of the Greek Orthodox Church, speak their own dialect and often hardly understand that of their Russian priests, but keep their old epic and lyric traditions more than almost any other section of the Finnish-Esthonian race. Pekko, who was honoured among the Finns in the sixteenth century for "promoting the growth of barley," survives among the present-day peasantry around Pskoff, not only as a spirit to be worshipped, but as an actual idol, fashioned out of wax in the form of a child, sometimes of a three year old child. He lives in the corn-bin, but on certain occasions is carried out into the fields. Not everyone can afford the amount of wax necessary for a Pekko—in fact there is usually only one in a village: he lodges in turn with different members of his circle of worshippers. He holds two moveable feasts, on moonlight nights—one in spring, the other in autumn. The wax figure is brought into a lighted room draped in a sheet, there is feasting, with dancing hand in hand, and singing round Pekko. Then they go out to decide who shall keep Pekko for the next year—his host is entitled to special blessing and protection. Pekko is carried out into the field, especially to preside over the sowing[^[553]].

I doubt whether, in spite of the high authorities which support it, we can as yet feel at all certain about the identification of Beow and Pekko. But I think we can accept with fair certainty the identification of Beow and Byggvir. And we can at any rate use Pekko as a collateral example of the way in which a grain-spirit is regarded. Now in either case we find no support whatever for the supposition that the activities of

Beow, the spirit of the barley, could, or would, have been typified under the guise of battles such as those which Beowulf the Geat wages against Grendel, Grendel's mother, and the dragon. In Beowulf the Geat we find much that suggests the hero of folk-tale, overlaid with much that belongs to him as the hero of an heroic poem, but nothing suggestive of a corn-myth. On the other hand, so long as we confine ourselves to Beow and his ancestor Sceaf, we are in touch with this type of myth, however remotely. The way that Sceaf comes over the sea, as recorded by William of Malmesbury, is characteristic. That "Sheaf" should be, in the language of Müllenhoff, "placed in a boat and committed to the winds and waves in the hope that he will return new-born in the spring" is exactly what we might expect, from the analogy of harvest customs and myths of the coming of spring.

In Sætersdale, in Norway, when the ice broke up in the spring, and was driven ashore, the inhabitants used to welcome it by throwing their hats into the air, and shouting "Welcome, Corn-boat." It was a good omen if the "Corn-boats" were driven high and dry up on the land[^[554]]. The floating of the sheaf on a shield down the Thames at Abingdon[^[555]] reminds us of the Bulgarian custom, in accordance with which the venerated last sheaf of the harvest was floated down the river[^[556]]. But every neighbourhood is not provided with convenient rivers, and in many places the last sheaf is merely drenched with water. This is an essential part of the custom of "crying the neck."

The precise ritual of "crying the neck" or "crying the mare" was confined to the west and south-west of England[^[557]]. But there is no such local limitation about the custom of drenching the

last sheaf, or its bearers and escort, with water. This has been recorded, among other places, at Hitchin in Hertfordshire[^[558]], in Cambridgeshire[^[559]], Nottinghamshire[^[560]], Pembrokeshire[^[561]], Wigtownshire[^[562]] as well as in Holstein[^[563]], Westphalia[^[564]], Prussia[^[565]], Galicia[^[566]], Saxon Transsylvania[^[567]], Roumania[^[568]] and perhaps in ancient Phrygia[^[569]].

Now it is true that drenching the last sheaf with water, as a rain charm, is by no means the same thing as floating it down the river, in the expectation that it will come again in the spring. But it shows the same sense of the continued existence of the corn-spirit. That the seed, when sown, should be sprinkled with water as a rain charm (as is done in places) seems obvious and natural enough. But when the last sheaf of the preceding harvest is thus sprinkled, to ensure plenteous rain upon the crops of next year, we detect the same idea of continuity which we find expressed when Sceaf comes to land from over the sea: the spirit embodied in the sheaf of last year's harvest returning, and bringing the renewed power of vegetation.

The voyage of the Abingdonian sheaf on the Thames was conducted upon a shield, and it may be that the "vessel without a rower" in which "Sheaf" came to land was, in the original version, a shield. There would be precedent for this. The shield was known by the puzzling name of "Ull's ship" in Scaldic poetry, presumably because the god Ull used his shield as a boat. Anyway, Scyld came to be closely connected with Sceaf and Beow. In Ethelwerd he is son of the former and father of the latter: but in the Chronicle genealogies five names intervene between Scyld and Sceaf, and the son of Sceaf is Bedwig, or as he is called in one version, Beowi. Bedwig and Beowi are probably derived from Beowius, the Latinized

form of Beow. A badly formed o might easily be mistaken for a d, and indeed Beowius appears in forms much more corrupt. In that case it would appear that while some genealogies made Beow the son of Scyld, others made him son of Sceaf, and that the compiler of the pedigree got over the difficulty in the usual way, by adding the one version to the other[^[570]].

But all this is very hypothetical; and how and when Scyld came to be connected with Sceaf and with Beow we cannot with any certainty say. At any rate we find no trace of such connection in Danish traditions of the primitive King Skjold of the Danes. But we can say, with some certainty, that in Beowulf the Dane, the son of Scyld Scefing, in our poem, we have a figure which is identical with Beow, son of Scyld or of Sceldwa and descendant of Sceaf, in the genealogies, and that this Beow is likely to have been an ancient corn-spirit, parallel to the Scandinavian Byggvir. That amount of mythology probably does underlie the Prologue to Beowulf, though the author would no doubt have been highly scandalized had he suspected that his pattern of a young prince was only a disguised heathen god. But I think that any further attempt to proceed, from this, to mythologize the deeds of Beowulf the Great, is pure conjecture, and probably quite fruitless conjecture.

I ought not to conclude this note without reference to the admirable discussion of this subject by Prof. Björkman in Englische Studien[^[571]]. This, with the elucidation of other proper names in Beowulf, was destined to be the last big contribution to knowledge made by that ripe and good scholar, whose premature loss we all deplore; and it shows to the full those qualities of wide knowledge and balanced judgment which we have all learnt to admire in him.

B. GRENDEL

It may be helpful to examine the places where the name of Grendel occurs in English charters.

A.D. 708. Grant of land at Abbots Morton, near Alcester, co. Worcester, by Kenred, King of the Mercians, to Evesham (extant in a late copy).

Ǣrest of grindeles pytt on wīðimære; of wīðimære on þæt rēade slōh ... of ðēre dīce on þene blace pōl; of þām pōle æfter long pidele in tō þām mersce; of þām mersce þā æft on grindeles pytt[^[572]].

The valley of the Piddle Brook is about a mile wide, with hills rising on each side till they reach a height of a couple of hundred feet above the brook. The directions begin in the valley and run "From Grindel's 'pytt' to the willow-mere; from the willow-mere to the red morass"; then from the morass the directions take us up the hill and along the lea, where they continue among the downs till we again make our descent into the valley, "from the ditch to the black pool, from the pool along the Piddle brook to the marsh, and from the marsh back to Grindel's 'pytt.'" In modern English a "pit" is an artificial hole which is generally dry: but the word is simply Latin puteus, "a well," and is used in this sense in the Gospel translations. Here it is a hole, and we may be sure that, with the willow-mere and the red slough on the one side, and the black pool and the marsh on the other, the hole was full of water.

A.D. 739. Grant of land at Creedy, co. Devon, by Æthelheard, King of Wessex, to Bishop Forthhere.

of doddan hrycge on grendeles pyt; of grendeles pytte on ifigbearo (ivy-grove)...[^[573]].

The spot is near the junction of the rivers Exe and Creedy, with Dartmoor in the distance. The neighbourhood bears uncanny names, Cāines æcer, egesan trēow. If, as has been suggested by Napier and Stevenson, a trace of this pit still survives in the name Pitt farm, the mere must have been in the uplands, about 600 feet above sea level.

A.D. 931. Grant of land at Ham in Wiltshire by Athelstan to his thane Wulfgar. Quoted above, p. [43]. It is in this charter that on Bēowan hammes hecgan, on Grendles mere[^[574]] occur. "Grendel pits or meres" are in most other cases in low-lying marshy country: but this, like (perhaps) the preceding one, is in the uplands—it must have been a lonely mere among the hills, under Inkpen Beacon.

Circa A.D. 957. A list of boundaries near Battersea[^[575]].

Ðis synd ðā landgemǣre tō Batriceseie. Ǣrst at hēgefre; fram hēgefre to gætenesheale; fram gæteneshæle to gryndeles syllen; fram gryndeles sylle to russemere; fram ryssemere to bælgenham....

All this is low-lying land, just south of the Thames. Hēgefre is on the river; Bælgenham is Balham, co. Surrey. "From Grendel's mire to the rushy mere" harmonizes excellently with what we know of the swampy nature of this district in early times.

A.D. 958. Grant of land at Swinford, on the Stour, co. Stafford, by King Eadred to his thane Burhelm[^[576]].

Ondlong bæces wið neoþan eostacote; ondlong dīces in grendels-mere; of grendels-mere in stāncōfan; of stāncōfan ondlong dūne on stiran mere....

A.D. 972. Confirmation of lands to Pershore Abbey (Worcester) by King Edgar[^[577]].

of Grindles bece swā þæt gemǣre ligð....

A.D. 972. Extract from an account of the descent of lands belonging to Westminster, quoting a grant of King Edgar[^[578]].

andlang hagan to grendeles gatan æfter kincges mearce innan brægentan....

The property described is near Watling Street, between Edgware, Hendon, and the River Brent. It is a low-lying

district almost surrounded by the hills of Hampstead, Highgate, Barnet, Mill Hill, Elstree, Bushey Heath and Harrow. The bottom of the basin thus formed must have been a swamp[^[579]]. What the "gate" may have been it is difficult to say. A foreign scholar has suggested that it may have been a narrow mountain defile or possibly a cave[^[580]]: but this suggestion could never have been made by anyone who knew the country. The "gate" is likely to have been a channel connecting two meres—or it might have been a narrow piece of land between them—one of those enge ānpaðas which Grendel and his mother had to tread. Anyway, there is nothing exceptional in this use of "gate" in connection with a water-spirit. Necker, on the Continent, also had his "gates." Thus there is a "Neckersgate Mill" near Brussels, and the name "Neckersgate" used also to be applied to a group of houses near by, surrounded by water[^[581]].

All the other places clearly point to a water-spirit: two meres, two pits, a mire and a beck: for the most part situated in low-lying country which must in Anglo-Saxon times have been swampy. All this harmonizes excellently with the fenfreoðo of Beowulf (l. 851). Of course it does not in the least follow that these places were named after the Grendel of our poem. It may well be that there was in England a current belief in a creature Grendel, dwelling among the swamps. Von Sydow has compared the Yorkshire belief in Peg Powler, or the Lancashire Jenny Greenteeth. But these aquatic monsters are not exactly parallel; for they abide in the water, and are dangerous only to those who attempt to cross it, or at any rate venture too near the bank[^[582]], whilst Grendel and even his mother are capable of excursions of some distance from their fastness amid the fens.

Of course the mere-haunting Grendel may have been identified only at a comparatively late date with the spirit who struggles with the hero in the house, and flees below the earth in the folk-tale.

At any rate belief in a Grendel, haunting mere and fen, is clearly demonstrable for England—at any rate for the south and west of England: for of these place-names two belong to the London district, one to Wiltshire, one to Devonshire, two to Worcester and one to Stafford. The place-name Grendele in Yorkshire is too doubtful to be of much help. (Domesday Book, I, 302.) It is the modern village Grindale, four miles N.W. of Bridlington. From it, probably, is derived the surname Grindle, Grindall (Bardsley).

Abroad, the nearest parallel is to be found in Transsylvania, where there is a Grändels môr among the Saxons of the Senndorf district, near Bistritz. The Saxons of Transsylvania are supposed to have emigrated from the neighbourhood of the lower Rhine and the Moselle, and there is a Grindelbach in Luxemburg which may possibly be connected with the marsh demon[^[583]].

Most of the German names in Grindel- or Grendel- are connected with grendel, "a bar," and therefore do not come into consideration here[^[584]]: but the Transsylvanian "Grendel's marsh[^[585]]," anyway, reminds us of the English "Grendel's marsh" or "mere" or "pit." Nevertheless, the local story with which the Transsylvanian swamp is connected—that of a peasant who was ploughing with six oxen and was swallowed up in the earth—is such that it requires considerable ingenuity to see any connection between it and the Beowulf-Grendel-tale[^[586]].

The Anglo-Saxon place-names may throw some light upon the meaning and etymology of "Grendel[^[587]]." The name has generally been derived from grindan, "to grind"; either directly[^[588]], because Grendel grinds the bones of those he devours, or indirectly, in the sense of "tormentor[^[589]]." Others would connect with O.N. grindill, "storm," and perhaps with M.E. gryndel, "angry[^[590]]."

It has recently been proposed to connect the word with grund, "bottom": for Grendel lives in the mere-grund or grund-wong and his mother is the grund-wyrgin. Erik Rooth, who proposes this etymology, compares the Icelandic grandi, "a sandbank," and the common Low German dialect word grand, "coarse sand[^[591]]." This brings us back to the root "to grind," for grand, "sand" is simply the product of the grinding of the waves[^[592]]. Indeed the same explanation has been given of the word "ground[^[593]]."

However this may be, the new etymology differs from the old in giving Grendel a name derived, not from his grinding or tormenting others, but from his dwelling at the bottom of the lake or marsh[^[594]]. The name would have a parallel in the Modern English grindle, grundel, German grundel[^[595]], a fish haunting the bottom of the water.

The Old English place-names, associating Grendel as they do with meres and swamps, seem rather to support this.

As to the Devonshire stream Grendel (now the Grindle or Greendale Brook), it has been suggested that this name is also

connected with the root grand, "gravel," "sand." But, so far as I have been able to observe, there is no particular suggestion of sand or gravel about this modest little brook. If we follow the River Clyst from the point where the Grindle flows into it, through two miles of marshy land, to the estuary of the Exe, we shall there find plenty. But it is clear from the charter of 963 that the name was then, as now, restricted to the small brook. I cannot tell why the stream should bear the name, or what, if any, is the connection with the monster Grendel. We can only note that the name is again found attached to water, and, near the junction with the Clyst, to marshy ground.

Anyone who will hunt Grendel through the shires, first on the 6-in. ordnance map, and later on foot, will probably have to agree with the Three Jovial Huntsmen

This huntin' doesn't pay,

But we'n powler't up an' down a bit, an' had a rattlin' day.

But, if some conclusions, although scanty, can be drawn from place-names in which the word grendel occurs, nothing can be got from the numerous place-names which have been thought to contain the name Bēow. The clearest of these is the on Bēowan hammes hecgan, which occurs in the Wiltshire charter of 931. But we can learn nothing definite from it: and although there are other instances of strong and weak forms alternating, we cannot even be quite certain that the Beowa here is identical with the Beow of the genealogies[^[596]].

The other cases, many of which occur in Domesday Book are worthless. Those which point to a weak form may often be derived from the weak noun bēo, "bee": "The Anglo-Saxons set great store by their bees, honey and wax being indispensables to them[^[597]]."

Bēas brōc, Bēas feld (Bewes feld) occur in charters: but here a connection with bēaw, "horsefly," is possible: for parallels, one has only to consider the long list of places enumerated by Björkman, the names of which are derived from those of beasts,

birds, or insects[^[598]]. And in such a word as Bēolēah, even if the first element be bēow, why may it not be the common noun "barley," and not the name of the hero at all?

No argument can therefore be drawn from such a conjecture as that of Olrik, that Bēas brōc refers to the water into which the last sheaf (representing Beow) was thrown, in accordance with the harvest custom, and in the expectation of the return of the spirit in the coming spring[^[599]].

C. THE STAGES ABOVE WODEN IN THE WEST-SAXON GENEALOGY

The problems to which this pedigree gives rise are very numerous, and some have been discussed above. There are four which seem to need further discussion.

(I) A "Sceafa" occurs in Widsith as ruling over the Longobards. Of course we cannot be certain that this hero is identical with the Sceaf of the genealogy. Now there is no one in the long list of historic or semi-historic Longobard kings, ruling after the tribe had left Scandinavia, who bears a name at all similar. It seems therefore reasonable to suppose that Sceafa, if he is a genuine Longobard king at all, belongs to the primitive times when the Longobardi or Winnili dwelt in "Scadan," before the historic or semi-historic times with which our extant list deals. And Old English accounts, although making Sceaf an ancestor of the Saxon kings, are unanimous in connecting him with Scani or Scandza.

Some scholars[^[600]] have seen a serious difficulty in the weak form "Sceafa," as compared with "Sceaf." But we have the exactly parallel cases of Horsa[^[601]] compared with Hors[^[602]], and Hrǣdla[^[603]] compared with Hrǣdel[^[604]], Hrēðel. Parallel, but not quite so certain, are Sceldwa[^[605]] and Scyld[^[606]], Gēata[^[607]] and Gēat[^[608]], Bēowa[^[609]] and Bēaw, Bēo(w)[^[610]].

I do not think it has ever been doubted that the forms Hors and Horsa, or Hrēðel and Hrǣdla, relate to one and the same person. Prof. Chadwick seems to have little or no doubt as to the identity of Scyld and Sceldwa[^[611]], or Bēo and Bēowa[^[612]]. Why then should the identity of Scēaf and Scēafa be denied because one form is strong and the other weak[^[613]]? We cannot demonstrate the identity of the figure in the genealogies with the figure in Widsith; but little difficulty is occasioned by the weak form.

(II) Secondly, the absence of the name Scēaf from the oldest MS of the Chronicle (the Parker MS, C.C.C.C. 173) has been made the ground for suggesting that when that MS was written (c. 892) Sceaf had not yet been invented (Möller, Volksepos, 43; Symons in Pauls Grdr. (2), III, 645; Napier, as quoted by Clarke, Sidelights, 125). But Sceaf, and the other names which are omitted from the Parker MS, are found in the other MSS of the Chronicle and the allied pedigrees, which are known to be derived independently from one and the same original. Now, unless the names were older than the Parker MS, they could not appear in so many independent transcripts. For, even though these transcripts are individually later, their agreement takes us back to a period earlier than that of the Parker MS itself[^[614]].

An examination of the different versions of the genealogy, given on pp. [202]-3, above, and of the tree showing the connection between them, on p. [315], will, I think, make this clear.

The versions of the pedigree given in the Parker MS of the Chronicle, in Asser and in Textus Roffensis I, all contain the stages Friþuwald and Friþuwulf. Asser and Roff. I are connected by the note about Gēata: but Roff. I is not derived from that text of Asser which has come down to us, as that

text has corrupted Fin and Godwulf into one name and has substituted Seth for Scēaf ["Seth, Saxonice Sceaf": Florence of Worcester]. Roff. I is free from both these corruptions.

Ethelwerd is obviously connected with a type of genealogy giving the stages Friþuwald and Friþuwulf, but differs from all the others in giving no stages between Scyld and Scēf.

None of the other versions contain the names Friþuwald and Friþuwulf. They are closely parallel, but fall into groups showing special peculiarities.

MSS Tib. A. VI and Tib. B. I of the Chronicle show only trifling differences of spelling. The MSS belong respectively to about the years 1000 and 1050, and are both derived from an Abingdon original of about 977[^[615]].

MS Cott. Tib. B. IV is derived from a copy of the Chronicle sent North about 892[^[616]].

MS Cott. Tib. B. V and Textus Roffensis II are closely connected, but neither is derived from the other. For Roff. II preserves Teþwa and Hwāla, who are lost in Tib. B. V; Tib. B. V preserves Iterman, who is corrupted in Roff. II. Both Tib. B. V and Roff. II carry the pedigree down to Edgar, mentioning his three sons Ēadweard and Ēadmund and Æþelred æðelingas syndon Ēadgāres suna cyninges. The original therefore apparently belongs to some date before 970, when Edmund died (cf. Stevenson's Asser, 158, note).

Common features of MS Cott. Tib. B. V and Roff. II are (1) Eat(a) for Geat(a), (2) the omission of d from Scealdwa, and (3) the expression se Scēf, "this Scef." Features (1) and (3) are copied in the Icelandic pedigrees. Scealdwa is given correctly there, but the Icelandic transcriber could easily have got it from Scealdwaging above. The Icelandic was, then, ultimately derived either from Tib. B. V or from a version so closely connected as not to be worth distinguishing.

Accordingly Cott. Tib. B. V, Textus Roffensis II, Langfeðgatal and Flateyarbók form one group, pointing to an archetype c. 970.

The pedigrees can accordingly be grouped on the system shown on the opposite page[^[617]].

(III) Prof. Chadwick, in his Origin of the English Nation, draws wide deductions from the fact that the Danes traced the pedigree of their kings back to Skjold, whilst the West-Saxons included Sceldwa (Scyld) in their royal pedigree:

"Since the Angli and the Danes claimed descent from the same ancestor, there can be no doubt that the bond was believed to be one of blood[^[618]]."

This belief, Prof. Chadwick thinks, went back to exceedingly early times[^[619]], and he regards it as well-founded:

"It is true that the Angli of Britain seem never to have included themselves among the Danes, but the reason for this may be that the term Dene (Danir) had not come into use as a collective term before the invasion of Britain[^[620]]."

Doubtless the fact that the name of a Danish king Scyld or Sceldwa is found in a pedigree of West-Saxon kings, as drawn up at a period certainly not later than 892, points to a belief, at that date, in some kind of a connection. But we have still to ask: How close was the connection supposed to be? And how old is the belief?

Firstly as to the closeness of the connection. Finn also occurs in the pedigree—possibly the Frisian king: Sceaf occurs, possibly, though not certainly, a Longobard king. Noah and Adam occur; are we therefore to suppose that the compiler of the Genealogy believed his kings to be of one blood with the Hebrews? Certainly he did: but only remotely, as common descendants of Noah. And the occurrence of Sceldwa and Sceaf and Finn in the genealogies—granting the identity of these heroes with Skjold of the Danes, Sceafa of the Longobards and Finn of the Frisians, might only prove that the genealogist believed in their common (Germanic) race.

Secondly, how old is the belief? The Anglian genealogies (Northumbrian, Mercian and East Anglian), as reproduced in the Historia Brittonum and in the Vespasian MS, form part of what is doubtless, as is said above, the oldest extant English historical document. But in this document there is no mention of Scyld. Indeed, it contains no pedigree of the West-Saxon kings at all. From whatever cause, the West-Saxon genealogy is not extant from so early a date as are the pedigrees of the Northumbrian, Mercian, East Anglian and Kentish kings[^[621]]. Still, this may well be a mere accident, and I am not prepared to dispute that the pedigree which traces the West-Saxon kings to Woden dates back, like the other genealogies connecting Old English kings with Woden, to primitive and heathen times. Now the West-Saxon pedigree is found in many forms: some which trace the royal house only to Woden, and some which go beyond Woden and contain a list of names by which Woden is connected with Sceaf, and then with Noah and Adam.

(1) The nucleus of the whole pedigree is to be found in the names between Cynric or Cerdic and Woden. These occur in every version. The pedigree in this, its simplest form, is found twice among the entries in the Chronicle which deal with the events of heathen times, under 552 and 597. These names fall into verse:

[Cynrīc Cerdicing], Cerdic Elesing,

Elesa Esling, Esla GiWising,

GiWis Wīging, Wīg Frēawining,

Frēawine Friðugāring, Friðugār Bronding,

Brond Bǣldæging, Bǣldæg Wōdening.

Like the mnemonic lists in Widsith, these lines are probably very old. Their object is clearly to connect the founder of the West-Saxon royal house with Woden. Note, that not only do the names alliterate, but the alliteration is perfect. Every line attains double alliteration in the first half, with one alliterating word only in the second half. The lines must go back to times when lists of royal ancestors, both real and imaginary, had to

be arranged in correct verse; times when such things were recorded by memory rather than by writing. They are pre-literary, and were doubtless chanted by retainers of the West-Saxon kings in heathen days.

(2) An expanded form of this genealogy occurs in MSS C.C.C.C. 183 and Cotton Tib. B. V. Woden is here furnished with a father Frealaf. We know nothing of any Frealaf as father of the All-Father in heathen days, though Frealaf is found in this capacity in other genealogies written down in the ages after the conversion. Frealaf breaks the correct alliterative system. In both MSS the pedigree is brought down to King Ine (688-726): both MSS are ultimately, no doubt, derived from a list current in the time of that king, that is to say less than a century after the conversion of Wessex.

(3) A further expansion, which Prof. Napier has held on linguistic grounds[^[622]] to have been written down as early as 750, is incorporated in a genealogical and chronological note regarding the West-Saxon kings, which is extant in many MSS[^[623]]. In its present form this genealogical note is a recension, under Alfred, of a document coming down to the death of his father Æthelwulf. It traces the pedigree of Æthelwulf to Cerdic, but it keeps this district from the rhythmical nucleus, in which it traces Cerdic to Woden, and no further.

(4) Then, in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, under the year 855, the pedigree is given in its most elaborate form. There the genealogy of Æthelwulf is traced in one unbroken series, not merely through Cerdic to Woden, but from Woden through a long line of Woden's ancestors, including Frealaf, Geat, Sceldwa and Sceaf, to Noah and Adam.

It has been noted above[^[624]] that none of the Chronicle pedigrees

stop at Sceaf. The Chronicle, in the stages above Woden, recognizes as stopping places only Geat (Northumbrian pedigree, anno 547) or Adam (West-Saxon pedigree, anno 855).

(5) The Chronicle of Ethelwerd (c. 1000) does, however, stop at Scef[^[625]]. Now it has been argued that Ethelwerd's pedigree is merely abbreviated from the pedigree in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle under 855, and that, in making Scef the final stage, and in what he tells us about that hero, Ethelwerd is merely adapting what he had read in Beowulf about Scyld[^[626]]. But this seems hardly possible. Ethelwerd, it is true, borrows most of his facts from the Chronicle, from Bede, and other known sources: but there are some passages which show that he had access to a source now lost. Ethelwerd was a member of the West-Saxon royal house, and he wrote his Chronicle for a kinswoman, Matilda, in order, as he says, to explain their common stock and race. They were both descended from Æthelwulf, the chronicler being great-great-grandson of Æthelred, and the lady to whom he dedicates his work being great-great-granddaughter of Alfred. So he writes to tell "who and whence were their kin, so far as memory adduces, and our parents have taught us." Accordingly, though he begins his Chronicle with the Creation, the bulk of it is devoted to the deeds of his or Matilda's ancestors. Is it credible that he would have cut out all the stages in their common pedigree between Scyld and Scef, that he would have sacrificed all the ancestors of Scef, thus severing relations with Noah and Adam, and that he would have attributed to Scef the story which in Beowulf is attributed to Scyld, all this simply in order to bring his English pedigree into some harmony with what is told about the Danish pedigree in Beowulf—a poem of which we have no evidence that he had ever heard?

To suppose him to have done this, is to make him sacrifice, without any reason, just that part of the pedigree in the Chronicle under 855 which, from all we know of Ethelwerd, was most likely to have interested him: that which connected his race with Noah and Adam. Further, it is to suppose him to have reproduced just those stages in the pedigree which on critical

grounds modern scholars can show to be the oldest, and to have modified or rejected just those which on critical grounds modern scholars can show to be later accretion. When Brandl supposes Ethelwerd to have produced his pedigree by comparing together merely the materials which have come down to us to-day, namely Beowulf and the Chronicle, he is, in reality, attributing to him the mind and acumen of a modern critic. An Anglo-Saxon alderman could only have detected and rejected the additions by using some material which has not come down to us. What more natural than that Ethelwerd, who writes as the historian of the West-Saxon royal family, should have known of a family pedigree which traced the line up to Sceaf and his arrival in the boat, and that he should have (rightly) thought this to be more authoritative than the pedigree in the Chronicle under the year 855, which had been expanded from it? Prof. Chadwick, it seems to me, is here quite justified in holding that Ethelwerd had "acquired the genealogy from some unknown source, in a more primitive form than that contained in the Chronicle[^[627]]."

But, because the source of Ethelwerd's pedigree is more primitive than that contained in the Chronicle under the year 855, it does not follow that it goes back to heathen times. Wessex had been converted more than two centuries earlier.

We are now in a position to make some estimate of the antiquity of Scyld and Sceaf in the West-Saxon pedigree. The nucleus of this pedigree is to be found in the verses connecting Cynric and Cerdic with Woden. (Even as late as Æthelwulf and Alfred this nucleus is often kept distinct from the later, more historic stages connecting Cerdic with living men.) Pedigrees of other royal houses go to Woden, and many stop there; however, in times comparatively early, but yet Christian, we find Woden provided with five ancestors: later, Ethelwerd gives him ten: the Chronicle gives him twenty-five. It is evidently a process of accumulation.

Now, if the name of Scyld had occurred in the portion of the pedigree which traces the West-Saxon kings up to Woden,

it would possess sufficient authority to form the basis of an argument. But Scyld, like Heremod, Beaw and Sceaf, occurs in the fantastic development of the pedigree, by which Woden is connected up with Adam and Noah. The fact that these heroes occur above Woden makes it almost incredible that their position in the pedigree can go back to heathen times. Those who believed in Woden as a god can hardly have believed at the same time that he was a descendant of the Danish king Scyld. This difficulty Prof. Chadwick admits: "It is difficult to believe that in heathen times Woden was credited with five generations of ancestors, as in the Frealaf-Geat list." Still less is it credible that he was credited with 25 generations of ancestors, as in the Frealaf-Geat-Sceldwa-Sceaf-Noe-Adam list.

The obvious conclusion seems to me to be that the names above Woden were added in Christian times to the original list, which in heathen times only went back to Woden, and which is still extant in this form. A Christian, rationalizing Woden as a human magician, would have no difficulty in placing him far down the ages, just as Saxo Grammaticus does[^[628]]. Obviously Noe-Adam must be an addition of Christian times, and the same seems to me to apply to all the other names above Woden, which, though ancient and Germanic, are not therefore ancient and Germanic in the capacity of ancestors of Woden.

And even if these extraordinary ancestors of Woden were really believed in in heathen times, they cannot have been regarded as the special property of any one nation. For it was never claimed that the West-Saxon kings had any unique distinction in tracing their ancestry to Woden, such as would give them a special claim upon Woden's forefathers. How then can the ancient belief (if indeed it were an ancient belief) that Woden was descended from Scyld, King of Denmark, prove that the Anglo-Saxons regarded themselves as specially related to the Danes? For any such relationship derived through Woden must have been shared by all descendants of the All-Father.

Prof. Chadwick avoids this difficulty by supposing that Woden did not originally occur in the pedigree, but is a later

insertion[^[629]]. But how can this be so when, of the two forms in which the West-Saxon pedigree appears, one (and, so far as our evidence goes, much the older one) traces the kings to Woden and stops there. The object of this pedigree is to connect the West-Saxon kings with Woden. The expanded pedigrees, which carry on the line still further, from Woden to Sceldwa, Sceaf and Adam, though very numerous, are all traceable to one, or at most two, sources. It is surely not the right method to regard Woden as an interpolation (though he occurs in that portion of the pedigree which is common to all versions, some of which we can probably trace back to primitive times), and to regard as the original element Scyld and Sceaf (though they form part of the continuation of the pedigree found only in, at most, two families of MSS which we cannot trace back beyond the ninth century).

Besides, there is the strongest external support for Woden in the very place which he occupies in the West-Saxon pedigree. That pedigree is traced in all its texts up to one Baldæg and his father Woden. Those texts which further give Woden's ancestry make him a descendant of Frealaf—they generally make Woden son of Frealaf, though some texts insert an intermediate Frithuwald.

Now the very ancient Northumbrian pedigree also goes up, by a different route, to "Beldæg," and gives him Woden for a father. In some versions (e.g. the Historia Brittonum) the Northumbrian pedigree stops there: in others (e.g. the Vespasian MS) Woden has a father Frealaf. How then can it be argued, contrary to the unanimous evidence of all the dozen or more MSS of the West-Saxon pedigree, that Woden, standing as he does between his proper father and his proper son, is an interpolation? There is no evidence whatsoever to support such an argument, and everything to disprove it.

The fact that Sceaf, Sceldwa and Beaw occur above Woden, that some versions of the pedigree stop at Woden, and that in heathen times presumably all must have stopped when they reached the All-Father, seems to me a fatal argument—not against the antiquity of the legends of Sceaf, Sceldwa, and

Beaw, but against the antiquity of these characters in the capacity (given to them in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) of ancestors of the West-Saxon kings, and against the vast deduction concerning the origin of the English nation which Prof. Chadwick draws from this supposed antiquity.

(IV) Precisely the same argument—that Sceaf, Sceldwa and Beaw are found above Woden in the pedigree of the English kings, and are not likely to have occupied that place in primitive heathen times, is fatal to the attempt to draw from this pedigree any argument that the myths of these heroes were specially and exclusively Anglo-Saxon. The argument of Müllenhoff and other scholars for an ancient, purely Anglo-Saxon Beowa-myth[^[630]] falls, therefore, to the ground.

D. EVIDENCE FOR THE DATE OF BEOWULF. THE RELATION OF BEOWULF TO THE CLASSICAL EPIC

A few years ago there was a tendency to exaggerate the value of grammatical forms in fixing the date of Old English poetry, and attempts were made to arrange Old English poems in a chronological series, according to the exact percentage of "early" to "late" forms in each. There has now been a natural reaction against the assumption that, granting certain forms to be archaic, these would necessarily be found in a percentage diminishing exactly according to the dates of composition of the various poems in which they occur. The reaction has now gone to the other extreme, and grammatical facts are in danger of being regarded as not being "in any way valid or helpful indications of dates[^[631]]."

Schücking[^[632]], in an elaborate recent monograph on the date of Beowulf, rejects the grammatical evidence as valueless, and proceeds to date the poem about two centuries later than has usually been held, placing its composition at the court of some christianized Scandinavian monarch in England, about 900 A.D.

But it surely does not follow that, because grammatical data have been misused, therefore no use can be made of them. And, if Beowulf was composed about the year 900, from stories current among the Viking settlers, how are we to account for the fact that the proper names in Beowulf are given, not in the Scandinavian forms of the Viking age, nor in corruptions of such forms, but in the correct English forms which we should expect, according to English sound laws, if the names had been brought over in the sixth century, and handed down traditionally[^[633]]?

For example, King Hygelac no doubt called himself Hugilaikaz. The Chochilaicus of Gregory of Tours is a good—if uncouth—shot at reproducing this name. The name became, in Norse, Hugleikr and in Danish Huglek (Hugletus in Saxo): traditional kings so named are recorded, though it is difficult to find that they have anything in common with the King Hygelac in Beowulf[^[634]]. Had the name been introduced into England in Viking times, we should expect the Scandinavian form, not Hygelāc[^[635]].

Even in the rare cases where the character in Beowulf and his Scandinavian equivalent bear names which are not phonologically identical, the difference does not point to any corruption such as might have arisen from borrowing in Viking days[^[636]]. We have only to contrast the way in which the names of Viking chiefs are recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, to be convinced that the Scandinavian stories recorded in Beowulf are due to contact during the age when Britain was being conquered, not during the Viking period three or four centuries later[^[637]].

And the arguments from literary and political history, which Schücking adduces to prove his late date, seem to me to point in exactly the opposite direction, and to confirm the orthodox view which would place Beowulf nearer 700 than 900.

Schücking urges that, however highly we estimate the civilizing effect of Christianity, it was only in the second half of the seventh century that England was thoroughly permeated by the new faith. Can we expect already, at the beginning of the eighth century, a courtly work, showing, as does Beowulf, such wonderful examples of tact, modesty, unselfishness and magnanimity? And this at the time when King Ceolwulf was forced by his rebellious subjects to take the cowl. For Schücking[^[638]], following Hodgkin[^[639]], reminds us how, in the eighth century, out of 15 Northumbrian kings, five were dethroned, five murdered; two abdicated, and only three held the crown to their death; and how at the end of the century Charlemagne called the Northumbrian Angles "a perfidious and perverse nation, murderers of their lords."

But surely, at the base of all this argument, lies the same assumption which, as Schücking rightly holds, vitiates so many of the grammatical arguments; the assumption that development must necessarily be in steady and progressive proportion. We may take Penda as a type of the unreclaimed heathen, and Edward the Confessor of the chaste and saintly churchman; but Anglo-Saxon history was by no means a development in steady progression, of diminishing percentages of ruffianism and increasing percentages of saintship.

The knowledge of, and interest in, heathen custom shown in Beowulf, such as the vivid accounts of cremation, would lead us to place it as near heathen times as other data will allow. So much must be granted to the argument of Prof. Chadwick[^[640]]. But the Christian tone, so far from leading us to place Beowulf late, would also lead us to place it near the time of the conversion. For it is precisely in these times just after the conversion, that we get the most striking instances in all Old English history of that "tact, modesty, generosity, and magnanimity" which Schücking rightly regards as characteristic of Beowulf.

King Oswin (who was slain in 651) was, Bede tells us, handsome, courteous of speech and bearing, bountiful both to great

and lowly, beloved of all men for his qualities of mind and body, so that noblemen came from all over England to enter his service—yet of all his endowments gentleness and humility were the chief. We cannot read the description without being reminded of the words of the thegns in praise of the dead Beowulf. Indeed, I doubt if Beowulf would have carried gentleness to those around him quite so far as did Oswin. For Oswin had given to Bishop Aidan an exceptionally fine horse—and Aidan gave it to a beggar who asked alms. The king's mild suggestion that a horse of less value would have been good enough for the beggar, and that the bishop needed a good horse for his own use, drew from the saint the stern question "Is that son of a mare dearer to thee than the Son of God?" The king, who had come from hunting, stood warming himself at the fire, thinking over what had passed; then he suddenly ungirt his sword, gave it to his squire, and throwing himself at the feet of the bishop, promised never again to grudge anything he might give in his charities.

Of course such conduct was exceptional in seventh century Northumbria—it convinced Aidan that the king was too good to live long, as indeed proved to be the case. But it shows that the ideals of courtesy and gentleness shown in Beowulf were by no means beyond the possibility of attainment—were indeed surpassed by a seventh century king. I do not know if they could be so easily paralleled in later Old English times.

And what is true from the point of view of morals is true equally from that of art and learning. In spite of the misfortunes of Northumbrian kings in the eighth century, the first third of that century was "the Golden Age of Anglo-Saxon England[^[641]]." And not unnaturally, for it had been preceded by half a century during which Northumbria had been free both from internal strife and from invasion. The empire won by Oswiu over Picts and Scots in the North had been lost at the battle of Nectansmere: but that battle had been followed by the twenty years reign of the learned Aldfrid, whose scholarship did not prevent him from nobly retrieving the state of the kingdom[^[642]], though he could not recover the lost dominions.

Now, whatever we may think of Beowulf as poetry, it is remarkable for its conscious and deliberate art, and for the tone of civilization which pervades it. And this half century was distinguished, above any other period of Old English history, precisely for its art and its civilization. Four and a half centuries later, when the works of great Norman master builders were rising everywhere in the land, the buildings which Bishop Wilfrid had put up during this first period of conversion were still objects of admiration, even for those who had seen the glories of the great Roman basilicas[^[643]].

Nor is there anything surprising in the fact that this "golden age" was not maintained. On the contrary, it is "in accordance with the phenomena of Saxon history in general, in which seasons of brilliant promise are succeeded by long eras of national eclipse. It is from this point of view quite in accordance with natural likelihood that the age of conversion was one of such stimulus to the artistic powers of the people that a level of effort and achievement was reached which subsequent generations were not able to maintain. The carved crosses and the coins certainly degenerate in artistic value as the centuries pass away, and the fine barbaric gold and encrusted work is early in date[^[644]]."

Already in the early part of the eighth century signs of decay are to be observed. At the end of his Ecclesiastical History, Bede complains that the times are so full of disturbance that one knows not what to say, or what the end will be. And these fears were justified. A hundred and forty years of turmoil and decay follow, till the civilization of the North and the Midlands was overthrown by the Danes, and York became the uneasy seat of a heathen jarl.

How it should be possible to see in these facts, as contrasted with the Christian and civilized tone of Beowulf, any argument for late date, I cannot see. On the contrary, because of its Christian civilization combined with its still vivid, if perhaps not always quite exact, recollection of heathen customs, we should be inclined to put Beowulf in the early Christian ages.

A further argument put forward for this late date is the old one that the Scandinavian sympathies of Beowulf show it to have been composed for a Scandinavian court, the court, Schücking thinks, of one of the princes who ruled over those portions of England which the Danes had settled[^[645]]. Of course Schücking is too sound a scholar to revive at this time of day the old fallacy that the Anglo-Saxons ought to have taken no interest in the deeds of any but Anglo-Saxon heroes. But how, he asks, are we to account for such enthusiasm for, such a burning interest in, a people of alien dialect and foreign dynasty, such as the Scyldings of Denmark?

The answer seems to me to be that the enthusiasm of Beowulf is not for the Danish nation as such: on the contrary, Beowulf depicts a situation which is most humiliating to the Danes. For twelve years they have suffered the depredations of Grendel; Hrothgar and his kin have proved helpless: all the Danes have been unequal to the need. Twice at least this is emphasized in the most uncompromising, and indeed insulting, way[^[646]]. The poet's enthusiasm is not, then, for the Danish race as such, but for the ideal of a great court with its body of retainers. Such retainers are not necessarily native born—rather is it the mark of the great court that it draws men from far and wide to enter the service, whether permanently or temporarily, even as Beowulf came from afar to help the aged Hrothgar in his need.

It is this ideal of personal valour and personal loyalty, rather than of tribal patriotism, which pervades Beowulf, and which certainly suits the known facts of the seventh and early eighth centuries. The bitterest strife in England in the seventh century had been between the two quite new states of Northumbria and Mercia, both equally of Anglian race. Both these states had been built up by a combination of smaller units, and not without violating the old local patriotisms of the diverse elements from which they had been formed. At first, at any rate, no such thing as Northumbrian or Mercian patriotism can have existed. Loyalty was personal, to the king. Neither the kingdom nor the comitatus was homogeneous. We have seen

that Bede mentions it as a peculiar honour to a Northumbrian prince that from all parts of England nobles came to enter his service. We must not demand from the seventh or eighth century our ideals of exclusive enthusiasm for the land of one's birth, ideals which make it disreputable for a "mercenary" to sell his sword. The ideal is, on the contrary, loyalty to a prince whose service a warrior voluntarily enters. And the Danish court is depicted as a pattern of such loyalty—before the Scyldings began to work evil[^[647]], by the treason of Hrothulf.

Further, the fact that the Danish court at Leire had been a heathen one might be matter for regret, but it would not prevent its being praised by an Englishman about 700. For England was then entirely Christian. In the process of conversion no single Christian had, so far as we know, been martyred. There had been no war of religion. If Penda had fought against Oswald, it had been as the king of Mercia against the king of Northumbria. Penda's allies were Christian, and he showed no antipathy to the new faith[^[648]]. So that at this date there was no reason for men to feel any deep hostility towards a heathendom which had been the faith of their grandfathers, and with which there had never been any embittered conflict.

But in 900 the position was quite different. For more than a generation the country had been engaged in a life-and-death struggle between two warring camps, the "Christian men" and the "heathen men." The "heathen men" were in process of conversion, but were liable to be ever recruited afresh from beyond the sea. It seems highly unlikely that Beowulf could have been written at this date, by some English poet, for the court of a converted Scandinavian prince, with a view perhaps, as Schücking suggests, to educating his children in the English speech. In such a case the one thing likely to be avoided by the English poet, with more than two centuries of Christianity behind him, would surely have been the praise of that Scandinavian heathendom, from which his patron had freed himself, and from which his children were to be weaned. The martyrdom of S. Edmund might have seemed a more appropriate theme[^[649]].

The tolerant attitude towards heathen customs, and the almost antiquarian interest in them, very justly, as it seems to me, emphasized by Schücking[^[650]], is surely far more possible in a.d. 700 than in A.D. 900. For between those dates heathendom had ceased to be an antiquarian curiosity, and had become an imminent peril.

If those are right who hold that Beowulf is no purely native growth, but shows influence of the classical epic, then again it is easier to credit such influence about the year 700 than 900. At the earlier date we have scholars like Aldhelm and Bede, both well acquainted with Virgil, yet both interested in vernacular verse. It has been urged, as a reductio ad absurdum of the view which would connect Beowulf with Virgil, that the relation to the Odyssey is more obvious than that to the Æneid. Perhaps, however, some remote and indirect connection even between Beowulf and the Odyssey is not altogether unthinkable, about the year 700. At the end of the seventh century there was a flourishing school of Greek learning in England, under Hadrian and the Greek Archbishop Theodore, both "well read in sacred and in secular literature." In 730 their scholars were still alive, and, Bede tells us, could speak Greek and Latin as correctly as their native tongue. Bede himself knew something about the Iliad and the Odyssey. Not till eight centuries have passed, and we reach Grocyn and Linacre, was it again to be as easy for an Englishman to have a first-hand knowledge of a Greek classic as it was about the year 700. What scholarship had sunk to by the days of Alfred, we know: and we know that all Alfred's patronage did not produce any scholar whom we can think of as in the least degree comparable to Bede.

So that from the point of view of its close touch with heathendom, its tolerance for heathen customs, its Christian magnanimity and gentleness, its conscious art, and its learned tone, all historic and artistic analogy would lead us to place Beowulf in the great age—the age of Bede.

This has brought us to another question—more interesting to many than the mere question of date. Are we to suppose

any direct connection between the classical and the Old English epic?

As nations pass through their "Heroic Age," similar social conditions will necessarily be reflected by many similarities in their poetry. In heroic lays like Finnsburg or Hildebrand or the Norse poems, phrases and situations may occur which remind us of phrases and situations in the Iliad, without affording any ground for supposing classical influence direct or indirect.

But there is much more in Beowulf than mere accidental coincidence of phrase or situation.

A simple-minded romancer would have made the Æneid a biography of Æneas from the cradle to the grave. Not so Virgil. The story begins with mention of Carthage. Æneas then comes on the scene. At a banquet he tells to Dido his earlier adventures. Just so Beowulf begins, not with the birth of Beowulf and his boyhood, but with Heorot. Beowulf arrives. At the banquet, in reply to Unferth, he narrates his earlier adventures. The Beowulf-poet is not content merely to tell us that there was minstrelsy at the feast, but like Virgil or Homer, he must give an account of what was sung. The epic style leads often to almost verbal similarities. Jupiter consoling Hercules for the loss of the son of his host says:

stat sua cuique dies, breve et inreparabile tempus

omnibus est vitae; sed famam extendere factis

hoc virtutis opus[^[651]].

In the same spirit and almost in the same words does Beowulf console Hrothgar for the loss of his friend:

Ūre ǣghwylc sceal ende gebīdan

worolde līfes; wyrce sē þe mōte

dōmes ǣr dēaþe; þæt biþ drihtguman

unlifgendum æfter sēlest.

On the other hand, though we are often struck by the likeness in spirit and in plan, it must be allowed that there is no tangible or conclusive proof of borrowing[^[652]]. But the influence may have been none the less effective for being indirect: nor is

it quite certain that the author, had he known his Virgil, would necessarily have left traces of direct borrowing. For the deep Christian feeling, which has given to Beowulf its almost prudish propriety and its edifying tone, is manifested by no direct and dogmatic reference to Christian personages or doctrines.

I sympathize with Prof. Chadwick's feeling that a man who knew Virgil would not have disguised his knowledge, and would probably have lacked both inclination and ability to compose such a poem as Beowulf[^[653]]. But does not this feeling rest largely upon the analogy of other races and ages? Is it borne out by such known facts as we can gather about this period? The reticence of Beowulf with reference to Christianity does not harmonize with one's preconceived ideas; and Bishop Aldhelm gives us an even greater surprise. Let anyone read, or try to read, Aldhelm's Epistola ad Acircium, sive liber de septenario et de metris. Let him then ask himself "Is it possible that this learned pedant can also have been the author of English poems which King Alfred—surely no mean judge—thought best of all he knew?" These poems may of course have been educated and learned in tone. But we have the authority of King Alfred for the fact that Aldhelm used to perform at the cross roads as a common minstrel, and that he could hold his audiences with such success that they resorted to him again and again[^[654]]. Only after he had made himself popular by several performances did he attempt to weave edifying matter into his verse. And the popular, secular poetry of Aldhelm, his carmen triviale, remained current among the common people for centuries. Nor was Aldhelm's classical knowledge of late growth, something superimposed upon an earlier love of popular poetry, for he had

studied under Hadrian as a boy[^[655]]. Later we are told that King Ine imported two Greek teachers from Athens for the help of Aldhelm and his school[^[656]]; this may be exaggeration.

Everything seems to show that about 700 an atmosphere existed in England which might easily have led a scholarly Englishman, acquainted with the old lays, to have set to work to compose an epic. Even so venerable a person as Bede, during his last illness, uttered his last teaching not, as we should expect on a priori grounds, in Latin hexameters, but in English metre. The evidence for this is conclusive[^[657]]. But, at a later date, Alcuin would surely have condemned the minstrelsy of Aldhelm[^[658]]. Even King Alfred seems to have felt that it needed some apology. It would have rendered Aldhelm liable to severe censure under the Laws of King Edgar[^[659]]; and Dunstan's biographer indignantly denies the charge brought against his hero of having learnt the heathen songs of his forefathers[^[660]].

The evidence is not as plentiful as we might wish, but it rather suggests that the chasm between secular poetry and ecclesiastical learning was more easily bridged in the first generations after the conversion than was the case later.

But, however that may be, it assuredly does not give any grounds for abandoning the old view, based largely upon grammatical and metrical considerations, which would make Beowulf a product of the early eighth century, and substituting for it a theory which would make our poem a product of mixed Saxon and Danish society in the early tenth century.

E. THE "JUTE-QUESTION" REOPENED

The view that the Geatas of Beowulf are the Jutes (Iuti, Iutae) of Bede (i.e. the tribe which colonized Kent, the Isle of Wight and Hampshire) has been held by many eminent scholars. It was dealt with only briefly above (pp. 8-9) because I thought the theory was now recognized as being no longer tenable. Lately, however, it has been maintained with conviction and ability by two Danish scholars, Schütte and Kier. It therefore becomes necessary once more to reopen the question, now that the only elaborate discussion of it in the English language favours the "Jute-theory," especially as Axel Olrik gave the support of his great name to the view that "the question is still open[^[661]]" and that "the last word has not been said concerning the nationality of the Geatas[^[662]]."

As in most controversies, a number of rather irrelevant side issues have been introduced[^[663]], so that from mere weariness students are sometimes inclined to leave the problem undecided. Yet the interpretation of the opening chapters of Scandinavian history turns upon it.

Supporters of the "Jute-theory" have seldom approached the subject from the point of view of Old English. Bugge[^[664]] perhaps did so: but the "Jute-theory" has been held chiefly by students of Scandinavian history, literature or geography, like Fahlbeck[^[665]], Steenstrup[^[666]], Gering[^[667]], Olrik[^[668]], Schütte[^[669]] and Kier[^[670]]. But, now that the laws of Old English sound-change have been

clearly defined, it seldom happens that anyone who approaches the subject primarily as a student of the Anglo-Saxon language holds the view that the Geatas are Jutes.

And this is naturally so: for, from the point of view of language, the question is not disputable. The Gēatas phonologically are the Gautar (the modern Götar of Southern Sweden). It is admitted that the words are identical[^[671]]. And, equally, it is admitted that the word Gēatas cannot be identical with the word Iuti, Iutae, used by Bede as the name of the Jutes who colonized Kent[^[671]]. Bede's Iuti, Iutae, on the contrary, would correspond to a presumed Old English *Īuti or *Īutan[^[672]], current in his time in Northumbria. This in later Northumbrian would become Īote, Īotan (though the form Īute, Īutan might also survive). The dialect forms which we should expect (and which we find in the genitive and dative) corresponding to this would be: Mercian, Ēote, Ēotan; Late West-Saxon, Ȳte, Ȳtan (through an intermediate Early West-Saxon *Īete, *Īetan, which is not recorded).

If, then, the word Gēatas came to supplant the correct form Īote, Īotan (or its Mercian and West-Saxon equivalents Ēote, Ēotan, Ȳte, Ȳtan), this can only have been the result of confusion. Such confusion is, on abstract grounds, conceivable: it is always possible that the name of one tribe may come to be attached to another. "Scot" has ceased to mean "Irishman," and has come to mean "North Briton"; and there is no intrinsic impossibility in the word Gēatas having been transferred by Englishmen, from the half-forgotten Gautar, to the Jutes, and having driven out the correct name of the latter, Īote, Īotan. For example, there might have been an exiled Geatic family among the Jutish invaders, which might have become so prominent as to cause

the name Gēatas to supplant the correct Īote, Ēote, etc. But, whoever the Geatas may have been, Beowulf is their chief early record: indeed, almost all we know of their earliest history is derived from Beowulf. In Beowulf, therefore, if anywhere, the old names and traditions should be remembered. The word Gēat occurs some 50 times in the poem. The poet obviously wishes to use other synonyms, for the sake of variety and alliteration: hence we get Weder-Gēatas, Wederas, Sǣ-Gēatas, Gūð-Gēatas. Now, if these Geatas are the Jutes, how comes it that the poet never calls them such, never speaks of them under the correct tribal name of Ēote, etc., although this was the current name at the time Beowulf was written, and indeed for centuries later?

For, demonstrably, the form Ēote, etc., was recognized as the name of the Jutes till at least the twelfth century. Then it died out of current speech, and only Bede's Latin Iuti (and the modern "Jute" derived therefrom) remained as terms used by the historians. The evidence is conclusive:

(a) Bede, writing about the time when Beowulf, in its present form, is supposed to have been composed, uses Iuti, Iutae, corresponding to a presumed contemporary Northumbrian *Īuti, *Īutan.

(b) In the O.E. translation of Bede, made in Mercia perhaps two centuries after Bede's time, we do indeed in one place find "Geata," "Geatum" used to translate "Iutarum," "Iutis," instead of the correctly corresponding Mercian form "Eota," "Eotum." Only two MSS are extant at this point. But since both agree, and since they belong to different types, it is probable that "Geata" here is no mere copyist's error, but is due to the translator himself[^[673]]. But, later, when the translator

has to render Bede's "Iutorum," he gives, not "Geata," but the correct Mercian "Eota." There can be no possible doubt here, for five MSS are extant at this point, and all give the correct form—four in the Mercian, "Eota," whilst one gives the West-Saxon equivalent, "Ytena."

Now the Gēata-passage in the Bede translation is the chief piece of evidence which those who would explain the Geatas of Beowulf as "Jutes" can call: and it does not, in fact, much help them. What they have to prove is that the Beowulf-poet could consistently and invariably have used Gēatas in the place of Ēote. To produce an instance in which the two terms are both used by the same translator is very little use, when what has to be proved is that the one term had already, at a much earlier period, entirely ousted the other.

All our other evidence is for the invariable use of the correct form Īote, Īotan, etc. in Old English.

(c) The passage from Bede was again translated, and inserted into a copy of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was sent quite early to one of the great abbeys of Northumbria[^[674]]. In this, "Iutis, Iutarum" is represented by the correct Northumbrian equivalent, "Iutum," "Iotum"; "Iutna."

(d) This Northumbrian Chronicle, or a transcript of it, subsequently came South, to Canterbury. There, roughly about the year 1100, it was used to interpolate an Early West-Saxon copy of the Chronicle. Surely at Canterbury, the capital of the old Jutish kingdom, people must have known the correct form of the Jutish name, whether Gēatas or Īote. We find the forms "Iotum," "Iutum"; "Iutna."

(e) Corresponding to this Northumbrian (and Kentish) form Īote, Mercian Ēote, the Late West-Saxon form should be Ȳte. Now MS Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, 41, gives us "the Wessex version of the English Bede" and is written by a scribe who knew the Hampshire district[^[675]]. In this MS the "Eota" of the Mercian original has been transcribed as "Ytena," "Eotum" as "Ytum," showing that the scribe understood the tribal name and its equivalent correctly. This was about the

time of the Norman Conquest, but the name continued to be understood till the early twelfth century at least. For Florence of Worcester records that William Rufus was slain in Noua Foresta quae lingua Anglorum Ytene nuncupatur; and in another place he speaks of the same event as happening in prouincia Jutarum in Noua Foresta[^[676]], which shows that Florence understood that "Ytene" was Ȳtena land, "the province of the Jutes."

It comes, then, to this. The "Jute-hypothesis" postulates not only that, at the time Beowulf was composed, Gēatas had come to mean "Jutes," but also that it had so completely ousted the correct old name Īuti, Īote, Ēote, Ȳte, that none of the latter terms are ever used in the poem as synonyms for Beowulf's people[^[677]]. Yet all the evidence shows that Īuti etc. was the recognized name when Bede wrote, and we have evidence at intervals showing that it was so understood till four centuries later. But not only was Īuti, Īote never superseded in O.E. times; there is no real evidence that Gēatas was ever generally used to signify "Jutes." The fact that one translator in one passage (writing probably some two centuries after Beowulf was composed) uses "Geata," "Geatum," where he should have used "Eota," "Eotum," does not prove the misnomer to have been general—especially when the same translator subsequently uses the correct form "Eota."

I do not think sufficient importance has been attached to what seems (to me) the vital argument against the "Jute-theory." It is not merely that Gēatas is the exact phonological equivalent of Gautar (Götar) and cannot be equivalent to Bede's Iuti. This difficulty may be got over by the assumption that somehow the Iuti, or some of them, had adopted the name Gēatas: and we are not in a position to disprove such assumption. But the advocates of the "Jute-theory" have further to assume that, at the date when Beowulf was written, the correct name Iuti (Northumbrian Īote, Mercian Ēote, West-Saxon Ȳte) must have so passed into disuse that it could not be once used as a

synonym for Beowulf's people, by our synonym-hunting poet. And this assumption we are in a position to disprove.

The Jute-theory would therefore still be untenable on the ground of the name, even though it were laboriously proved that, from the historical and geographical standpoint, there was more to be said for it than had hitherto been recognized. But even this has not been proved: quite the reverse. As I have tried to show above, historical and geographical considerations, though in themselves not absolutely conclusive, point emphatically to an identification with the Götar, rather than with the Jutes[^[678]].

The relations of Beowulf and the Geatas with the kings of Denmark and of Sweden are the constant topic of the poem. Now the land of the Götar was situated between Denmark and Sweden. But if the Geatas be Jutes, their neighbours were the Danes on the east and the Angles on the south; farther away, across the Cattegat lay the Götar, and beyond these the Swedes. If the Geatas be Jutes, why should their immediate neighbours, the Angles, never appear in Beowulf as having any dealings with them? And why, above all, should the Götar never be mentioned, whilst the Swedes, far to the north, play so large a part? Even if Swedes and Götar had at this time been under one king, the Götar could not have been thus ignored, seeing that, owing to their position, the brunt of the fighting must have fallen on them[^[679]]. But we know that the Götar were independent. The strictly contemporary evidence of Procopius shows quite conclusively that they were one of the strongest of the Scandinavian kingdoms[^[680]]. How then could warfare be carried on for three generations between Jutes and Swedes without concerning the Götar, whose territory lay in between?

Again, in the "Catalogue of Kings" in Widsith, the Swedes are named with their famous king Ongentheow. The Jutes (Ȳte) are also mentioned, with their king. And their king is

not Hrethel, Hæthcyn, Hygelac or Heardred, but a certain Gefwulf, whose name does not even alliterate with that of any known king of the Geatas[^[681]].

Again, in the (certainly very early) Book on Monsters, Hygelac is described as Huiglaucus qui imperavit Getis. Now Getis can mean Götar[^[682]], but can hardly mean Jutes.

The geographical case against the identification of Geatas and Götar depends upon the assumption that the western sea-coast of the Götar in ancient times must have coincided with that of West Gothland (Vestra-Götland) in mediæval and modern times. Now as this coast consists merely of a small strip south of the river Götaelv, it is argued that the Götar could not be the maritime Geatas of Beowulf, capable of undertaking a Viking raid to the mouth of the Rhine. But the assumption that the frontiers of the Götar about A.D. 500 were the same as they were a thousand years later, is not only improbable on a priori grounds, but, as Schück has shown[^[683]], can be definitely disproved. Adam of Bremen, writing in the eleventh century, speaks of the river Gothelba (Götaelv) as running through the midst of the peoples of the Götar. And the obvious connection between the name of the river and the name of the people seems to make it certain that Adam is right, and that the original Götar must have dwelt around the river Götaelv. But, if so, then they were a maritime folk: for the river Götaelv is merely the outlet which connects Lake Wener with the sea, running a course almost parallel with the shore and nowhere very distant from it[^[684]]. But even when Adam wrote, the

Götar to the north of the river had long been politically subject to Norway[^[685]]: and the Heimskringla tells us how this happened.

Harold Fairhair, King of Norway (a contemporary of King Alfred), attacked them: they had staked the river Götaelv against him, but he moored his ships to the stakes[^[686]] and harried on either shore: he fought far and wide in the country, had many battles on either side of the river, and finally slew the leader of the Götar, Hrani Gauzki (the Götlander). Then he annexed to Norway all the land north of the river and west of Lake Wener. Thenceforward the Götaelv was the boundary between Norway and West Gothland, though the country ultimately became Swedish, as it now is. But it is abundantly clear from the Heimskringla that Harold regarded as hostile all the territory north of the Götaelv, and between Lake Wener and the sea[^[687]] (the old Ránriki and the modern Bohuslän).

But, if so, then the objection that the Götar are not a sufficiently maritime people becomes untenable. For precisely to this region belong the earliest records of maritime warfare to be found in the north of Europe, possibly the earliest in Europe. The smooth rocks of Bohuslän are covered with incised pictures of the Bronze age: and the favourite subject of these is ships and naval encounters. About 120 different pictures of ships and sea fights are reproduced by one scholar alone[^[688]]. And at the present day this province of Göteborg and Bohus is the most important centre in Sweden both of fishery and shipping. Indeed, more than one quarter of the total tonnage of the modern Swedish mercantile marine comes from this comparatively tiny strip of coast[^[689]].

It is surely quite absurd to urge that the men of this coast could not have harried the Frisians in the manner in which Hygelac is represented as doing. And surely it is equally absurd to urge that the people of this coast would not have had to fear a return attack from the Frisians, after the downfall of their own kings. The Frisians seem to have been "the chief channel of communication between the North and West of Europe[^[690]]" before the rise of the Scandinavian Vikings, and to have been supreme in the North Sea. The Franks were of course a land power, but the Franks, when in alliance with the Frisians, were by no means helpless at sea. Gregory of Tours tells us that they overthrew Hygelac on land, and then in a sea fight annihilated his fleet. Now the poet says that the Geatas may expect war when the Franks and Frisians hear of Beowulf's fall. The objection that, because they feared the Franks, the Geatas must have been reachable by land, depends upon leaving the "and Frisians" out of consideration.

"Now we may look for a time of war" says the messenger "when the fall of our king is known among the Franks and Frisians": then he gives a brief account of the raid upon the land of the Frisians and concludes: "Ever since then has the favour of the Merovingian king been denied us[^[691]]." What is there in this to indicate whether the raiders came from Jutland, or from the coast of the Götar across the Cattegat, 50 miles further off? The messenger goes on to anticipate hostility from the Swedes[^[692]]. To this, at any rate, the Götar were more exposed than the Jutes. Further, he concludes by anticipating the utter overthrow of the Geatas[^[693]]: and the poet expressly tells us that these forebodings were justified[^[694]]. There must therefore be a reference to some famous national catastrophe. Now the Götar did lose their independence, and were incorporated into the Swedish kingdom. When did the Jutes suffer any similar downfall at the hands of either Frisians, Franks, or Swedes?

The other geographical and historical arguments urged in favour of the Jutes, when carefully scrutinized, are found either

equally indecisive, or else actually to tell against the "Jute-theory." Schütte[^[695]] thinks that the name "Wederas" (applied in Beowulf to the Geatas) is identical with the name Eudoses (that of a tribe mentioned by Tacitus, who may[^[696]] have dwelt in Jutland). But this is impossible phonologically: Wederas is surely a shortened form of Weder-Gēatas, "the Storm-Geatas." Indeed, we have, in favour of the Götar-theory, the fact that the very name of the Wederas survives on the Bohuslän coast to this day, in the Wäder Öar and the Wäder Fiord.

Advocates of the "Jute-theory" lay great stress upon the fact that Gregory of Tours and the Liber Historiae Francorum call Hygelac a Dane[^[697]]: Dani cum rege suo Chochilaico. Now, when Gregory wrote in the sixth century, either the Jutes were entirely distinct from, and independent of, the Danes, or they were not. If they were distinct, how do Gregory's words help the "Jute-theory"? He must be simply using "Dane," like the Anglo-Saxon historians, for "Scandinavian." But if the Jutes were not distinct from the Danes, then we have an argument against the "Jute-theory." For we know from Beowulf that the Geatas were quite distinct from the Danes[^[698]], and quite independent of them[^[699]].

It is repeatedly urged that the Geatas and Swedes fight ofer sǣ[^[700]]. But sǣ can mean a great fresh-water lake, like Lake Wener, just as well as the ocean[^[701]]: and as a matter of fact we know that the decisive battle did take place on Lake Wener, in stagno Waener, á Vænis ísi[^[702]]. Lake Wener is an obvious battle place for Götar and Swedes. They were separated by the great and almost impassable forests of "Tived" and "Kolmård," and the lake was their simplest way of meeting[^[703]]. But it does not equally fit Jutes and Swedes.

It is repeatedly objected that the Götar are remote from the Anglo-Saxons[^[704]]. Possibly: but remoteness did not prevent

the Anglo-Saxons from being interested in heroes of the Huns or Goths or Burgundians or Longobards, who were much more[^[705]] distant. And the absence of any direct connection between the history of the Geatas and the historic Anglo-Saxon records, affords a strong presumption that the Geatas were a somewhat alien people. If the people of Beowulf, Hygelac, and Hrethel, were the same people as the Jutes who colonized Kent and Hampshire, why do we never, in the Kentish royal genealogies or elsewhere, find any claim to such connection? The Mercians did not so forget their connection with the old Offa of Angel, although a much greater space of time had intervened. The fact that we have no mention among the ancestors of Beowulf and Hygelac of any names which we can connect with the Jutish genealogy affords, therefore, a strong presumption that they belonged to some other tribe.

The strongest historical argument for the "Jute-theory" was that produced by Bugge. The Ynglinga tal represents Ottar (who is certainly the Ohthere of Beowulf) as having fallen in Vendel, and this Vendel was clearly understood as being the district of that name in North Jutland. The body of this Swedish king was torn asunder by carrion birds, and he was remembered as "the Vendel-crow," a mocking nickname which pretty clearly goes back to primitive times. Other ancient authors attributed this name, not to Ottar, but to his father, who can be identified with the Ongentheow of Beowulf. This would seem to indicate that the hereditary foes of Ongentheow and the Swedish kings of his house were, after all, the Jutes of Vendel.

But Knut Stjerna has shown that the Vendel from which "Ottar Vendel-crow" took his name was probably not the Vendel of Jutland at all, but the place of that name north of Uppsala, famous for the splendid grave-finds which show it to have been of peculiar importance during our period[^[706]]. And subsequent research has shown that a huge grave-mound, near this Vendel, is mentioned in a record of the seventeenth century as King

Ottar's mound, and is still popularly known as the mound of Ottar Vendel-crow[^[707]]. But, if so, this story of the Vendel-crow, so far from supporting the "Jute-hypothesis," tells against it: nothing could be more suitable than Vendel, north of Uppsala, as the "last ditch" to which Ongentheow retreated, if we assume his adversaries to have been the Götar: but it would not suit the Jutes so well.

An exploration of the mound has proved beyond reasonable doubt that it was raised to cover the ashes of Ottar Vendel-crow, the Ohthere of Beowulf[^[708]]. That Ohthere fell in battle against the Geatas there is nothing, in Beowulf or elsewhere, to prove. But the fact that his ashes were laid in mound at Vendel in Sweden makes it unlikely that he fell in battle against the Jutes, and is quite incompatible with what we are told in the Ynglinga saga of his body having been torn to pieces by carrion fowl on a mound in Vendel in Jutland. It now becomes clear that this story, and the tale of the crow of wood made by the Jutlanders in mockery of Ottar, is a mere invention to account for the name Vendel-crow: the name, as so often, has survived, and a new story has grown up to give a reason for the name.

What "Vendel-crow" originally implied we cannot be quite sure. Apparently "Crow" or "Vendel-crow" is used to this day as a nickname for the inhabitants of Swedish Vendel. Ottar may have been so called because he was buried (possibly because he lived) in Vendel, not, like other members of his race, his son and his father, at Old Uppsala. But however that may be, what is clear is that, as the name passed from the Swedes to those Norwegian and Icelandic writers who have handed it down

to us, Vendel of Sweden was naturally misunderstood as the more familiar Vendel of Jutland. Stjerna's conjecture is confirmed. The Swedish king's nickname, far from pointing to ancient feuds between Jute and Swede, is shown to have nothing whatsoever to do with Jutland.

It appears, then, that Gēatas is phonologically the equivalent of "Götar," but not the equivalent of "Jutes"; that what we know of the use of the word "Jutes" (Īote, etc.) in Old English makes it incredible that a poem of the length of Beowulf could be written, concerning their heroes and their wars, without even mentioning them by their correct name; that in many respects the geographical and historical evidence fits the Götar, but does not fit the Jutes; that the instances to the contrary, in which it is claimed that the geographical and historical evidence fits the Jutes but does not fit the Götar, are all found on examination to be either inconclusive or actually to favour the Götar.

F. BEOWULF AND THE ARCHÆOLOGISTS

The peat-bogs of Schleswig and Denmark have yielded finds of the first importance for English archæology. These "moss-finds" are great collections, chiefly of arms and accoutrements, obviously deposited with intention. The first of these great discoveries, that of Thorsbjerg, was made in the heart of ancient Angel: the site of the next, Nydam, also comes within the area probably occupied by either Angles or Jutes; and most of the rest of the "moss-finds" were in the closest neighbourhood of the old Anglian home. The period of the oldest deposits, as is shown by the Roman coins found among them, is hardly before the third century A.D., and some authorities would make it considerably later.

An account of these discoveries will be found in Engelhardt's Denmark in the Early Iron Age[^[709]], 1866: a volume which

summarizes the results of Engelhardt's investigations during the preceding seven years. He had published in Copenhagen Thorsbjerg Mosefund, 1863; Nydam Mosefund, 1865. Engelhardt's work at Nydam was interrupted by the war of 1864: the finds had to be ceded to Germany, and the exploration was continued by German scholars. Engelhardt consoled himself that these "subsequent investigations ... do not seem to have been carried on with the necessary care and intelligence," and continued his own researches within the narrowed frontiers of Denmark, publishing two monographs on the mosses of Fünen: Kragehul Mosefund, 1867; Vimose Fundet, 1869.

These deposits, however, obviously belong to a period much earlier than that in which Beowulf was written: indeed most of them certainly belong to a period earlier than that in which the historic events described in Beowulf occurred; so that, close as is their relation with Anglian civilization, it is with the civilization of the Angles while still on the continent.

The Archæology of Beowulf has been made the subject of special study by Knut Stjerna, in a series of articles which appeared between 1903 and his premature death in 1909. A good service has been done to students of Beowulf by Dr Clark Hall in collecting and translating Stjerna's essays[^[710]]. They are a mine of useful information, and the reproductions of articles from Scandinavian grave-finds, with which they are so copiously illustrated, are invaluable. The magnificent antiquities from Vendel, now in the Stockholm museum, are more particularly laid under contribution[^[711]]. Dr Clark Hall added a most useful "Index of things mentioned in Beowulf[^[712]]," well illustrated. Here again the illustrations, with few exceptions, are from Scandinavian finds.

Two weighty arguments as to the origin of Beowulf have been based upon archæology. In the first place it has been urged by Dr Clark Hall that:

"If the poem is read in the light of the evidence which Stjerna has marshalled in the essays as to the profusion of gold, the prevalence of ring-swords, of boar-helmets, of ring-corslets, and ring-money, it becomes clear how strong the distinctively Scandinavian colouring is, and how comparatively little of the mise-en-scène must be due to the English author[^[713]]."

Equally, Prof. Klaeber finds in Stjerna's investigations a strong argument for the Scandinavian character of Beowulf[^[714]].

Now Stjerna, very rightly and naturally, drew his illustrations of Beowulf from those Scandinavian, and especially Swedish, grave-finds which he knew so well: and very valuable those illustrations are. But it does not follow, because the one archæologist who has chosen to devote his knowledge so wholeheartedly to the elucidation of Beowulf was a Scandinavian, using Scandinavian material, that therefore Beowulf is Scandinavian. This, however, is the inference which Stjerna himself was apt to draw, and which is still being drawn from his work. Stjerna speaks of our poem as a monument raised by the Geatas to the memory of their saga-renowned king[^[715]], though he allows that certain features of the poem, such as the dragon-fight[^[716]], are of Anglo-Saxon origin.

Of course, it must be allowed that accounts such as those of the fighting between Swedes and Geatas, if they are historical (and they obviously are), must have originated from eyewitnesses of the Scandinavian battles: but I doubt if there is anything in Beowulf so purely Scandinavian as to compel us to assume that any line of the story, in the poetical form in which we now have it, was necessarily composed in Scandinavia. Even if it could be shown that the conditions depicted in Beowulf can be better illustrated from the grave-finds of Vendel in Sweden than from English diggings, this would not prove Beowulf Scandinavian. Modern scientific archæology is surely based on chronology as well as geography. The English finds date from

the period before 650 A.D., and the Vendel finds from the period after. Beowulf might well show similarity rather with contemporary art abroad than with the art of earlier generations at home. For intercourse was more general than is always realized. It was not merely trade and plunder which spread fashions from nation to nation. There were the presents of arms which Tacitus mentions as sent, not only privately, but with public ceremony, from one tribe to another[^[717]]. Similar presentations are indicated in Beowulf[^[718]]; we find them equally at the court of the Ostrogothic Theodoric[^[719]]; Charles the Great sent to Offa of Mercia unum balteum et unum gladium huniscum[^[720]]; according to the famous story in the Heimskringla, Athelstan sent to Harold Fairhair of Norway a sword and belt arrayed with gold and silver; Athelstan gave Harold's son Hakon a sword which was the best that ever came to Norway[^[721]]. It is not surprising, then, if we find parallels between English poetry and Scandinavian grave-finds, both apparently dating from about the year 700 A.D. But I do not think that there is any special resemblance, though, both in Beowulf and in the Vendel graves, there is a profusion lacking in the case of the simpler Anglo-Saxon tomb-furniture.

Let us examine the five points of special resemblance, alleged by Dr Clark Hall, on the basis of Stjerna's studies.

"The profusion of gold." Gold is indeed lavishly used in Beowulf: the golden treasure found in the dragon's lair was so bulky that it had to be transported by waggon. And, certainly, gold is found in greater profusion in Swedish than in English graves: the most casual visitor to the Stockholm museum must be impressed by the magnificence of the exhibits there. But, granting gold to have been rarer in England than in Sweden, I cannot grant Stjerna's contention that therefore an English poet could not have conceived the idea of a vast gold hoard[^[722]]; or that, even if the poet does deck his warriors with gold somewhat more sumptuously than was actually the case in England,

we can draw any argument from it. For, if the dragon in Beowulf guards a treasure, so equally does the typical dragon of Old English proverbial lore[^[723]]. Beowulf is spoken of as gold-wlanc, but the typical thegn in Finnsburg is called gold-hladen[^[724]]. The sword found by Beowulf in the hall of Grendel's mother has a golden hilt, but the English proverb had it that "gold is in its place on a man's sword[^[725]]." Heorot is hung with golden tapestry, but gold-inwoven fabric has been unearthed from Saxon graves at Taplow, and elsewhere in England[^[726]]. Gold glitters in other poems quite as lavishly as in Beowulf, sometimes more so. Widsith made a hobby of collecting golden bēagas. The subject of Waldere is a fight for treasure. The byrnie of Waldere[^[727]] is adorned with gold: so is that of Holofernes in Judith[^[728]], so is that of the typical warrior in the Elene[^[729]]. Are all these poems Scandinavian?

"The prevalence of ring-swords." We know that swords were sometimes fitted with a ring in the hilt[^[730]]. It is not clear whether the object of this ring was to fasten the hilt by a strap to the wrist, for convenience in fighting (as has been the custom with the cavalry sword in modern times) or whether it was used to attach the "peace bands," by which the hilt of the sword was sometimes fixed to the scabbard, when only being worn ceremonially[^[731]]. The word hring-mǣl, applied three times to the sword in Beowulf, has been interpretated as a reference to these "ring-swords," though it is quite conceivable that it may refer only to the damascening of the sword with a ringed pattern[^[732]]. Assuming that the reference in Beowulf is to a "ring-sword," Stjerna illustrates the allusion from seven ring-swords, or fragments of ring-swords, found in Sweden. But, as Dr Clark Hall himself points out (whilst oddly enough accepting this argument

as proof of the Scandinavian colouring of Beowulf) four ring-swords at least have been found in England[^[733]]. And these English swords are real ring-swords; that is to say, the pommel is furnished with a ring, within which another ring moves (in the oldest type of sword) quite freely. This freedom of movement seems, however, to be gradually restricted, and in one of these English swords the two rings are made in one and the same piece. In the Swedish swords, however, this restriction is carried further, and the two rings are represented by a knob growing out of a circular base. Another sword of this "knob"-type has recently been found in a Frankish tomb[^[734]], and yet another in the Rhineland[^[735]]. It seems to be agreed among archæologists that the English type, as found in Kent, is the original, and that the Swedish and continental "ring-swords" are merely imitations, in which the ring has become conventionalized into a knob[^[736]]. But, if so, how can the mention of a ring-sword in Beowulf (if indeed that be the meaning of hring-mǣl) prove Scandinavian colouring? If it proved anything (which it does not) it would tend to prove the reverse, and to locate Beowulf in Kent, where the true ring-swords have been found.

"The prevalence of boar-helmets." It is true that several representations of warriors wearing boar-helmets have been found in Scandinavia. But the only certainly Anglo-Saxon

helmet yet found in England has a boar-crest[^[737]]; and this is, I believe, the only actual boar-helmet yet found. How then can the boar-helmets of Beowulf show Scandinavian rather than Anglo-Saxon origin?

"The prevalence of ring-corslets." It is true that only one trace of a byrnie, and that apparently not of ring-mail, has so far been found in an Anglo-Saxon grave. (We have somewhat more abundant remains from the period prior to the migration to England: a peculiarly fine corslet of ring-mail, with remains of some nine others, was found in the moss at Thorsbjerg[^[738]] in the midst of the ancient Anglian continental home; and other ring-corslets have been found in the neighbourhood of Angel, at Vimose[^[739]] in Fünen.) But, for the period when Beowulf must have been composed, the ring-corslet is almost as rare in Scandinavia as in England[^[740]]; the artist, however, seems to be indicating a byrnie upon many of the warriors depicted on the Vendel helm (Grave 14: seventh century). Equally, in England, warriors are represented on the Franks Casket as wearing the byrnie: also the laws of Ine (688-95) make it clear that the byrnie was by no means unknown[^[741]]. Other Old English poems, certainly not Scandinavian, mention the ring-byrnie. How then can the mention of it in Beowulf be a proof of Scandinavian origin?

"The prevalence of ring-money." Before minted money became current, rings were used everywhere among the Teutonic peoples. Gold rings, intertwined so as to form a chain, have been found throughout Scandinavia, presumably for use as a medium of exchange. The term locenra bēaga (gen. plu.) occurs in Beowulf, and this is interpreted by Stjerna as "rings intertwined or locked together[^[742]]." But locen in Beowulf need not have the meaning of "intertwined"; it occurs elsewhere in Old English of a single jewel, sincgim locen[^[743]]. Further, even if locen does mean

"intertwined," such intertwined rings are not limited to Scandinavia proper. They have been found in Schleswig[^[744]]. And almost the very phrase in Beowulf, londes ne locenra bēaga[^[745]], recurs in the Andreas. The phrase there may be imitated from Beowulf, but, equally, the phrase in Beowulf may be imitated from some earlier poem. In fact, it is part of the traditional poetic diction: but its occurrence in the Andreas shows that it cannot be used as an argument of Scandinavian origin.

Whilst, therefore, accepting with gratitude the numerous illustrations which Stjerna has drawn from Scandinavian grave-finds, we must be careful not to read a Scandinavian colouring into features of Beowulf which are at least as much English as Scandinavian, such as the ring-sword or the boar-helmet or the ring-corslet.

There is, as is noted above, a certain atmosphere of profusion and wealth about some Scandinavian grave-finds, which corresponds much more nearly with the wealthy life depicted in Beowulf than does the comparatively meagre tomb-furniture of England. But we must remember that, after the spread of Christianity in the first half of the seventh century, the custom of burying articles with the bodies of the dead naturally ceased, or almost ceased, in England. Scandinavia continued heathen for another four hundred years, and it was during these years that the most magnificent deposits were made. As Stjerna himself points out, "a steadily increasing luxury in the appointment of graves" is to be found in Scandinavia in these centuries before the introduction of Christianity there. When we find in Scandinavia things (complete ships, for example) which we do not find in England, we owe this, partly to the nature of the soil in which they were embedded, but also to the continuance of such burial customs after they had died out in England.

Helm and byrnie were not necessarily unknown, or even very rare in England, simply because it was not the custom to bury them with the dead. On the other hand, the frequent mention of them in Beowulf does not imply that they were common: for

Beowulf deals only with the aristocratic adherents of a court, and even in Beowulf fine specimens of the helm and byrnie are spoken of as things which a king seeks far and wide to procure for his retainers[^[746]]. We cannot, therefore, argue that there is any discrepancy. However, if we do so argue, it would merely prove, not that Beowulf is Scandinavian as opposed to English, but that it is comparatively late in date. Tacitus emphasizes the fact that spear and shield were the Teutonic weapons, that helmet and corslet were hardly known[^[747]]. Pagan graves show that at any rate they were hardly known as tomb-furniture in England in the fifth, sixth, and early seventh centuries. The introduction of Christianity, and the intercourse with the South which it involved, certainly led to the growth of pomp and wealth in England, till the early eighth century became "the golden age of Anglo-Saxon England."

It might therefore conceivably be argued that Beowulf reflects the comparative abundance of early Christian England, as opposed to the more primitive heathen simplicity; but to argue a Scandinavian origin from the profusion of Beowulf admits of an easy reductio ad absurdum. For the same arguments would prove a heathen, Scandinavian origin for the Andreas, the Elene, the Exodus, or even for the Franks Casket, despite its Anglo-Saxon inscription and Christian carvings.

However, though the absence of helm and byrnie from Anglo-Saxon graves does not prove that these arms were not used by the living in heathen times, one thing it assuredly does prove: that the Anglo-Saxons in heathen times did not sacrifice helm and byrnie recklessly in funeral pomp. And this brings us to the second argument as to the origin of Beowulf which has been based on archæology.

Something has been said above of this second contention[^[748]]—that the accuracy of the account of Beowulf's funeral is confirmed in every point by archæological evidence: that it must

therefore have been composed within living memory of a time when ceremonies of this kind were still actually in use in England: and that therefore we cannot date Beowulf later than the third or fourth decade of the seventh century.

To begin with; the pyre in Beowulf is represented as hung with helmets, bright byrnies, and shields. Now it is impossible to say exactly how the funeral pyres were equipped in England. But we do know how the buried bodies were equipped. And (although inhumation cemeteries are much more common than cremation cemeteries) all the graves that have been opened have so far yielded only one case of a helmet and byrnie being buried with the warrior, and one other very doubtful case of a helmet without the byrnie. Abroad, instances are somewhat more common, but still of great rarity. For such things could ill be spared. Charles the Great forbade the export of byrnies from his dominions. Worn by picked champions fighting in the forefront, they might well decide the issue of a battle. In the mounds where we have reason to think that the great chiefs mentioned in Beowulf, Eadgils or Ohthere, lie buried, any trace of weapons was conspicuously absent among the burnt remains. Nevertheless, the belief that his armour would be useful to the champion in the next life, joined perhaps with a feeling that it was unlucky, or unfair on the part of the survivor to deprive the dead of his personal weapons, led in heathen times to the occasional burial of these treasures with the warrior who owned them. The fifth century tomb of Childeric I, when discovered twelve centuries later, was found magnificently furnished—the prince had been buried with treasure and much equipment[^[749]], sword, scramasax[^[750]], axe, spear. But these were his own. Similarly, piety might have demanded that Beowulf should be burnt with his full equipment. But would the pyre have been hung with helmets and byrnies? Whose? Were the thegns asked to sacrifice theirs, and go naked into the next fight in honour of their lord? If so, what archæological authority have we for such a custom in England?

Then the barrow is built, and the vast treasure of the dragon (which included "many a helmet[^[751]]") placed in it. Now there are instances of articles which have not passed through the fire being placed in or upon or around an urn with the cremated bones[^[752]]. But is there any instance of the thing being done on this scale—of a wholesale burning of helmets and byrnies followed by a burial of huge treasure? If so, one would like to know when, and where. If not, how can it be argued that the account in Beowulf is one of which "the accuracy is confirmed in every point by archæological or contemporary literary evidence?" Rather we must say, with Knut Stjerna, that it is "too much of a good thing[^[753]]."

For the antiquities of Anglo-Saxon England, the student should consult the Victoria County History. The two splendid volumes of Professor G. Baldwin Brown on Saxon Art and Industry in the Pagan Period[^[754]] at length enable the general reader to get a survey of the essential facts, for which up to now he has had to have recourse to innumerable scattered treatises. The Archæology of the Anglo-Saxon Settlements by Mr E. Thurlow Leeds will also be found helpful.

Side-lights from the field of Teutonic antiquities in general can be got from Prof. Baldwin Brown's Arts and Crafts of our Teutonic Forefathers, 1910, and from Lindenschmit's Handbuch der deutschen Alterthumskunde, I. Theil: Die Alterthümer der Merovingischen Zeit (Braunschweig, 1880-89), a book which is still indispensable. Hoops' Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde, Strassburg, 1911-19, 4 vols., includes a large number of contributions of the greatest importance to the student of Beowulf, both upon archæological and other subjects. By the completion[^[755]] of this most valuable work, amid heart-breaking difficulties, Prof. Hoops has placed all students under a great obligation.

Much help can be got from an examination of the antiquities of Teutonic countries other than England. The following books are useful—for Norway: Gustafson (G.), Norges Oldtid, 1906; for Denmark: Müller (S.), Vor Oldtid, 1897; for Sweden: Montelius (O.), Civilization of Sweden in Heathen Times, 1888, Kulturgeschichte Schwedens, 1906; for Schleswig: Mestorf (J.), Vorgeschichtliche Alterthümer aus Schleswig; for the Germanic nations in their wanderings on the outskirts of the Roman Empire: Hampel (J.), Alterthümer des frühen Mittelalters in Ungarn, 3 Bde, 1905; for Germanic remains in Gaul: Barrière-Flavy (M. C.), Les Arts industriels des peuples barbares de la Gaule du V^me au VIII^me siècle, 3 tom. 1901.

Somewhat popular accounts, and now rather out of date, are the two South Kensington handbooks: Worsaae (J. J. A.), Industrial Arts of Denmark, 1882, and Hildebrand (H.), Industrial Arts of Scandinavia, 1883.

Scandinavian Burial Mounds

The three great "Kings' Mounds" at Old Uppsala were explored between 1847 and 1874: cremated remains from them can be seen in the Stockholm Museum. An account of the tunnelling, and of the complicated structure of the mounds, was given in 1876 by the Swedish State-Antiquary[^[756]]. From these finds Knut Stjerna dated the oldest of the "Kings' Mounds" about 500 A.D.[^[757]], and the others somewhat later. Now, as we are definitely told that Athils (Eadgils) and the two kings who figure in the list of Swedish monarchs as his grandfather and great-grandfather (Aun and Egil) were "laid in mound" at Uppsala[^[758]], and as the chronology agrees, it seems only reasonable to conclude that the three Kings' Mounds were raised over these three kings[^[759]].

That Athils' father Ottar (Ohthere) was not regarded as having been buried at Uppsala is abundantly clear from the account given of his death, and of his nickname Vendel-crow[^[760]]. A mound near Vendel north of Uppsala is known by his name. Such names are often the result of quite modern antiquarian conjecture: but that such is not the case here was proved by the recent discovery that an antiquarian survey (preserved in MS in the Royal Library at Stockholm) dating from 1677, mentions in Vendel "widh Hussby, [en] stor jorde högh, som heeter Otters högen[^[761]]." An exploration of Ottar's mound showed a striking similarity with the Uppsala mounds. The structure was the same, a cairn of stones covered over with earth; the

cremated remains were similar, there were abundant traces of burnt animals, a comb, half-spherical draughts with two round holes bored in the flat side, above all, there was in neither case any trace of weapons. In Ottar's mound a gold Byzantine coin was found, pierced, having evidently been used as an ornament. It can be dated 477-8; it is much worn, but such coins seldom remained in the North in use for a century after their minting[^[762]]. Ottar's mound obviously, then, belongs to the same period as the Uppsala mounds, and confirms the date attributed by Stjerna to the oldest of those mounds, about 500 A.D.

Weapons

For weapons in general see Lehmann (H.), Über die Waffen im angelsächsischen Beowulfliede, in Germania, XXXI, 486-97; Keller (May L.), The Anglo-Saxon weapon names treated archæologically and etymologically, Heidelberg, 1906 (Anglistische Forschungen, XV: cf. Holthausen, Anglia, Beiblatt, XVIII, 65-9, Binz, Litteraturblatt, XXXI, 98-100); ‡Wagner (R.), Die Angriffswaffen der Angelsächsischen, Diss., Königsberg; and especially Falk (H.), Altnordische Waffenkunde, in Videnskapsselskapets Skrifter, Hist.-Filos. Klasse, 1914, Kristiania.

The Sword. The sword of the Anglo-Saxon pagan period (from the fifth to the seventh century) "is deficient in quality as a blade, and also ... in the character of its hilt[^[763]]." In this it contrasts with the sword found in the peat-bogs of Schleswig from an earlier period: "these swords of the Schleswig moss-finds are much better weapons[^[764]]," as well as with the later Viking sword of the ninth or tenth century, which "is a remarkably effective and well-considered implement[^[765]]." It has been suggested that both the earlier Schleswig swords and the later Viking swords (which bear a considerable likeness to each other, as against the inferior Anglo-Saxon sword) are the product of intercourse with Romanized peoples[^[766]], whilst the typical Anglo-Saxon sword "may represent an independent Germanic effort at sword making[^[767]]." However this may be, it is noteworthy that nowhere in Beowulf do we have any hint of the skill of any sword-smith who is regarded as contemporary. A good sword is always "an old heirloom," "an ancient treasure[^[768]]." The sword of Wiglaf, which had belonged to Eanmund, or the sword with which Eofor slays Ongentheow, are

described by the phrase ealdsweord eotenisc, as if they were weapons of which the secret and origin had been lost—indeed the same phrase is applied to the magic sword which Beowulf finds in the hall of Grendel's mother.

The blade of these ancestral swords was sometimes damascened or adorned with wave-like patterns[^[769]]. The swords of the Schleswig moss-finds are almost all thus adorned with a variegated surface, as often are the later Viking swords; but those of the Anglo-Saxon graves are not. Is it fanciful to suggest that the reference to damascening is a tradition coming down from the time of the earlier sword as found in the Nydam moss? A few early swords might have been preserved among the invaders as family heirlooms, too precious to be buried with the owner, as the product of the local weapon-smith was.

See, for a full discussion of the sword in Beowulf, Stjerna, Hjälmar och svärd i Beovulf (Studier tillägnade O. Montelius, Stockholm, pp. 99-120 = Essays, transl. Clark Hall, pp. 1-32). The standard treatise on the sword, Den Yngre Jernalders Sværd, Bergen, 1889, by A. L. Lorange, deals mainly with a rather later period.

The Helmet. The helmet found at Benty Grange in Derbyshire in 1848 is now in the Sheffield Museum[^[770]]: little remains except the boar-crest, the nose-piece, and the framework of iron ribs radiating from the crown, and fixed to a circle of iron surrounding the brow (perhaps the frēawrāsn of Beowulf, 1451). Mr Bateman, the discoverer, described the helmet as "coated with narrow plates of horn, running in a diagonal direction from the ribs, so as to form a herring-bone pattern; the ends were secured by strips of horn, radiating in like manner as the iron ribs, to which they were riveted at intervals of about an inch and a half: all the rivets had ornamented heads of silver on the outside, and on the front rib is a small cross of the same metal. Upon the top or crown of the helmet, is an elongated oval brass plate, upon which stands the figure of an animal, carved in iron, now much rusted, but still a very good representation of a pig: it has bronze eyes[^[771]]." Helmets of very similar construction, but without the boar, have been found on the Continent and in Scandinavia (Vendel, Grave 14, late seventh century). The continental helmets often

stand higher[^[772]] than the Benty Grange or Vendel specimens, being sometimes quite conical (cf. the epithet "war-steep," heaðo-stēap, Beowulf). Many of the continental helmets are provided with cheek-protections, and these also appear in the Scandinavian representations of warriors on the Torslunda plates and elsewhere. These side pieces have become detached from the magnificent Vendel helmet, which is often shown in engravings without them[^[773]], but they can be seen in the Stockholm Museum[^[774]]. If it ever possessed them, the Benty Grange helmet has lost these side pieces. Such cheek-protections are, however, represented, together with the nose-protection, on the head of one of the warriors depicted on the Franks Casket. In the Vendel helms, the nose-pieces were connected under the eyes with the rim of the helmet, so as to form a mask[^[774]]; the helmet in Beowulf is frequently spoken of as the battle-mask[^[775]].

Both helmet and boar-crest were sometimes gold-adorned[^[776]]: the golden boar was a symbol of the god Freyr: some magic protective power is still, in Beowulf[^[777]], felt to adhere to these swine-likenesses, as it was in the days of Tacitus[^[778]].

In Scandinavia, the Torslunda plates show the helmet with a boar-crest: the Vendel helmet has representations of warriors whose crests have an animal's head tailing off to a mere rim or roll: this may be the walu or wala which keeps watch over the head in Beowulf[^[779]]. The helmet was bound fast to the head[^[780]]; exactly how, we do not know.

See Lehmann (H.), Brünne und Helm im ags. Beowulfliede (Göttingen Diss., Leipzig; cf. Wülker, Anglia, VIII, Anzeiger, 167-70; Schulz, Engl. Stud., IX, 471); Hoops' Reallexikon, s.v. Helm; Baldwin Brown, III, 194-6; Falk, Altnord. Waffenkunde, 155-73; Stjerna, Hjälmar och svärd, 1907, as above: but the attempt of Stjerna to arrange the helmets he depicts in a

chronological series is perilous, and depends on a dating of the Benty Grange helmet which is by no means generally accepted.

The Corslet. This in Beowulf is made of rings[^[781]], twisted and interlaced by hand[^[782]]. As stated above, the fragments of the only known Anglo-Saxon byrnie were not of this type, but rather intended to have been sewn "upon a doublet of strong cloth[^[783]]." Byrnies were of various lengths, the longer ones reaching to the middle of the thigh (byrnan sīde, Beow. 1291, cf. loricæ longæ, síðar brynjur).

See Falk, 179; Baldwin Brown, III. 194.

The Spear. Spear and shield were the essential Germanic weapons in the days of Tacitus, and they are the weapons most commonly found in Old English tombs. The spear-shaft has generally decayed, analysis of fragments surviving show that it was frequently of ash[^[784]]. The butt-end of the spear was frequently furnished with an iron tip, and the distance of this from the spear-head, and the size of the socket, show the spear-shaft to have been six or seven feet long, and three-quarters of an inch to one inch in diameter.

See Falk, 66-90; Baldwin Brown, III, 234-41.

The Shield. Several round shields were preserved on the Gokstad ship, and in the deposits of an earlier period at Thorsbjerg and Nydam. These are formed of boards fastened together, often only a quarter of an inch thick, and not strengthened or braced in any way, bearing out the contemptuous description of the painted German shield which Tacitus puts into the mouth of Germanicus[^[785]]. It was, however, intended that the shield should be light. It was easily pierced, but, by a rapid twist, the foe's sword could be broken or wrenched from his hand. Thus we are told how Gunnar gave his shield a twist, as his adversary thrust his sword through it, and so snapped off his sword at the hilt[^[786]]. The shield was held by a bar, crossing a hole some four inches wide cut in the middle. The hand was protected by a hollow conical boss or umbo, fixed to the wood by its brim, but projecting considerably. In England the wood of the shield has always perished, but a large number of bosses have been preserved. The boss seems to have been called rond, a word which is also used for the shield as a whole. In Beowulf, 2673, Gifts of Men, 65, the meaning "boss" suits rond best, also in rand sceal on scylde, fæst fingra gebeorh (Cotton. Gnomic Verses, 37-8). But the original meaning of rand must have been the circular rim round the edge, and this

meaning it retains in Icelandic (Falk, 131). The linden wood was sometimes bound with bast, whence scyld (sceal) gebunden, lēoht linden bord (Exeter Gnomic Verses, 94-5).

See Falk (126-54); Baldwin Brown, III, 196-204; Pfannkuche (K.), Der Schild bei den Angelsachsen, Halle Dissertation, 1908.

The Bow is a weapon of much less importance in Beowulf than the spear. Few traces of the bow have survived from Anglo-Saxon England, though many wooden long-bows have been preserved in the moss-finds in a remarkably fine state. They are of yew, some over six feet long, and in at least one instance tipped with horn. The bow entirely of horn was, of course, well known in the East, and in classical antiquity, but I do not think traces of any horn-bow have been discovered in the North. It was a difficult weapon to manage, as the suitors of Penelope found to their cost. Possibly that is why Hæthcyn is represented as killing his brother Herebeald accidentally with a horn-bow: he could not manage the exotic weapon.

See Falk, 91-103; Baldwin Brown, III, 241.

The Hall

It may perhaps be the fact that in the church of Sta. Maria de Naranco, in the north of Spain, we have the hall of a Visigothic king driven north by the Mohammedan invasion. But, even if this surmise[^[787]] be correct, the structure of a stone hall of about 750 A.D. gives us little information as to the wooden halls of early Anglo-Saxon times. Heorot is clearly built of timber, held together by iron clamps[^[788]]. These halls were oblong, and a famous passage in Bede[^[789]] makes it clear that, at any rate at the time of the Conversion, the hall had a door at both ends, and the fire burnt in the middle. (The smoke escaped through a hole in the roof, through which probably most of the light came, for windows were few or none.) The Finnsburg Fragment also implies two doors. Further indications can be drawn from references to the halls of Norse chiefs. The Scandinavian hall was divided by rows of wooden pillars into a central nave and side aisles. The pillars in the centre were known as the "high-seat pillars." Rows of seats ran down the length of the hall on each side. The central position, facing the high-seat pillars and the fire, was the most honourable. The place of honour for the chief guest was opposite: and it is quite clear that in Beowulf also the guest did not sit next his host[^[790]].

Other points we may note about Heorot, are the tapestry with which its walls are draped[^[791]], and the paved and variegated floor[^[792]]. Unlike so

many later halls, Heorot has a floor little, if anything, raised above the ground: horses can be brought in[^[793]].

In later times, in Iceland, the arrangement of the hall was changed, and the house consisted of many rooms; but these were formed, not by partitioning the hall, but by building several such halls side by side: the stufa or hall proper, the skáli or sleeping hall, etc.

See M. Heyne, Ueber die Lage und Construction der Halle Heorot, Paderborn, 1864, where the scanty information about Heorot is collected, and supplemented with some information about Anglo-Saxon building. For the Icelandic hall see Valtyr Guðmundsson, Privatboligen på Island i Sagatiden, København, 1889. This has been summarized, in a more popular form, in a chapter on Den islandske Bolig i Fristatstiden, contributed by Guðmundsson to Rosenberg's Træk af Livet paa Island i Fristatstiden, 1894 (pp. 251-74). Here occurs the picture of an Icelandic hall which has been so often reproduced—by Olrik, Holthausen, and in Beowulf-translations. But it is a conjectural picture, and we can by no means assume all its details for Heorot. Rhamm's colossal work is only for the initiated, but is useful for consultation on special points (Ethnographische Beiträge zur Germanischslawischen Altertumskunde, von K. Rhamm, 1905-8. I. Die Grosshufen der Nordgermanen; II. Urzeitliche Bauernhöfe). For various details see Hoops' Reallexikon, s.v. flett; Neckel in P.B.B. XLI, 1916, 163-70 (under edoras); Meiringer in I.F., especially XVIII, 257 (under eoderas); Kaufmann in Z.f.d.Ph. XXXIX, 282-92.

Ships

In a tumulus near Snape in Suffolk, opened in 1862, there were discovered, with burnt bones and remains thought to be of Anglo-Saxon date, a large number of rivets which, from the positions in which they were found, seemed to give evidence of a boat 48 feet long by over nine feet wide[^[794]]. A boat, similar in dimensions, but better preserved, was unearthed near Bruges in 1899, and the ribs, mast and rudder removed to the Gruuthuuse Museum[^[795]].

Three boats were discovered in the peat-moss at Nydam in Schleswig in 1863, by Engelhardt. The most important is the "Nydam boat," clinker-built (i.e. with overlapping planks), of oak, 77 feet [23.5 m.] long, by some 11 [3.4 m.] broad, with rowlocks for fourteen oars down each side. There was no trace of any mast. Planks and framework had been held together, partly by iron bolts, and partly by ropes of bast. The boat had fallen to pieces, and had to be laboriously put together in the museum at Flensborg. Another boat was quite fragmentary, but a third boat, of fir, was found tolerably complete. Then the war of 1864 ended Engelhardt's labours at Nydam.

The oak-boat was removed to Kiel, where it now is.

The fir-boat was allowed to decay: many of the pieces of the oak-boat had been rotten and had of necessity been restored in facsimile, and it is much less complete than might be supposed from the numerous reproductions, based upon the fine engraving by Magnus Petersen. The rustic with a spade, there depicted as gazing at the boat, is apt to give a wrong impression that it was dug out intact[^[796]].

Such was, however, actually the case with regard to the ship excavated from the big mound at Gokstad, near Christiania, by Nicolaysen, in 1880. This was fitted both as a rowing and sailing ship; it was 66 feet [20.1 m.] long on the keel, 78 feet [23.8 m.] from fore to aft and nearly 17 feet [5.1 m.] broad, and was clinker-built, out of a much larger number of oaken planks than the Nydam ship. It had rowlocks for sixteen oars down each side, the gunwale was lined with shields, some of them well preserved, which had been originally painted alternately black and yellow. The find owed its extraordinary preservation to the blue clay in which it was embedded. Its discoverer wrote, with pardonable pride: "Certain it is that we shall not disinter any craft which, in respect of model and workmanship, will outrival that of Gokstad[^[797]]."

Yet the prophecy was destined to prove false: for on Aug. 8, 1903, a farmer came into the National Museum at Christiania to tell the curator, Prof. Gustafson, that he had discovered traces of a boat on his farm at Oseberg. Gustafson found that the task was too great to be begun so late in the year: the digging out of the ship, and its removal to Christiania, occupied from just before Midsummer to just before Christmas of 1904. The potter's clay in which the ship was buried had preserved it, if possible, better than the Gokstad ship: but the movement of the soft subsoil had squeezed and broken both ship and contents. The ship was taken out of the earth in nearly two thousand fragments. These were carefully numbered and marked: each piece was treated, bent back into its right shape, and the ship was put together again plank by plank, as when it was first built. With the exception of a piece about half a yard long, five or six little bits let in, and one of the beams, the ship as it stands now consists of the original woodwork. Two-thirds of the rivets are the old ones. Till his death in 1915 Gustafson was occupied in treating and preparing for exhibition first the ship, and then its extraordinarily rich contents: a waggon and sledges beautifully carved, beds, chests, kitchen utensils which had been buried with the princess who had owned them. A full account of the find is only now being published[^[798]].

The Oseberg ship is the pleasure boat of a royal lady: clinker-built, of oak, exquisitely carved, intended not for long voyages but for the land-locked waters of the fiord, 70½ feet [21.5 m.] long by some 16½ feet [5 m.] broad. There are holes for fifteen oars down each side, and the ship carried mast and sail.

The upper part of the prow had been destroyed, but sufficient fragments have been found to show that it ended in the head of a snake-like creature, bent round in a coil. This explains the words hringed-stefna[^[799]], hring-naca[^[800]], wunden-stefna[^[801]], used of the ship in Beowulf. A similar ringed prow is depicted on an engraved stone from Tjängvide, now in the National Historical Museum at Stockholm. This is supposed to date from about the year 1000[^[802]].

The Gokstad and Oseberg ships, together with the ship of Tune, a much less complete specimen (unearthed in 1867, and found like the others on the shore of the Christiania fiord) owe their preservation to the clay, and the skill of Scandinavian antiquaries. Yet they are but three out of thousands of ship- or boat-burials. Schetelig enumerates 552 known instances from Norway alone. Often traces of the iron rivets are all that remain.

Ships preserved from the Baltic coast of Germany can be seen at Königsberg, Danzig and Stettin; they are smaller and apparently later; the best, that of Brösen, was destroyed.

The seamanship of Beowulf is removed by centuries from that of the (? fourth or fifth century) Nydam boat, which not only has no mast or proper keel, but is so built as to be little suited for sailing. In Beowulf the sea is a "sail-road," the word "to row" occurs only in the sense of "swim," sailing is assumed as the means by which Beowulf travels between the land of the Geatas and that of the Danes. Though he voyages with but fourteen companions, the ship is big enough to carry back four horses. How the sail may have been arranged is shown in many inscribed stones of the eighth to the tenth centuries: notably those of Stenkyrka[^[803]], Högbro[^[804]], and Tjängvide[^[805]].

The Oseberg and Gokstad ships are no doubt later than the composition of Beowulf. But it is when looking at the Oseberg ship, especially if we picture the great prow like the neck of a swan ending in a serpent's coil, that we can best understand the words of Beowulf

flota fāmī-heals fugle gelīcost,

wunden-stefna,

well rendered by Earle "The foamy-necked floater, most like to a bird—the coily-stemmed."

See Boehmer (G. H.), Prehistoric Naval Architecture of the North of Europe, Report of the U.S. National Museum for 1891 (now rather out of date); Guðmundsson (V.), Nordboernes Skibe i Vikinge- og Sagatiden, København, 1900; [*]Schnepper, Die Namen der Schiffe u. Schiffsteile im Altenglischen (Kiel Diss.), 1908; Falk (H.), Altnordisches Seewesen (Wörter u. Sachen, IV, Heidelberg, 1912); Hoops' Reallexikon, s.v. Schiff.

G. LEIRE BEFORE ROLF KRAKI

That Leire was the royal town, not merely of Rolf Kraki, but of Rolf's predecessors as well, is stated in the Skjoldunga Saga, extant in the Latin abstract of Arngrim Jonsson: Scioldus in arce Selandiae Hledro sedes posuit, quae et sequentium plurimorum regum regia fuit (ed. Olrik, København, 1894, p. 23 [105]). Similarly we are told in the Ynglinga Saga, concerning Gefion, Hennar fekk Skjǫldr, sonr Óðins; þau bjoggu at Hleiðru (Heimskringla, udgivne ved F. Jónsson, København, I, 15 [cap. V]).

Above all, it is clear from the Annales Lundenses that, in the twelfth century, Dan, Ro (Hrothgar) and Haldan (Healfdene) were traditionally connected with Leire, and three of the grave mounds there were associated with these three kings. See the extract given above, pp. [204]-5, and cf. p. [17].

H. BEE-WOLF AND BEAR'S SON

The obvious interpretation of the name Bēowulf is that suggested by Grimm[^[806]], that it means "wolf, or foe, of the bee." Grimm's suggestion was repeated independently by Skeat[^[807]], and further reasons for the interpretation "bee-foe" have been found by Sweet[^[808]] (who had been anticipated by Simrock[^[809]] in some of his points), by Cosijn[^[810]], Sievers[^[811]], von Grienberger[^[812]], Panzer[^[813]] and Björkman[^[814]].

From the phonological point of view the etymology is a

perfect one, but many of those who were convinced that "Beowulf" meant "bee-foe" had no satisfactory explanation of "bee-foe" to offer[^[815]]. Others, like Bugge, whilst admitting that, so far as the form of the words goes, the etymology is satisfactory, rejected "bee-foe" because it seemed to them meaningless[^[816]].

Yet it is very far from meaningless. "Bee-foe" means "bear." The bear has got a name, or nickname, in many northern languages from his habit of raiding the hives for honey. The Finnish name for bear is said to be "honey-hand": he is certainly called "sweet-foot," sötfot, in Sweden, and the Old Slavonic name, "honey-eater," has come to be accepted in Russian, not merely as a nickname, but as the regular term for "bear."

And "bear" is an excellent name for a hero of story. The O.E. beorn, "warrior, hero, prince" seems originally to have meant simply "bear." The bear, says Grimm, "is regarded, in the belief of the Old Norse, Slavonic, Finnish and Lapp peoples, as an exalted and holy being, endowed with human understanding and the strength of twelve men. He is called 'forest-king,' 'gold-foot,' 'sweet-foot,' 'honey-hand,' 'honey-paw,' 'honey-eater,' but also 'the great,' 'the old,' 'the old grandsire[^[817]].'" "Bee-hunter" is then a satisfactory explanation of Bēowulf: while the alternative explanations are none of them satisfactory.

Many scholars have been led off the track by the assumption that Beow and Beowulf are to be identified, and that we must therefore assume that the first element in Beowulf's name is Bēow—that we must divide not Bēo-wulf but Bēow-ulf, "a warrior after the manner of Beow[^[818]]." But there is no ground

for any such assumption. It is true that in ll. 18, 53, "Beowulf" is written where we should have expected "Beowa." But, even if two words of similar sound have been confused, this fact affords no reason for supposing that they must necessarily have been in the first instance connected etymologically. And against the "warrior of Beow" interpretation is the fact that the name is recorded in the early Northumbrian Liber Vitae under the form "Biuuulf[^[819]]." This name, which is that of an early monk of Durham, is presumably the same as that of the hero of our poem, though it does not, of course, follow that the bearer of it was named with any special reference to the slayer of Grendel. Now Biuuulf is correct Northumbrian for "bee-wolf," but the first element in the word cannot stand for Bēow[^[820]], unless the

affinities and forms of that word are quite different from all that the evidence has hitherto led us to believe. So much at least seems certain. Besides, we have seen that Byggvir is taunted by Loki precisely with the fact that he is no warrior. If we can estimate the characteristics of the O.E. Beow from those of the Scandinavian Byggvir, the name "Warrior after the manner of Beow" would be meaningless, if not absurd. Bugge[^[821]], relying upon the parallel O.N. form Bjólfr[^[822]], which is recorded as the name of one of the early settlers in Iceland[^[823]], tried to interpret the word as Bœjólfr "the wolf of the farmstead," quoting as parallels Heimulf, Gardulf. But Bjólfr itself is best interpreted as "Bee-wolf[^[824]]." And admittedly Bugge's explanation does not suit the O.E. Bēowulf, and necessitates the assumption that the word in English is a mere meaningless borrowing from the Scandinavian: for Bēowulf assuredly does not mean "wolf of the farmstead[^[825]]."

Neither can we take very seriously the explanation of Sarrazin and Ferguson[^[826]] that Bēowulf is an abbreviation of Beadu-wulf, "wolf of war." Our business is to interpret the name Bēowulf, or, if we cannot, to admit that we cannot; not to substitute some quite distinct name for it, and interpret that. Such theories merely show to what straits we may be reduced, if we reject the obvious etymology of the word.

And there are two further considerations, which confirm, almost to a certainty, this obvious interpretation of "Beowulf" as "Bee-wolf" or "Bear." The first is that it agrees excellently with Beowulf's bear-like habit of hugging his adversaries to death—a feature which surely belongs to the original kernel of our story, since it is incompatible with the chivalrous,

weapon-loving trappings in which that story has been dressed[^[827]]. The second is that, as I have tried to show, the evidence is strongly in favour of Bjarki and Beowulf being originally the same figure[^[828]]: and Bjarki is certainly a bear-hero[^[829]]. His name signifies as much, and in the Saga of Rolf Kraki we are told at length how the father of Bjarki was a prince who had been turned by enchantment into a bear[^[830]].

If, then, Beowulf is a bear-hero[^[831]], the next step is to enquire whether there is any real likeness between his adventures at Heorot and under the mere, and the adventures of the hero of the widely-spread "Bear's Son" folk-tale. This investigation has, as we have seen above[^[832]], been carried out by Panzer in his monumental work, which marks an epoch in the study of Beowulf.

Panzer's arguments in favour of such connection would, I think, have been strengthened if he had either quoted textually a number of the more important and less generally accessible folk-tales, or, since this would have proved cumbersome, if he had at least given abstracts of them. The method which Panzer follows, is to enumerate over two hundred tales, and from them to construct a story which is a compound of them all. This is obviously a method which is liable to abuse, though I do not say that Panzer has abused it. But we must not let a story so constructed usurp in our minds the place of the actual recorded folk-tales. Folk-tales, as Andrew Lang wrote long ago, "consist of but few incidents, grouped together in a kaleidoscopic variety of arrangements." A collection of over two hundred cognate tales offers a wide field for the selection therefrom of a composite story. Further, some geographical discrimination is necessary: these tales are scattered over Europe and Asia, and it is important to keep constantly in mind whether a given type of tale belongs, for example, to Greece or to Scandinavia.

A typical example of the Bear's son tale is Der Starke Hans in Grimm[^[833]]. Hans is brought up in a robber's den: but quite apart from any of the theories we are now considering, it has long been recognized that this is a mere toning down of the original incredible story, which makes a bear's den the nursery of the strong youth[^[834]]. Hans overcomes in an empty castle the foe (a mannikin of magic powers) who has already worsted his comrades Fir-twister and Stone-splitter. He pursues this foe to his hole, is let down by his companions in a basket by a rope, slays the foe with his club and rescues a princess. He sends up the princess in the basket; but when his own turn comes to be pulled up his associates intentionally drop the basket when halfway up. But Hans, suspecting treason, has only sent up his club. He escapes by magic help, takes vengeance on the traitors, and weds the princess.

In another story in Grimm[^[835]], the antagonist whom the hero overcomes, but does not in this case slay, is called the Earthman, Dat Erdmänneken. This type begins with the disappearance of the princesses, who are to the orthodox number of three; otherwise it does not differ materially from the abstract given above. Grimm records four distinct versions, all from Western Germany.

The versions of this widespread story which are most easily accessible to English readers are likely to prejudice such readers against Panzer's view. The two versions in Campbell's Popular Tales of the West Highlands[^[836]], or the version in Kennedy's Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts[^[837]] are not of a kind to remind any unprejudiced reader strongly of Beowulf, or of the Grettir-story either. Indeed, I believe that from countries so remote as North Italy or Russia parallels can be found which are closer than any so far quoted from the Celtic portions of the British Isles. Possibly more Celtic parallels may be forthcoming in the future: some striking ones at any rate are promised[^[838]].

So, too, the story of the "Great Bird Dan" (Fugl Dam[^[839]]), which is accessible to English readers in Dasent's translation[^[840]], is one in which the typical features have been overlaid by a mass of detail.

A much more normal specimen of the "Bear's son" story is found, for example, in a folk-tale from Lombardy—the story of Giovanni dell' Orso[^[841]]. Giovanni is brought up in a bear's den, whither his mother has been carried off. At five, he has the growth of a man and the strength of a giant. At sixteen, he is able to remove the stone from the door of the den and escape, with his mother. Going on his adventures with two comrades, he comes to an empty palace. The comrades are defeated: it becomes the turn of Giovanni to be alone. An old man comes in and "grows, grows till his head touched the roof[^[842]]." Giovanni mortally wounds the giant, who however escapes. They all go in search of him, and find a hole in the ground. His comrades let Giovanni down by a rope. He finds a great hall, full of rich clothes and provision of every kind: in a second hall he finds three girls, each one more beautiful than the other: in a third hall he finds the giant himself, drawing up his will[^[843]]. Giovanni kills the giant, rescues the damsels, and, in spite of his comrades deserting the rope, he escapes, pardons them, himself weds the youngest princess and marries his comrades to the elder ones.

I cannot find in this version any mention of the hero smiting the giant below with a magic sword which he finds there, as suggested by Panzer[^[844]]. But even without this, the first part of the story has resemblances to Beowulf, and still more to the Grettir-story.

There are many Slavonic variants. The South Russian story of the Norka[^[845]] begins with the attack of the Norka upon the King's park. The King offers half his kingdom to whomsoever will destroy the beast. The youngest prince of three watches,

after the failure of his two elder brothers, chases and wounds the monster, who in the end pulls up a stone and disappears into the earth. The prince is let down by his brothers, and, with the help of a sword specially given him in the underworld, and a draught of the water of strength, he slays the foe, and wins the princesses. In order to have these for themselves, the elder brothers drop what they suppose to be their youngest brother, as they are drawing him up: but it is only a stone he has cautiously tied to the rope in place of himself. The prince's miraculous return in disguise, his feats, recognition by the youngest princess, the exposure of the traitors, and marriage of the hero, all follow in due course[^[846]].

A closer Russian parallel is that of Ivashko Medvedko[^[847]]. "John Honey-eater" or "Bear." John grows up, not by years, but by hours: nearly every hour he gains an inch in height. At fifteen, there are complaints of his rough play with other village boys, and John Bear has to go out into the world, after his grandfather has provided him with a weapon, an iron staff of immense weight. He meets a champion who is drinking up a river: "Good morning, John Bear, whither art going?" "I know not whither; I just go, not knowing where to go." "If so, take me with you." The same happens with a second champion whose hobby is to carry mountains on his shoulder, and with a third, who plucks up oaks or pushes them into the ground. They come to a revolving house in a dark forest, which at John's word stands with its back door to the forest and its front door to them: all its doors and windows open of their own accord. Though the yard is full of poultry, the house is empty. Whilst the three companions go hunting, the river-swallower stays in the house to cook dinner: this done, he washes his head, and sits at the window to comb his locks. Suddenly the earth shakes, then stands still: a stone is lifted, and from under it appears Baba Yaga driving in her mortar with a pestle: behind her comes barking a little dog. A short dialogue ensues, and the champion, at her request, gives her food; but the second helping she throws to her dog, and thereupon beats the champion with

her pestle till he becomes unconscious; then she cuts a strip of skin from his back, and after eating all the food, vanishes. The victim recovers his senses, ties up his head with a handkerchief, and, when his companions return, apologizes for the ill-success of his cooking: "He had been nearly suffocated by the fumes of the charcoal, and had had his work cut out to get the room clear." Exactly the same happens to the other champions. On the fourth day it is the turn of John Bear, and here again the same formulas are repeated. John does the cooking, washes his head, sits down at the window and begins to comb his curly locks. Baba Yaga appears with the usual phenomena, and the usual dialogue follows, till she begins to belabour the hero with her pestle. But he wrests it from her, beats her almost to death, cuts three strips from her skin, and imprisons her in a closet. When his companions return, they are astonished to find dinner ready. After dinner they have a bath, and the companions try not to show their mutilated backs, but at last have to confess. "Now I see why you all suffered from suffocation," says John Bear. He goes to the closet, takes the three strips cut from his friends, and reinserts them: they heal at once. Then he ties up Baba Yaga by a cord fastened to one foot, and they all shoot at the cord in turn. John Bear hits it, and cuts the string in two; Baba Yaga falls to the earth, but rises, runs to the stone from under which she had appeared, lifts it, and vanishes. Each of the companions tries in turn to lift the stone, but only John can accomplish it, and only he is willing to go down. His comrades let him down by a rope, which however is too short, and John has to eke it out by the three strips previously cut from the back of Baba Yaga. At the bottom he sees a path, follows it, and reaches a palace where are three beautiful maidens, who welcome him, but warn him against their mother, who is Baba Yaga herself: "She is asleep now, but she keeps at her head a sword. Do not touch it, but take two golden apples lying on a silver tray, wake her gently, and offer them to her. As soon as she begins to eat, seize the sword, and cut her head off at one blow." John Bear carries out these instructions, and sends up the maidens, two to be wives to his companions, and the youngest to be his own wife. This leaves the third companion wifeless

and, in indignation, he cuts the rope when the turn comes to pull John up. The hero falls and is badly hurt. [John has forgotten, in this version, to put his iron club into the basket instead of himself—indeed he has up to now made no use of his staff.] In time the hero sees an underground passage, and makes his way out into the white world. Here he finds the youngest maiden, who is tending cattle, after refusing to marry the false companion. John Bear follows her home, slays his former comrades with his staff, and throws their bodies on the field for the wild beasts to devour. He then takes his sweetheart home to his people, and weds her.

The abstract given above is from a translation made by one of my students, Miss M. Steine, who tells me that she had heard the tale in this form many times from her old nurse "when we were being sent to sleep, or sitting round her in the evening." I have given it at this length because I do not know of any accessible translation into any Western language.

Panzer enumerates two hundred and two variants of the story: and there are others[^[848]]. But there is reason in the criticism that what is important for us is the form the folk-tale may have taken in those countries where we must look for the original home of the Beowulf-story[^[849]]. The Mantuan folk-tale may have been carried down to North Italy from Scandinavia by the Longobards: who can say? But Panzer's theory must stand or fall by the parallels which can be drawn between the Beowulf-Grettir-story on the one hand, and the folk-tales as they have been collected in the countries where this story is native: the lands, that is to say, adjoining the North Sea.

Now it is precisely here that we do find the most remarkable resemblances: in Iceland, the Faroes, Norway, Denmark, Jutland, Schleswig, and the Low German lands as far as the Scheldt.

An Icelandic version exists in an unprinted MS at Reykjavik[^[850]] which can be consulted in a German translation[^[851]]. In this

version a bear, who is really an enchanted prince, carries off a princess. He resumes his human form and weds the princess, but must still at times take the bear's form. His child, the Bear-boy (Bjarndreingur), is to be kept in the house during the long periods when the enchanted husband is away. But at twelve years old the Bear-boy is too strong and unmanageable, bursts out, and slays a bear who turns out to be his father. His mother's heart is broken, but Bear-boy goes on his adventures, and associates with himself three companions, one of whom is Stein. They build a house in the wood, which is attacked by a giant, and, as usual, the companions are unable to withstand the attacks. Bear-boy does so, ties the giant's hands behind his back, and fastens him by his beard. But the giant tears himself free. As in Beowulf, Bear-boy and his companions follow the track by the drops of blood, and come to a hole. Stein is let some way down, the other companions further, but only Bear-boy dares to go to the bottom. There he finds a weeping princess, and learns that she, and her two sisters, have been carried off by three giants, one of whom is his former assailant. He slays all three, and sends their heads up, together with the maidens and other treasures. But his companions desert the rope, and he has to climb up unaided. In the end he weds the youngest princess.

The story from the Faroe Islands runs thus:

Three brothers lived together and took turns, two to go out fishing, and one to be at home. For two days, when the two elder brothers were at home, came a giant with a long beard (Skeggjatussi) and ate and drank all the food. Then comes the turn of the despised youngest brother, who is called in one version Øskudólgur—"the one who sits and rakes in the ashes"—a kind of male Cinderella. This brother routs the giant, either by catching his long beard in a cleft tree-trunk, or by branding him in the nose with a hot iron. In either case the mutilated giant escapes down a hole: in one version, after the other brothers come home, they follow him to this hole by the track of his blood. The two elder brothers leave the task of plunging down to the youngest one, who finds below a girl (in the second version, two kidnapped princesses). He finds also a magic sword hanging

on the wall, which he is only able to lift when he has drunk a magic potion. He then slays the giant, rescues the maiden or maidens, is betrayed in the usual way by his brothers: in the one version they deliberately refuse to draw him up: in the other they cut the rope as they are doing so: but he is discreetly sending up only a big stone. The hero is helped out, however, by a giant, "Skræddi Kjálki" or "Snerkti risi," and in the end marries the princess[^[852]].

In the Norwegian folk-tale the three adventurers are called respectively the Captain, the Lieutenant and the Soldier. They search for the three princesses, and watch in a castle, where the Captain and Lieutenant are in turn worsted by a strange visitor—who in this version is not identical with the troll below ground who guards the princesses[^[853]]. When the turn of the Soldier comes, he seizes the intruder (the man, as he is called).

"Ah no, Ah no, spare my life," said the man, "and you shall know all. East of the castle is a great sandheap, and down in it a winch, with which you can lower yourself. But if you are afraid, and do not dare to go right down, you only need to pull the bell rope which you will find there, and up you will come again. But if you dare venture so far as to come to the bottom, there stands a flask on a shelf over the door: you must drink what is in it: so will you become so strong that you can strike the head off the troll of the mountain. And by the door there hangs a Troll-sword, which also you must take, for no other steel will bite on his body."

When he had learnt this, he let the man go. When the Captain and the Lieutenant came home, they were not a little surprised to find the Soldier alive. "How have you escaped a drubbing," said they, "has not the man been here?" "Oh yes, he is quite a good fellow, he is," said the Soldier, "I have learnt from him where the princesses are," and he told them all. They were glad when they heard that, and when they had eaten, they went all three to the sandheap.

As usual, the Captain and the Lieutenant do not dare to go to the bottom: the hero accomplishes the adventure, is (as usual) betrayed by his comrades, but is saved because he has put a stone in the basket instead of himself, and in the end is rescued by the interposition of "Kløverhans."

What is the explanation of the "sandheap" (sandhaug) I do not know. But one cannot forget that Grettir's adventure in the house, followed by his adventure with the troll under the earth, is localized at Sandhaugar. This may be a mere accident; but it is worth noting that in following up the track indicated by Panzer we come across startling coincidences of this kind. As stated above, it can hardly be due to any influence of the Grettis Saga upon the folk-tale[^[854]]. The likeness between the two is too remote to have suggested a transference of such details from the one story to the other.

We find the story in its normal form in Jutland[^[855]]. The hero, a foundling, is named Bjørnøre (Bear-ears). There is no explanation offered of this name, but we know that in other versions of the story, where the hero is half bear and half man, his bear nature is shown by his bear's ears. "Bear-ears" comes with his companions to an empty house, worsts the foe (the old man, den gamle) who has put his companions to shame, and fixes him by his beard in a cloven tree. The foe escapes nevertheless; they follow him to his hole: the companions are afraid, but "Bear-ears" is let down, finds the enemy on his bed, and slays him. The rest of the story follows the usual pattern. "Bear-ears" rescues and sends up the princesses, his comrades detach the rope, which however is hauling up only the hero's iron club. He escapes miraculously from his confinement below, and returns to marry the youngest princess. In another Danish version, from the South of Zealand[^[856]], the hero, "Strong Hans" (nothing is said

about his bear-origin), comes with his companions to a magnificent but empty castle. The old witch worsts his comrades and imprisons them under the trap-door: but Hans beats her and rescues them, though the witch herself escapes. Hans is let down, rescues the princesses, is betrayed by his comrades (who, thinking to drop him in drawing him up, only drop his iron club), and finally weds the third princess.

A little further South we have three versions of the same tale recorded for Schleswig-Holstein[^[857]]. The hero wins his victory below by means of "a great iron sword" (en grotes ysernes Schwäert) which he can only wield after drinking of the magic potion.

From Hanover comes the story of Peter Bär[^[858]], which shows all the familiar features: from the same district came some of Grimm's variants. Others were from the Rhine provinces: but the fullest version of all comes from the Scheldt, just over the Flemish border. The hero, Jean l'Ourson, is recovered as a child from a bear's den, is despised in his youth[^[859]], but gives early proof of his strength. He defends an empty castle un superbe château, when his companion has failed, strikes off an arm[^[860]] of his assailant Petit-Père-Bidoux, chases him to his hole, un puits vaste et profond. He is let down by his companion, but finding the rope too short, plunges, and arrives battered at the bottom. There he perceives une lumière qui brillait au bout d'une longue galerie[^[861]]. At the end of the gallery he sees his former assailant, attended by une vieille femme à cheveux blancs, qui semblait âgée de plus de cent ans, who is salving his wounded arm. The hero quenches the light (which is a magic one) smites his foe on the head and kills him, and then rekindles the lamp[^[862]]. His companion above seeks to rob him of the two princesses he has won, by detaching the rope. Nevertheless, he escapes, weds the good princess, and punishes his faithless companion by making him wed the bad one.

The white-haired old woman is not spoken of as the mother

of the foe she is nursing, and it may be doubted whether she is in any way parallel to Grendel's mother. The hero does not fight her: indeed it is she who, in the end, enables him to escape. Still the parallels between Jean l'Ourson and Beowulf are striking enough. Nine distinct features recur, in the same order, in the Beowulf-story and in this folk-tale. It needs a more robust faith than I possess to attribute this solely to chance.

Unfortunately, this French-Flemish tale is found in a somewhat sophisticated collection. Its recorder, as Sainte-Beuve points out in his letter introductory to the series[^[863]], uses literary touches which diminish the value of his folk-tales to the student of origins. Any contamination from the Beowulf-story or the Grettir-story is surely improbable enough in this case: nevertheless, one would have liked the tale taken down verbatim from the lips of some simple-minded narrator as it used to be told at Condé on the Scheldt.

But if we take together the different versions enumerated above, the result is, I think, convincing. Here are eight versions of one folk-tale taken as representatives from a much larger number current in the countries in touch with the North Sea: from Iceland, the Faroes, Norway, Jutland, Zealand, Schleswig, Hanover, and the Scheldt. The champion is a bear-hero (as Beowulf almost certainly is, and as Bjarki quite certainly is); he is called, in Iceland, Bjarndreingur, in Jutland, Bjørnøre, in Hanover, Peter Bär, on the Scheldt Jean l'Ourson. Like Beowulf, he is despised in his youth (Faroe, Scheldt). In all versions he resists his adversary in an empty house or castle, after his comrades have failed. In most versions of the folk-tale this is the third attack, as it is in the case of Grettir at Sandhaugar and of Bjarki: in Beowulf, on the contrary, we gather that Heorot has been raided many times. The adversary, though vanquished, escapes; in one version after the loss of an arm (Scheldt): they follow his track to the hole into which he has vanished, sometimes, as in Beowulf, marking traces of his blood (Iceland, Faroe, Schleswig). The hero always ventures down alone, and gets into

an underworld of magic, which has left traces of its mysteriousness in Beowulf. In one tale (Scheldt) the hero sees a magic lamp burning below, just as he sees the fire in Beowulf or the Grettis Saga. He overcomes either his original foe, or new ones, often by the use of a magic sword (Faroe, Norway, Schleswig); this sword hangs by the door (Norway) or on the wall (Faroe) as in Beowulf. After slaying his foe, the hero rekindles the magic lamp, in the Scheldt fairy tale, just as he kindles a light in the Grettis Saga, and as the light flashes up in Beowulf after the hero has smitten Grendel's mother. The hero is in each case deserted by his companions: a feature which, while it is marked in the Grettis Saga, can obviously be allowed to survive in Beowulf only in a much softened form. The chosen retainers whom Beowulf has taken with him on his journey could not be represented as unfaithful, because the poet is reserving the episode of the faithless retainers for the death of Beowulf. To have twice represented the escort as cowardly would have made the poem a satire upon the comitatus, and would have assured it a hostile reception in every hall from Canterbury to Edinburgh. But there is no doubt as to the faithlessness of the comrade Stein in the Grettis Saga. And in Zealand, one of the faithless companions is called Stenhuggeren (the Stone-hewer), in Schleswig Steenklöwer, in Hanover Steinspieler, whilst in Iceland he has the same name, Stein, which he has in the Grettis Saga.

The fact that the departure home of the Danes in Beowulf is due to the same cause as that which accounts for the betrayal of his trust by Stein, shows that in the original Beowulf-story also this feature must have occurred, however much it may have become worn down in the existing epic.

I think enough has been said to show that there is a real likeness between a large number of recorded folk-tales and the Beowulf-Grettir story. The parallel is not merely with an artificial, theoretical composite put together by Panzer. But it becomes equally clear that Beowulf cannot be spoken of as a version of these folk-tales. At most it is a version of a portion of them. The omission of the princesses in Beowulf and the Grettis Saga is fundamental. With the princesses much else falls away. There is no longer any motive for the betrayal of trust

by the watchers. The disguise of the hero and his vengeance are now no longer necessary to the tale.

It might be argued that there was something about the three princesses which made them unsatisfactory as subjects of story. It has been thought that in the oldest version the hero married all three: an awkward episode where a scop had to compose a poem for an audience certainly monogamous and most probably Christian. The rather tragic and sombre atmosphere of the stories of Beowulf and Grettir fits in better with a version from which the princesses, and the living happily ever afterwards, have been dropped. On the other hand, it might be argued that the folk-tale is composite, and that the source from which the Beowulf-Grettir-story drew was a simpler tale to which the princesses had not yet been added.

And there are additions as well as subtractions. Alike in Beowulf and in the Grettis Saga, the fight in the house and the fight below are associated with struggles with monsters of different sex. The association of "The Devil and his Dam" has only few and remote parallels in the "Bear's-son" folk-tale.

But Panzer has, I think, proved that the struggle of Beowulf in the hall, and his plunging down into the deep, is simply an epic glorification of a folk-tale motive.

I. THE DATE OF THE DEATH OF HYGELAC.

Gregory of Tours mentions the defeat of Chochilaicus (Hygelac) as an event of the reign of Theudoric. Now Theudoric succeeded his father Chlodoweg, who died 27 Nov. 511. Theudoric died in 534. This, then, gives the extreme limits of time; but as Gregory mentions the event among the first occurrences of the reign, the period 512-520 has generally been suggested, or in round numbers about 515 or 516.

Nevertheless, we cannot attach much importance to the mere order followed by Gregory[^[864]]. He may well have had no means of dating the event exactly. Of much more importance than the order, is the fact he records, that Theudoric did not

defeat Chochilaicus in person, but sent his son Theudobert to repel the invaders.

Now Theudobert was born before the death of his grandfather Chlodoweg. For Gregory tells us that Chlodoweg left not only four sons, but a grandson Theudobert, elegantem atque utilem[^[865]]: utilem cannot mean that, at the time of the death of Chlodoweg, Theudobert was of age to conduct affairs of state, for Chlodoweg was only 45 at death[^[866]]. The Merovingians were a precocious race; but if we are to allow Theudobert to have been at least fifteen before being placed in charge of a very important expedition, and Chlodoweg to have been at least forty before becoming a grandfather, the defeat of Hygelac cannot be put before 521; and probability would favour a date five or ten years later.

There is confirmation for this. When Theudobert died, in 548, he left one son only, quite a child and still under tutelage[^[867]]; probably therefore not more than twelve or thirteen at most. We know the circumstances of the child's birth. Theudobert had been betrothed by his father Theudoric to a Longobardic princess, Wisigardis[^[868]]. In the meantime he fell in love with the lady Deoteria[^[869]], and married her[^[870]]. The Franks were shocked at this fickleness (valde scandalizabantur), and Theudobert had ultimately to put away Deoteria[^[871]], although they had this young son (parvulum filium), who, as we have seen, could hardly have been born before 535, and possibly was born years later. Theudobert then married the Longobardic princess, in the seventh year after their betrothal. So it cannot have been much before 530 that Theudobert's father was first arranging the Longobardic match. A king is not likely to have waited to find a wife for a son, upon whom his dynasty was to depend, till fifteen years after that son was of age to win a memorable victory[^[872]].

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF BEOWULF AND FINNSBURG

I remember it was with extreme difficulty that I could bring my master to understand the meaning of the word opinion, or how a point could be disputable; because reason taught us to affirm or deny only where we are certain; and beyond our knowledge we cannot do either. So that controversies, wranglings, disputes, and positiveness in false or dubious propositions are evils unknown among the Houyhnhnms.... He would laugh that a creature pretending to reason should value itself upon the knowledge of other people's conjectures, and in things, where that knowledge, if it were certain, could be of no use....

I have often since reflected what destruction such a doctrine would make in the libraries of Europe.

Gulliver's Travels.

The following items are (except in special cases) not included in this bibliography:

(a) Articles dealing with single passages in Beowulf, or two passages only, in cases where they have already been recorded under the appropriate passage in the footnotes to the text, or in the glossary, of my revision of Wyatt's edition.

(b) Articles dealing with the emendation or interpretation of single passages, in cases where such emendations have been withdrawn by their author himself.

(c) Purely popular paraphrases or summaries.

(d) Purely personal protests (e.g., P.B.B. XXI, 436), however well founded, in which no point of scholarship is any longer involved.

Books dealing with other subjects, but illustrating Beowulf, present a difficulty. Such books may have a value for Beowulf students, even though the author may never refer to our poem, and have occasionally been included in previous bibliographies. But, unless Beowulf is closely concerned, these books are not usually mentioned below: such enumeration, if carried out consistently, would clog a bibliography already all too bulky. Thus, Siecke's Drachenkämpfe does not seem to come within the scope of this bibliography, because the author is not concerned with Beowulf's dragon.

Obviously every general discussion of Old English metre must concern itself largely with Beowulf: for such treatises the student is referred to the section Metrik of Brandl's Bibliography (Pauls Grdr.); and, for Old English heroic legend in general, to the Bibliography of my edition of Widsith.

Many scholars, e.g. Heinzel, have put into their reviews of the books of others, much original work which might well have formed the material for independent articles. Such reviews are noted as "weighty," but it must not be supposed that the reviews not so marked are negligible; unless of some value to scholarship, reviews are not usually mentioned below.

The title of any book, article or review which I have not seen and verified is denoted by the sign ‡.

SUMMARY

[§ 1]. Periodicals.

[§ 2]. Bibliographies.

[§ 3]. The MS and its transcripts.

[§ 4]. Editions.

[§ 5]. Concordances, etc.

[§ 6]. Translations (including early summaries).

[§ 7]. Textual criticism and interpretation.

[§ 8]. Questions of literary history, date and authorship. Beowulf in the light of history, archæology[^[873]], heroic legend, mythology and folk-lore.

[§ 9]. Style and Grammar.

[§ 10]. Metre.

[§ 1]. PERIODICALS

The periodicals most frequently quoted are:

A.f.d.A. = Anzeiger für deutsches Alterthum. Berlin, 1876 etc.

A.f.n.F. = Arkiv för nordisk Filologi. Christiania, Lund, 1883 etc. Quoted according to the original numbering.

Anglia. Halle, 1878 etc.

Archiv = Herrigs Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Litteraturen. Elberfeld, Braunschweig, 1846 etc. Quoted according to the original numbering.

D.L.Z. = Deutsche Literatur-Zeitung. Berlin, 1880 etc.

Engl. Stud. = Englische Studien. Heilbronn, Leipzig, 1877 etc.

Germania. Wien, 1856-92.

I.F. = Indogermanische Forschungen. Strassburg, 1892 etc.

J.(E.)G.Ph. = Journal of (English and) Germanic Philology. Bloomington, Urbana, 1897 etc.

Lit. Cbl. = Literarisches Centralblatt. Leipzig, 1851 etc.

Literaturblatt für germanische und romanische Philologie. Heilbronn, Leipzig, 1880 etc.

M.L.N. = Modern Language Notes. Baltimore, 1886 etc. Quoted by the page, not the column.

M.L.R. = The Modern Language Review. Cambridge, 1906 etc.

Mod. Phil. = Modern Philology. Chicago, 1903 etc.

Morsbachs Studien zur englischen Philologie. Halle, 1897 etc.

P.B.B. = Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache u. Litteratur. Halle, 1874 etc.

Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. = Publications of the Modern Language Association of America. Baltimore, 1889 etc.

Z.f.d.A. = Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum. Leipzig, Berlin, 1841 etc.

Z.f.d.Ph. = Zachers Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie. Halle, 1869 etc.

Z.f.ö.G. = Zeitschrift für die österreichischen Gymnasien. Wien, 1850 etc.

The titles of other periodicals are given with sufficient fulness for easy identification.

[§ 2]. BIBLIOGRAPHIES

Bibliographies have been published from time to time as a supplement to Anglia; also in the Jahresbericht über...german. Philologie; by Garnett in his Translation, 1882 etc.; and will be found in

Wülker's Grundriss (with very useful abstracts), 1885, pp. 245 etc.

Clark Hall's Translation, 1901, 1911.

Holthausen's Beowulf, 1906, 1909, 1913, 1919.

Brandl's Englische Literatur, in Pauls Grdr.(2), II, 1015-24 (full, but not so reliable as Holthausen's).

Sedgefield's Beowulf, 1910, 1913 (carefully selected).

An excellent critical bibliography of Beowulf-translations up to 1903 is that of Tinker: see under [§ 6], Translations.

[§ 3]. THE MS AND ITS TRANSCRIPTS

Beowulf fills ff. 129 (132)a to 198 (201)b of the British Museum MS Cotton Vitellius A. XV.

Beowulf is written in two hands, the first of which goes to l. 1939. This hand was identified by Prof. Sedgefield (Beowulf, Introduction, p. xiv, footnote) with that of the piece immediately preceding Beowulf in the MS, and by Mr Kenneth Sisam, in 1916, with that of all three immediately preceding pieces: the Christopher fragment, the Wonders of the East, and the Letter of Alexander on the Wonders of India. The pieces preceding these, however (the Soliloquies of S. Augustine, the Gospel of Nicodemus, Salomon and Saturn), are certainly not in the same hand, and their connection with the Beowulf-MS is simply due to the bookbinder.

From l. 1939 to the end, Beowulf is written in a second hand, thicker and less elegant than the first. This second hand seems to be clearly identical with that in which the poem of Judith, immediately following Beowulf, is written. This was pointed out by Sievers in 1872 (Z.f.d.A. XV, 457), and has never, I think, been disputed (cf. Sisam, p. 337; Förster, p. 31). Nevertheless the two poems have probably not always formed one book. For the last page of Beowulf was apparently once the last page of the volume, to judge from its battered condition, whilst Judith is imperfect at the beginning. And there are trifling differences, e.g. in the frequency of the use of contractions, and the form of the capital H.

This identity of the scribe of the second portion of Beowulf and the Judith scribe, together with the identity (pointed out by Mr Sisam) of the scribe of the first portion of Beowulf and the scribe of the three preceding works, is important. A detailed comparison of these texts will throw light upon the characteristics of the scribes.

That the three preceding works are in the same hand as that of the first Beowulf scribe was again announced, independently of Mr Sisam, by Prof. Max Förster, in 1919. Sievers had already in 1871 arrived at the same result (see Förster, p. 35, note) but had not published it.

It seems to me in the highest degree improbable that the Beowulf-MS has lost its ending, as Prof. Förster thinks (pp. 82, 88). Surely nothing could be better than the conclusion of the poem as it stands in the MS: that the

casual loss of a number of leaves could have resulted in so satisfactory a conclusion is, I think, not conceivable. Moreover, the scribe has crammed as much material as possible into the last leaf of Beowulf, making his lines abnormally long, and using contractions in a way he does not use them elsewhere. The only reason for this must be to avoid running over into a new leaf or quire: there could be no motive for this crowded page if the poem had ever run on beyond it.

There is pretty general agreement that the date of the Beowulf-MS is about the year 1000, and that it is somewhat more likely to be before that date than after.

The Beowulf-MS was injured in the great Cottonian fire of 1731, and the edges of the parchment have since chipped away owing to the damage then sustained. Valuable assistance can therefore be derived from the two transcripts now preserved in the Royal Library of Copenhagen, made in 1787, when the MS was much less damaged.

A. Poema anglosaxonicum de rebus gestis Danorum ... fecit exscribi Londini A.D. MDCCLXXXVII Grimus Johannis Thorkelin.

B. Poema anglosaxonicum de Danorum rebus gestis ... exscripsit Grimus Johannis Thorkelin. Londini MDCCLXXXVII.

The first description of the Beowulf-MS is in 1705 by H. Wanley (Librorum Septentrionalium ... Catalogus, pp. 218—19, Oxoniæ, forming vol. II of Hickes' Thesaurus). Two short extracts from the MS are given by Wanley. He describes the poem as telling of the wars quæ Beowulfus quidam Danus, ex regio Scyldingorum stirpe ortus, gessit contra Sueciæ regulos. The text was printed by Thorkelin in 1815, and the MS was collated by Conybeare, who in his Illustrations (1826) issued 19 pages of corrections of Thorkelin. These corrections were further corrected by J. M. Kemble in 1837 (Letter to M. Francisque Michel, in Michel's Bibliothèque Anglo-Saxonne, pp. 20, 51-8). Meantime Kemble's text had been issued in 1833, based upon his examination of the MS. The MS was also seen by Thorpe (in 1830: Thorpe's text was not published till 1855) and by Grundtvig (pub. 1861). A further collation was that of E. Kölbing in 1876 (Zur Beóvulf-handschrift, Archiv, LVI, 91-118). Kölbing's collation proves the superiority of Kemble's text to Grundtvig's. Line for line transcripts of the MS were those of Holder, Wülker and Zupitza:

1881 Holder, A. Beowulf. Bd. I. Abdruck der Handschrift. Freiburg u. Tübingen. (‡1881, from collation made in 1875.) Reviews: Kölbing, Engl. Stud. VII, 488; Kluge, Literaturblatt, 1883, 178; Wülker, Lit. Cbl. 1882, 1035-6.

1882. 2 Aufl.

1895. 3 Aufl. Reviews: Dieter, Anglia, Beiblatt, VI, 260-1; Brandl, Z.f.d.A. XL, 90.

1881 Wülker, R. P. Beowulf: Text nach der handschrift, in Grein's Bibliothek, I, 18-148.

1882 Zupitza, J. Beowulf. Autotypes of the unique Cotton MS. Vitellius A XV; with a transliteration and notes. Early English Text Society, London. Reviews: Trautmann, Anglia, VII, Anzeiger, 41; Kölbing, Engl. Stud. VII, 482 etc.; Varnhagen, A.f.d.A. X, 304; Sievers, Lit. Cbl. 1884, 124.

Further discussion of the MS by

1890 Davidson, C. Differences between the scribes of Beowulf. M.L.N. V, 43-4; McClumpha, C., criticizes the above, M.L.N. V, 123; reply by Davidson, M.L.N. V, 189-90.

1910 Lamb, Evelyn H. "Beowulf": Hemming of Worcester. Notes and Queries, Ser. XI, vol. I, p. 26. (Worthless. An assertion, unsupported by any evidence, that both the hands of the Beowulf MS are those of Hemming of Worcester, who flourished c. 1096.)

1916 Sisam, K. The Beowulf Manuscript. M.L.R. XI, 335-7. (Very important. Gives results of a scrutiny of the other treatises in MS Vitellius A. XV (see above) and shows, among other things, that the Beowulf MS, before reaching the hands of Sir Robert Cotton, was (in 1563) in those of Lawrence Nowell, the Elizabethan Anglo-Saxon scholar.)

1919 Förster, Max. Die Beowulf-Handschrift, Leipzig, Berichte der Sächs. Akad. der Wissenschaften, Bd. 71. (An excellent and detailed discussion of the problems of the MS, quite independent of that of Mr Sisam, whose results it confirms.) Review: Schröder, Z.f.d.A. LVIII, 85-6.

1920 Rypins, S. I. The Beowulf Codex. Mod. Phil. XVII, 541-8 (promising further treatment of the problems of the MS).

The MS of Finnsburg has been lost. See above, p. [245].

[§ 4]. EDITIONS OF BEOWULF AND FINNSBURG

1705 Hickes, G. Linguarum Vett. Septentrionalium Thesaurus. Oxoniæ. (Vol. I, 192-3, text of Finnsburg Fragment.)

1814 Conybeare, J. J. The Battle of Finsborough, in Brydges' British Bibliographer, vol. IV, pp. 261-7; No. XV (Text, Latin translation, and free verse paraphrase in English: some brief notes).

1815 Thorkelin, G. J. De Danorum rebus gestis secul. III et IV. Poëma Danicum dialecto Anglo-Saxonica. (Copenhagen, with Lat. transl.) Reviews: See [§ 7], Textual Criticism, 1815, Grundtvig; also Dansk Litteratur-Tidende, 1815, 401-32, 437-46, 461-2 (defending Thorkelin against Grundtvig); Iduna, vii, 1817, 133-59; Monthly Review, LXXXI, 1816, 516-23; ‡Jenaische Literatur-Zeitung, 1816, Ergänzungsblätter, 353-65 (summary in Wülker's Grundriss, p. 252); Outzen in Kieler Blätter, 1816, see [§ 8], below.

1817 Rask, R. K. Angelsaksisk sproglære. Stockholm (pp. 163-6 contain Beowulf, ll. 53-114, with commentary).

1820 Text of Finnsburg, given by Grundtvig in Bjowulfs Drape, pp. xl-xlv.

1826 Text of Finnsburg, and of large portions of Beowulf, given in Conybeare's Illustrations. See [§ 5], Translations.

1833 Kemble, J. M. Beowulf, the Travellers Song, and the Battle of Finnesburh, edited with a glossary ... and an historical preface. London.

1835. Second edit.

1847 Schaldemose, F. Beo-wulf og Scopes Widsið ... med Oversættelse. Kjøbenhavn. (Follows Kemble's text of 1835: Text and transl. of Finnsburg also given, pp. 161-4.) 1851, Reprinted.

1849 Klipstein, L. F. Analecta Anglo-Saxonica. New York. (Selections from Beowulf, II, 227-61: Text of Finnsburg, 426-7.)

1850 Ettmüller, L. Engla and Seaxna scopas and bōceras. Quedlinburg u. Leipzig. (Text of large portions of Beowulf, with Finnsburg, pp. 95-131.)

1855 Thorpe, B. The A.S. poems of Beowulf, the scop or gleeman's tale, and Finnesburg, with a literal translation ... Oxford. ‡1875, Reprinted.

1857 Grein, C. W. M. Bibliothek der angelsächsischen Poesie, I. Göttingen (pp. 255—343, Beóvulf, Ueberfall in Finnsburg).

1861-4. Bd. III, IV. Sprachschatz.

1861 Rieger, M. Alt- u. angelsächsisches Lesebuch. Giessen. (Der Kampf zu Finnsburg, pp. 61-3: aus dem Beovulf, 63-82.)

1861 Grundtvig, N. F. S. Beowulfes Beorh eller Bjovulfs-Drapen. Kiöbenhavn, London. (The Finnsburg Fragment is inserted in the text of Beowulf, after l. 1106.)

1863 Heyne, M. Beovulf, mit ausführlichem Glossar. Paderborn. (Anhang: Der Ueberfall in Finnsburg.) Reviews: Grein, Lit. Cbl. 1864, 137—8; Holtzmann, Germania, VIII, 506-7.

1868. ‡2 Aufl. Review: Rieger, Z.f.d.Ph. II, 371-4.

1873. 3 Aufl. Review: Sievers, Lit. Cbl. 1873, 662-3, brief but severe.

1879. 4 Aufl. [in this, Kölbing's collation of 1876 was utilized; see p. 82]. Reviews: Brenner, Engl. Stud. IV, 135-9; Gering, Z.f.d.Ph. XII, 122-5.

1867 Grein, C. W. M. Beovulf, nebst den Fragmenten Finnsburg u. Valdere. Cassel u. Göttingen.

1875 Ettmüller, L. Carmen de Beóvulfi, Gautarum regis, rebus praeclare gestis atque interitu, quale fuerit antequam in manus interpolatoris, monachi Vestsaxonici, inciderat. (Zürich. University Programme. The additions of the "interpolator" being omitted, the edition contains 2896 lines only.) Reviews: Schönbach, A.f.d.A. III, 36-46; ‡Suchier, Jenaer Literatur-Zeitung, XLVII, 1876, 732.

1876 Arnold, T. Beowulf, with a translation, notes and appendix. London. Reviews (unfavourable): Sweet, Academy, X, 1876, 588; Wülker, Lit. Cbl. 1877, 665-6, and Anglia, I, 177-86.

1879 Wülker, R. P. Kleinere angelsächsische Dichtungen. Halle, Leipzig. (Finnsburg, pp. 6-7.)

1883 Möller, H. Das altenglische Volksepos in der ursprünglichen strophischen Form. I. Abhandlungen. II. Texte. Kiel. (Containing only those parts of the Finn-story and of Beowulf which Möller regarded as "genuine," in strophic form.) Reviews: Heinzel, A.f.d.A. X, 215-33 (important); Schönbach, Z.f.ö.G. XXXV, 37-46.

1883 Wülker, R. P. Das Beowulfslied, nebst den kleineren epischen ... stücken. Kassel. (In the second edit. of Grein's Bibliothek der ags. Poesie.) Review: Kölbing, Engl. Stud. VII, 482 etc.

1883 Harrison, J. A. and Sharp, R. Beowulf. Boston, U.S.A. (‡1883, on the basis of Heyne's edition; with Finnsburg.) Reviews: York Powell, Academy, XXVI, 1884, 220-1; reply by Harrison, 308-9; by York Powell, 327; Kölbing, Engl. Stud. VII, 482; Bright, Literaturblatt, 1884, 221—3.

1892. Third edit.

1894. Fourth edit. Reviews: Wülker, Anglia, Beiblatt, V, 65-7; Glöde, Engl. Stud. XX, 417-18.

1884 Holder, A. Beowulf, II. Berichtigter Text u. Wörterbuch. Freiburg u. Tübingen. Reviews: York Powell, Academy, XXVI, 1884, 220-1; Wülker, Lit. Cbl. 1885, 1008-9; Krüger, Literaturblatt, 1884, 468-70.

1899. 2 Aufl. [with suggestions of Kluge and Cosijn]. Reviews: Trautmann, Anglia, Beiblatt, X, 257; Wülfing, Engl. Stud. XXIX, 278-9; Holthausen, Literaturblatt, 1900, 60-2 (important corrections).

1888 Heyne, M. and Socin, A. [Fifth edit. of Heyne's text.] Paderborn u. Münster. Reviews: Koeppel, Engl. Stud. XIII, 466-72; Heinzel, A.f.d.A. XV, 189-94; Sievers, Z.f.d.Ph. XXI, 354-65 (very important corrections); Schröer, Literaturblatt, 1889, 170-1.

1898. 6 Aufl. Reviews: Trautmann, Anglia, Beiblatt, X, 257; Holthausen, Anglia, Beiblatt, X, 265; Sarrazin, Engl. Stud. XXVIII, 408-10; Jantzen, Archiv, CIII, 175-6.

1903. 7 Aufl. Reviews: Holthausen, Anglia, Beiblatt, XVIII, 193-4; Klaeber, the same, 289-91; Kruisinga, Engl. Stud. XXXV, 401-2; v. Grienberger, Z.f.ö.G. LVI, 744-61 (very full); E. Kock, A.f.n.F. XXII, 215 (brief).

1894 Wyatt, A. J. Beowulf, edited with textual footnotes, index of proper names, and glossary. (Text of Finnsburg.) Cambridge. Reviews: Bradley, Academy, XLVI, 1894, 69-70; Wülker, Anglia, Beiblatt, V, 65-7; Brenner, Engl. Stud. XX, 296; Zupitza, Archiv, XCIV, 326-9.

1898. Second edit. Reviews: Trautmann, Anglia, Beiblatt, X, 257; Sarrazin, Engl. Stud. XXVIII, 407-8.

1902 Kluge, F. Angelsächsisches Lesebuch. 3 Aufl. Halle. (XXX. Der Überfall von Finnsburuh, pp. 127-8.)

1903 Trautmann, M. Finn u. Hildebrand. Bonner Beiträge, VII. (Text, translation and comment on the Episode and Fragment.) Reviews: Binz, Z.f.d.Ph. XXXVII, 529-36; Jantzen, Die Neueren Sprachen, XI, 543-8; Neue philol. Rundschau, 1903, 619-21 (signed -tz- ? Jantzen). Some additional notes by Trautmann, "Nachträgliches zu Finn u. Hildebrand" appeared in Bonner Beiträge, XVII, 122.

1904 Trautmann, M. Das Beowulflied ... das Finn-Bruchstück u. die Waldhere-Bruchstücke. Bearbeiteter Text u. deutsche Übersetzung. Bonner Beiträge, XVI. Reviews: Klaeber, M.L.N. XX, 83-7 (weighty); Eckhardt, Engl. Stud. XXXVII, 401-3; Schücking, Archiv, CXV, 417-21; Barnouw, Museum, XIV, 96-8; Neue philologische Rundschau (? by Jantzen), 1905, 549-50.

1905-6 Holthausen, F. Beowulf nebst dem Finnsburg-Bruchstück. I. Texte. II. Einleitung, Glossar u. Anmerkungen. Heidelberg. Reviews: Lawrence, J.E.G.Ph. VII, 125-9; Klaeber, M.L.N. XXIV, 94-5; Schücking, Engl. Stud. XXXIX, 94-111 (weighty); Deutschbein, Archiv, CXXI, 162-4; v. Grienberger, Z.f.ö.G. 1908, LIX, 333-46 (giving an elaborate list of etymological parallels); Barnouw, Museum, XIV, 169-70; Wülker, D.L.Z. 1906, 285-6; ‡Jantzen, Neue philologische Rundschau, 1907, 18.

1908-9. 2 Aufl., nebst den kleineren Denkmälern der Heldensage, Finnsburg, Waldere, Deor, Widsith, Hildebrand. Reviews: Eichler, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXI, 129-33; XXII, 161-5; Schücking, Engl. Stud. XLII, 108-11; Brandl, Archiv, CXXI, 473, CXXIV, 210; Binz, Literaturblatt, XXXII, 1911, 53-5: see also Koeppel, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXIII, 297.

1912-13. 3 Aufl.

1914-19. 4 Aufl. Reviews: Binz, Literaturblatt, XLI, 1920, 316-17; Fischer, Engl. Stud. LIV, 404-6.

1908 Schücking, L. L. Beowulf [8th edit. of Heyne's text]. Paderborn. Reviews: Lawrence, M.L.N. XXV, 155-7; Klaeber, Engl. Stud. XXXIX, 425-33 (weighty); Imelmann, D.L.Z. 1909, 995 (contains important original contributions); v. Grienberger, Z.f.ö.G. LX, 1089; Boer, Museum, XVI, 139 (brief).

1910. 9 Aufl. Reviews: Sedgefield, Engl. Stud. XLIII, 267-9; F. Wild, Z.f.ö.G. LXIV, 153-5.

1913. 10 Aufl. Reviews: Klaeber, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXIV, 289-91; Engl. Stud. XLIX, 424; ‡Degenhart, Blätter f. gymnasialschulwesen, LI, 130; E. A. Kock, A.f.n.F. XXXII, 222-3; Holthausen, Z.f.d.Ph. XLVIII, 127-31 (weighty).

1918. 11, 12 Aufl. Reviews: Björkman, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXX, 121-2, 180; Fischer, Engl. Stud. LIII, 338-9.

1910 Sedgefield, W. J. Beowulf, edited with Introduction, Bibliography, Notes, Glossary and Appendices. Manchester. Reviews: Thomas, M.L.R. VI, 266-8; Lawrence, J.E.G.Ph. X, 633-40; Wild, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXIII, 253-60; Klaeber, Engl. Stud. XLIV, 119-26; Brandl, Archiv, CXXVI, 279.

1913. Second edit. Reviews: M.L.R. IX, 429; Lawrence, J.E.G.Ph. XIV, 609-13; Klaeber, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXV, 166-8.

1912 Text of the Finn episode given in Meyer, W., Beiträge zur Geschichte der Eroberung Englands durch die Angelsachsen.

1914 Chambers, R. W. Beowulf with the Finnsburg Fragment, ed. by A. J. Wyatt. New edition, revised. Cambridge. Reviews: Jones, M.L.R. XI, 230-1: Lawrence, J.E.G.Ph. XIV, 609-13; Bright, M.L.N. XXXI, 188-9; Schücking, Engl. Stud. LV, 88-100.

1915 Dickins, B. Runic and Heroic Poems (Text of Finnsburg with Notes). Cambridge. Review: Mawer, M.L.R. XII, 82-4.

1917 Mackie, W. L. The Fight at Finnsburg (Introduction, Text and Notes). J.E.G.Ph. XVI, 250-73.

1919 Schücking, L. L. Kleines angelsächsisches Dichterbuch. [Includes Finnsburg Fragment, Finnsburg Episode and "Beowulf's Return" (ll. 1888-2199).] Reviews: Binz, Literaturblatt, XLI, 1920, pp. 315-16; Imelmann, D.L.Z. XL, 1919, 423-5; Fischer, Engl. Stud. LIV, 1920, 302-3.

1920 Text of Finnsburg Fragment and Episode, with commentary, in Imelmann's "Forschungen zur altenglischen Poesie."

An edition of Beowulf by Prof. F. Klaeber is in the press.

[§ 5]. CONCORDANCES, etc.

1896 Holder, A. Beowulf, vol. IIb, Wortschatz. Freiburg. Review: Brandl, A.f.d.A. XXIII, 107.

1911 Cook, A. S. Concordance to Beowulf. Halle. Reviews: Klaeber, J.E.G.Ph. XI, 277-9; Garnett, Amer. Jnl. Philol. XXXIII, 86-7.

[§ 6]. TRANSLATIONS (INCLUDING EARLY SUMMARIES)

1881 Wülker, R. P. Besprechung der Beowulfübersetzungen, Anglia, IV, Anzeiger, 69-80.

1886 Gummere, F. B. The translation of Beowulf, and the relations of ancient and modern English verse, Amer. Jour. of Phil. VII, 46-78. (A weighty argument for translation into "the original metre.")

1891 Garnett, J. M. The translation of A.S. poetry, Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. VI, 95-105. (Agreeing in the main with Gummere.)

1897 Frye, P. H. The translation of Beowulf, M.L.N. XII, 79-82. (Advocating blank verse.)

1898 Fulton, E. On translating A.S. poetry, Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. XIII, 286-96. (Recommending an irregular four-accent line.)

1903 Garnett, J. M. Recent translations of O.E. poetry, Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. XVIII, 445-58.

1903 Tinker, C. B. The translations of Beowulf. A critical bibliography. Yale Studies in English. New York. Reviews: Klaeber, J.E.G.Ph. V, 116-8; Binz, Anglia, Beiblatt, XVI, 291-2.

1909 Child, G. C. "Gummere's Oldest English Epic," M.L.N. XXIV, 253-4. (A criticism advocating prose translation.)

1910 Gummere, F. B. Translation of Old English Verse, M.L.N. XXV, 61-3. (Advocating alliterative verse.) Reply by Child, M.L.N. XXV, 157-8. See also reviews of Gummere, under year 1909, below.

1918 Leonard, W. E. Beowulf and the Niebelungen couplet, Univ. of Wisconsin Studies in Language and Literature, II, 99-152.

1805 Turner, Sharon. History of the manners ... poetry ... and language of the Anglo-Saxons. London. (From p. 398 to p. 408 is a summary, with translations, of Beowulf, Prol.-VIII. Turner was misled as to the subject of the poem, because a leaf had been misplaced in the MS, so that the account of the fighting between Grendel and Beowulf (ll. 740-82) occurred immediately after l. 91. The struggle between Beowulf and an (unnamed) adversary being thus made to follow the account of Hrothgar's court at Heorot, Turner was led to suppose that the poem narrated the attempt of Beowulf to avenge on Hrothgar the feud for a homicide he had committed. "The transition," Turner not unreasonably complains, "is rather violent." The correct placing of the shifted leaf is due to Thorkelin.)

1815 Thorkelin, G. J. [Latin version in his edition, q.v.] The reviewers gave summaries of the poem, with translations of portions of it: English in the Monthly Review, LXXXI, 1816, 516-23 (less inaccurate than Turner's summary); Danish in the Dansk Litteratur-Tidende, 1815, 401-32, 437-46, and by Grundtvig in the Nyeste Skilderie (see below, [§ 7]); Swedish in Iduna, VII, 1817, 133-59.

1819 Grundtvig, N. F. S. Stykker af Skjoldung-Kvadet eller Bjovulfs Minde, Dannevirke, IV, 234-62.

1820 Grundtvig, N. F. S. Bjowulfs Drape, Kjøbenhavn. (Free rhymed translation of Beowulf: Finnsburg rendered into short lines, unrhymed: Introduction and most important critical notes.) Review: J. Grimm in Gött. Anzeigen, 1823 = Kleinere Schriften, IV, 178-86. For second edit., see 1865.

1820 Turner, Sharon. History of the Anglo-Saxons ... third edit. London. (Vol. III, pp. 325-48, contains a summary, with translations, of the earlier part of the poem, much less inaccurate than that of 1805.)

1826 Conybeare, J. J. Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon poetry. London. (Pp. 35-136 contain a summary of Beowulf, with blank verse transl. and the corresponding text in A.S. and Latin; pp. 175-82, Finnsburg, text with transl. into Latin and into English verse.)

1832 Grundtvig, N. F. S. Nordens mythologi. Anden Udgave. Kiöbenhavn. (Pp. 571-94 give a summary of the Beowulf-stories. This was, of course, wanting in the first edit. of 1808.)

1837 Kemble, J. M. Translation ... with ... glossary, preface and notes. London. (The "postscript to the preface" in which Kemble supplemented and corrected the "Historical Preface" to his edition of 1833, is the basis of the mythological explanations of Beowulf as an Anglian god, Beowa.)

1839 Leo, H. [Summary with translation of extracts.] See [§ 8], below.

1840 Ettmüller, L. Beowulf, stabreimend übersetzt, mit Einleitung und Anmerkungen (Finnsburg, pp. 36-8). Zürich.

1845 Longfellow, H. W. The Poets and Poetry of Europe. Philadelphia. (Pp. 8-10 contain transl. of extracts from Beowulf.)

1847 Schaldemose, F. [Danish transl. of Beowulf and Finnsburg, in his edit., q.v.]

1849 Wackerbarth, A. D. Beowulf, translated into English verse. London. (Imitation of Scott's metre.)

1855 Thorpe, B. [In his edit., q.v.]

1857 Uhland, L. [Prose transl. of Finnsburg.] Germania, II, 354-5.

1857 Grein, C. W. M. Dichtungen der Angelsachsen, stabreimend übersetzt. Göttingen. (Vol. I, pp. 222—308, Beowulf, trans. into alliterative verse.)

1883. 2 Aufl. [Incorporating Grein's manuscript corrections, seen through the press by Wülker.] Cassel. Review: Krüger, Engl. Stud. VIII, 139—42.

1859 Simrock, K. Beowulf übersetzt u. erläutert. Stuttgart u. Augsburg. (Alliterative verse: Finnsburg Fragment inserted after l. 1124.)

1859 Sandras, G. S. De carminibus anglo-saxonicis Caedmoni adjudicatis. Paris. (Pp. 8—10 contain extract from Beowulf and Latin transl.)

1861 Haigh, D. H. (Prose transl. of Finnsburg.) In Anglo-Saxon Sagas, pp. 32—3, q.v.

1863 Heyne, M. Beowulf übersetzt. Paderborn. (Blank verse.) Review: Holtzmann, Germania, VIII, 506—7.

1897—8. 2 Aufl. Paderborn. Reviews: Holthausen, Archiv, CIII,

373—6; Wülker, Anglia, Beiblatt, IX, 1; Jantzen, Engl. Stud. XXV,

271—3; Löhner, Z.f.ö.G. XLIX, 563.

1915. 3 Aufl. Paderborn.

1865 Grundtvig, N. F. S. Bjovulfs-Drapen. Anden Udgave.

1872 von Wolzogen, H. Beovulf aus dem ags. Leipzig. (Verse.)

1876 Arnold, T. [In his edit., q.v.]

1877 Botkine, L. Beowulf traduite en français. Havre. (Prose: some omissions.) Review: Körner, Engl. Stud. II, 248—51.

1881 Zinsser, G. Der Kampf Beowulfs mit Grendel [vv. 1—836] als Probe einer metrischen Uebersetzung. Saarbrücken. Reviews: Archiv, LXVIII, 446; Krüger, Engl. Stud. VII, 370—2.

1881 Lumsden, H. W. Beowulf ... transl. into modern rhymes. London. (Some omissions.) Reviews: Athenæum, April 1881, p. 587; Garnett, Amer. Jour. of Phil. II, 355—61; Wülker, Anglia, IV, Anzeiger, 69—80.

1883. ‡Second edit. Review: York Powell, Academy, XXVI, 1884, pp. 220—1.

1882 Schuhmann, G. Beovulf, antichissimo poema epico de' popoli germanici. Giornale Napoletano di filosofia e lettere. Anno IV, vol. 7, 25—36, 175—190. (A summary only.)

1882 Garnett, J. M. Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, translated. Boston, U.S.A. Reviews: Nation (New York), No. 919, 1883; Harrison, Amer. Jour. of Phil. IV, 84—6, reply by Garnett, 243—6; Schipper, Anglia, VI, Anzeiger, 120—4; Krüger, Engl. Stud. VIII, 133—8, and (second edit.) IX, 151; Bright, Literaturblatt, 1883, 386—7.

1885. Second edit., revised.

1900. Fourth edit.

1883 Grion, Giusto. Beovulf, poema epico anglòsassone del VII secolo, tradotto e illustrato. In the Atti della reale Accademia Lucchese, XXII. (First Italian translation.) Review: Krüger, Engl. Stud. IX, 64—77.

1889 ‡Wickberg, R. Beowulf, en fornengelsk hjältedikt översatt. Westervik.

1914. ‡Second edit. Upsala. Review: Kock, A.f.n.F. XXXII, 223—4.

1892 Hall, John Lesslie. Beowulf translated. (Verse, with notes.) Boston, U.S.A. Reviews: M.L.N. VII, 128, 1892 (brief mention); Miller, Viking Club Year Book, I, 91—2; Holthausen, Anglia, Beiblatt, IV, 33—6; Glöde, Engl. Stud. XIX, 257—60.

1893. ‡Student's edit.

1892 (1891) Earle, John. The deeds of Beowulf. Oxford. (Prose translation, somewhat spoilt by its artificial and sometimes grotesque vocabulary; very valuable introduction, with summary of the controversy to date, and notes.) Reviews: Athenæum, 1 Oct. 1892; Koeppel, Engl. Stud. XVIII, 93-5 (fair, though rather severe).

1893 Hoffmann, P. Beówulf ... aus dem angelsächsischen übertragen. Züllichau. (In the measure of the Nibelungenlied; ind. Finnsburg.) Reviews (mostly unfavourable): Shipley, M.L.N. IX, 121-3, 1894; Wülker, Anglia, Beiblatt, V, 67; Wülker, Lit. Cbl. 1894, p. 1930; Glöde, Engl. Stud. XIX, 412-5; ‡Detter, Öster. Literaturblatt, V, 9; ‡Marold, Deut. Literaturblatt, XXIII, 332.

1900. ‡Second edit. Hannover.

1895 Morris, W. and Wyatt, A. J. The Tale of Beowulf. Kelmscott Press, Hammersmith. (Verse: archaic vocabulary.)

1898. New edit. Review: Hulme, M.L.N. XV, 22-6, 1900.

1896 Simons, L. Beówulf ... vertaald in stafrijm en met inleiding en aanteekeningen. Gent (Koninklijke vlaamsche Academie). Reviews: Glöde, Engl. Stud. XXV, 270-1; Uhlenbeck, Museum (Groningen), V, 217-8.

1898 Steineck, H. Altenglische Dichtungen (Beowulf, Elene, u.a.) in wortgetreuer Übersetzung. Leipzig. (Prose, line for line.) Reviews: Binz, Anglia, Beiblatt, IX, 220-2; Holthausen, Archiv, CIII, 376-8 (both very unfavourable).

1901 Hall, J. R. Clark. Beowulf and the fight at Finnsburg. A translation into modern English prose. London. Reviews: Athenæum, 1901, July, p. 56; Academy, LX, 1901, 342; Stedman, Viking Club Year Book, III, 72-4; Tinker, J.E.G.Ph. IV, 379-81; Holthausen, Anglia, Beiblatt, XIII, 225-8; Dibelius, Archiv, CIX, 403-4; Vietor, Die neueren Sprachen, XI, 439; Wülker, Lit. Cbl. 1902, 30-1 ("sehr zu empfehlen").

1911 (q.v.). New edit., with considerable additions.

1902 Tinker, C. B. Beowulf translated out of the Old English. New York. (Prose.) Reviews: Klaeber, J.E.G.Ph. V, 91-3; Holthausen, Anglia, Beiblatt, XIV, 7.

1903 ‡Björkman, E. Swedish transl. (prose) of Beowulf, Part II (in Schück's Världslitteraturen, with introd. by Schück).

1903-4 Trautmann, M., in his editions, q.v.

1904 Child, C. G. Beowulf and the Finnesburh Fragment translated. London and Boston. Reviews: Grattan, M.L.R. III, 303-4 ("a good prose translation which steers an even course between pseudo-archaisms and modern colloquialisms"); Miller, Viking Club Year Book, I, 91-2; Klaeber, Anglia, Beiblatt, XVI, 225-7; Brandl, Archiv, CXXI, 473.

1904 ‡Hansen, A. Transl. into Danish of Beowulf, ll. 491-924, Danske Tidsskrift.

1905 Vogt, P. Beowulf ... übersetzt. Halle. (Text rearranged according to theories of interpolation: Finnsburg Fragment translated, following Möller's text.) Reviews: Binz, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXI, 289-91; Eichler, Z.f.ö.G. LVII, 908-10; Klaeber, Archiv, CXVII, 408-10: Jantzen, Lit. Cbl. 1906, 257-8.

1906 Gering, H. Beowulf nebst dem Finnsburg-Bruchstück übersetzt. Heidelberg. (Verse.) Reviews: Lawrence, J.E.G.Ph. VII, 129-33 ("thoroughly scholarly"); Jantzen, Lit. Cbl. 1907, 64-5; Ries, A.f.d.A. XXXIII, 143-7; Binz, Literaturblatt, XXXI, 397-8 ("Fliessend und ungezwungen, sinngetreu ..."); ‡Zehme, Monatsschrift, XIV, 597-600; v. Grienberger, Z.f.ö.G. 1908, LIX, 423-8.

1914. 2 Aufl.

1907 Huyshe, W. Beowulf ... translated into ... prose ("Appendix: The Fight at Finn's burgh"). London. ("Translation," to quote Clark Hall, "apparently such as might have been compiled from previous translations by a person ignorant of Ags. Some original mistakes.") Reviews: Athenæum, 1907, II, 96 ("Mr Huyshe displays sad ignorance of Old English ... but an assiduous study of the work of his predecessors has preserved him from misrepresenting seriously the general sense of the text"); Notes and Queries, Ser. X, vol. VIII, 58; Garnett, Amer. Jnl. Philol. XXIX, 344-6; Klaeber, Anglia, Beiblatt, XIX, 257.

1909 Gummere, F. B. The oldest English Epic. Beowulf, Finnsburg, Waldere, Deor and the German Hildebrand, translated in the original metres. New York. Reviews: Athenæum, 1909, II, 151; Trautmann, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXXIII, 353-60 (metrical debate); Sedgefield, Engl. Stud. XLI, 402-3 (discussing possibility of reproducing in Mod. Eng. the Old Eng. alliterative verse-rhythm); Derocquigny, Revue Germanique, VI, 356-7; see also above, p. 390.

1910 Hansen, Adolf. Bjovulf, oversat af A. Hansen, og efter hans død gået efter og fuldført samt forsynet med en inledning og en oversættelse af brudstykket om kampen i Finsborg, af Viggo Julius von Holstein Rathlou; udgivet ved Oskar Hansen. København og Kristiania. An account of this translation, by v. Holstein Rathlou, in Tilskueren, June, 1910, pp. 557-62; Review: Olrik, Danske Studier, 1910, 112-13.

1911 Clark Hall, J. R. Beowulf and the Finnsburg Fragment. A translation into Modern English Prose. London. Reviews: Mawer, M.L.R. VI, 542 ("probably the best working translation that we have, enriched by a valuable introduction and excellent appendices"); Academy, 1911, I, 225-6; Björkman, Engl. Stud. XLIV, 127-8; Archiv, CXXVI, 492-3; Binz, Literaturblatt, XXXII, 232.

1912 Pierquin, H. Le poème Anglo-Saxon de Beowulf. (An extraordinary piece of work; the version mainly follows Kemble's text, which is reproduced, but with many misprints: Kemble's Saxons in England is translated by way of introduction. The Finnsburg Fragment is included.) Reviews: Academy, 1912, II, 509-10 (seems to regard Pierquin as author of Les Saxons en Angleterre); Sedgefield, M.L.R. VIII, 550-2; Klaeber, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXIV, 138-9; Imelmann, D.L.Z. XXXIV (1913), 1062-3 (very unfavourable); ‡Luick, Mitt. d. inst. f. österr. gesch.-forsch. XXXVI, 401; ‡Barat, Moyen Âge, XXVI (see. ser. XVII), 298-302.

1913 Kirtlan, E. J. The Story of Beowulf. London. (A fair specimen of the less scholarly translations; nicely got up and not exceedingly incorrect.) Reviews: Athenæum, 1914, II, 71; Klaeber, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXVII, 129-31.

1914 Clark Hall, J. R. Beowulf: a metrical translation. Cambridge. (Not so successful as the same writer's prose translation.) Reviews: Sedgefield, M.L.R. X, 387-9 (discussing the principles of metrical translation); Klaeber, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXVI, 170-2.

1915 Olivero, F. Traduzioni dalla Poesia Anglo-sassone. Bari. (Pp. 73-119, extracts from Beowulf.) Review: M.L.R. XI, 509.

1916 ‡Benedetti, A. La canzone di Beowulf, poema epico anglo-sassone del VI secolo. Versione italiana, con introduzione e note. Palermo.

1918 Leonard, W. E. [Specimen, Passus IX, of forthcoming transl., in the measure of the Nibelungenlied.] In Univ. of Wisconsin Studies, II, 149-52; see above.

A translation of Beowulf into the Norwegian "landsmaal," by H. Rytter, will appear shortly.

Popular paraphrases of Beowulf are not included in the above list. An account will be found in Tinker's Translations of those of E. H. Jones (in Cox's Popular Romances, 1871); J. Gibb, 1881-4; Wägner-MacDowall, 1883 etc.; Miss Z. A. Ragozin, 1898, 1900; A. J. Church, 1898; Miss C. L. Thomson, 1899, 1904. Mention may also be made of those of ‡F. A. Turner, 1894; H. E. Marshall, 1908; T. Cartwright, 1908; Prof. J. H. Cox, 1910. An illustrated summary of

the Beowulf story was issued by Mr W. T. Stead in his penny "Books for the Bairns." The versions of Miss Thomson and Prof. Cox are both good. The paraphrase in the Canadian Monthly, II, 83 (1872), attributed in several bibliographies to Earle, is assuredly not the work of that scholar: it is an inaccurate version based upon Jones. An account will be found in Tinker of the German paraphrase of Therese Dahn, 1883 etc.; mention may also be made of those of J. Arnheim, 1871; ‡ F. Bässler, sec. edit. 1875 (praised highly by Klaeber in J.E.G.Ph. V, 118).

[§ 7]. TEXTUAL CRITICISM AND INTERPRETATION

1815 Grundtvig, N. F. S. Et Par Ord om det nys udkomne angelsaxiske Digt. Nyeste Skilderie af Kjøbenhavn, No. 60 etc., cols. 945, 998, 1009, 1025, 1045; Nok et Par Ord om Bjovulfs Drape, 1106, 1121, 1139 (comment upon Thorkelin's text and translation).

1815 Thorkelin, G. J. Reply to Grundtvig in Nyeste Skilderie, cols. 1057, 1073. (There were further articles in the same magazine, but they were purely personal.)

1820 Grundtvig, N. F. S. Emendations to Thorkelin's text, added to Bjowulfs Drape, 267-312.

1826 Conybeare, J. J. Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon poetry. London. (Beowulf and "Finnsborough," pp. 30-182.)

1859 Bouterwek, K. W. Zur Kritik des Beowulfliedes, Z.f.d.A. XI, 59-113.

1859 Dietrich, F. Rettungen, Z.f.d.A. XI, 409-20.

1863 Holtzmann, A. Zu Beowulf, Germania, VIII, 489-97. (Incl. Finnsburg.)

1865 Grein, C. W. M. Zur Textkritik der angelsächsischen Dichter: Finnsburg, Germania, X, 422.

1868-9 Bugge, Sophus. Spredte iagttagelser vedkommende de oldengelske digte om Beówulf og Waldere; Tidskrift for Philologi og Pædagogik, VIII, 40-78 and 287-307 (incl. Finnsburg, 304-5). Important.

1871 Rieger, M. Zum Beowulf, Z.f.d.Ph. III, 381-416.

1873 Bugge, S. Zum Beowulf, Z.f.d.Ph. IV, 192-224.

1880 Kölbing, E. Kleine Beiträge (Beowulf, 168, 169), Engl. Stud. III, 92 etc.

1882 Kluge, F. Sprachhistorische Miscellen (Beowulf, 63, 1027, 1235, 1267), P.B.B. VIII, 532-5.

1882 Cosijn, P. J. Zum Beowulf, P.B.B. VIII, 568-74.

1883 Sievers, E. Zum Beowulf, P.B.B. IX, 135-44, 370.

1883 Kluge, F. Zum Beowulf, P.B.B. IX, 187-92.

1883 Krüger, Th. Zum Beowulf, P.B.B. IX, 571-8.

1889 Miller, T. The position of Grendel's arm in Heorot, Anglia, XII, 396-400.

1890 Joseph, E. Zwei Versversetzungen im Beowulf, Z.f.d.Ph. XXII, 385-97.

1891 Schröer, A. Zur texterklärung des Beowulf, Anglia, XIII, 333-48.

1891-2 Cosijn, P. J. Aanteekeningen op den Beowulf. Leiden. (Important.) Reviews: Lübke, A.f.d.A. XIX, 341-2; Holthausen, Literaturblatt, 1895, p. 82.

1892 Sievers, E. Zur texterklärung des Beowulf, Anglia, XIV, 133-46.

1895 Bright, J. W. Notes on the Beowulf (ll. 30, 306, 386-7, 623, 737), M.L.N. X, 43-4.

1899 Trautmann, M. Berichtigungen, Vermutungen und Erklärungen zum Beowulf (ll. 1-1215). Bonner Beiträge zur Anglistik, II, 121-92. Reviews: Binz, Anglia, Beiblatt, XIV, 358-60; Holthausen, Literaturblatt, 1900, 62-4 (important). See Sievers, P.B.B. XXVII, 572; XXVIII, 271.

1901 Klaeber, F. A few Beowulf notes (ll. 459, 847 etc., 1206, 3024 etc., 3171); M.L.N. XVI, 14-18.

1902 Klaeber, F. Zum Beowulf (497-8; 1745-7), Archiv, CVIII, 368-70.

1902 Klaeber, F. Beowulf's character, M.L.N. XVII, 162.

1903 Krackow, O. Zu Beowulf, 1225, 2222, Archiv, CXI, 171-2.

1904 Bryant, F. E. Beowulf, 62, M.L.N. XIX, 121-2.

1904 Abbott, W. C. Hrothulf, M.L.N. XIX, 122-5. (Abbott suggests that Hrothulf is the name—missing in whole or part from l. 62—of the husband of the daughter of Healfdene. This suggestion is quite untenable, for many reasons: Hrothulf (Rolf Kraki) is a Dane, and the missing husband is a Swede: but the article led to a long controversy between Bryant and Klaeber; see M.L.N. XX, 9-11; XXI, 143, 255; XXII, 96, 160. Klaeber is undoubtedly right.)

1904 Krapp, G. B. Miscellaneous Notes: Scūrheard; M.L.N. XIX, 234.

1904 Sievers, E. Zum Beowulf, P.B.B. XXIX, 305-31. (Criticism of Trautmann's emendations.)

1904 Kock, E. A. Interpretations and Emendations of Early English Texts: III (Beowulf), Anglia, XXVII, 218-37.

1904 Sievers, E. Zum Beowulf (l. 5, Criticism of Kock), P.B.B. XXIX, 560-76. Reply by Kock, Anglia, XXVIII (1905), 140-2.

1905 Trautmann, M. Auch zum Beowulf: ein gruss an herren Eduard Sievers, Bonner Beiträge zur Anglistik, XVII, 143-74. (Reply to Sievers' criticism of Trautmann's conjectural emendations.) Review: Klaeber, M.L.N. XXII, 252.

1905 Swiggett, G. L. Notes on the Finnsburg fragment, M.L.N. XX, 169-71.

1905 Klaeber, F. Notizen zur texterklärung des Beowulf, Anglia, XXVIII, 439-47 (incl. Finnsburg); Zum Beowulf, the same, 448-56.

1905 Klaeber, F. Bemerkungen zum Beowulf, Archiv, CXV, 178-82. (Incl. Finnsburg.)

1905 Holthausen, F. Beiträge zur Erklärung des altengl. epos. I, Zum Beowulf; II, Zum Finnsburg-fragment; Z.f.d.Ph. XXXVII, 113-25.

1905-6 Klaeber, F. Studies in the Textual Interpretation of "Beowulf," Mod. Phil. III, 235-66, 445-65 (Most important).

1906 Child, C. G. Beowulf, 30, 53, 132 (i.e. 1323), 2957, M.L.N. XXI, 175-7, 198-200.

1906 Horn, W. Textkritische Bemerkungen (Beowulf, 69 etc.), Anglia, XXIX, 130-1.

1906 Klaeber, F. Notizen zum Beowulf, Anglia, XXIX, 378-82.

1907 Klaeber, F. Minor Notes on the Beowulf, J.E.G.Ph. VI, 190-6.

1908 Tinker, C. B. Notes on Beowulf, M.L.N. XXIII, 239-40.

1908 Klaeber, F. Zum Beowulf, Engl. Stud. XXXIX, 463-7.

1909 Klaeber, F. Textual Notes on Beowulf, J.E.G.Ph. VIII, 254-9.

1910 von Grienberger, T. Bemerkungen zum Beowulf, P.B.B. XXXVI, 77-101. (Incl. Finnsburg.)

1910 Sievers, E. Gegenbemerkungen zum Beowulf, P.B.B. XXXVI, 397-434. (Incl. Finnsburg.)

1910 Sedgefield, W. J. Notes on "Beowulf," M.L.R. V, 286-8.

1910 Trautmann, M. Beiträge zu einem künftigen "Sprachschatz der altenglischen Dichter," Anglia, XXXIII, 276-9 (gedræg).

1911 Blackburn, F. A. Note on Beowulf, 1591-1617, Mod. Phil. IX, 555-66. (Argues that a loose leaf has been misplaced and the order of events thus disturbed.)

1911 Klaeber, F. Zur Texterklärung des Beowulf, vv. 767, 1129, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXII, 372-4.

1912 Hart, J. M. Beowulf, 168-9, M.L.N. XXVII, 198.

1912-14 Grein, C. W. M. Sprachschatz der angelsächsischen dichter. Unter mitwirkung von F. Holthausen neu herausgegeben von J. J. Köhler. Heidelberg. Reviews: Trautmann, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXIV, 36-43; Schücking, Engl. Stud. XLIX, 113-5.

1915 Chambers, R. W. The "Shifted leaf" in Beowulf, M.L.R. X, 37-41. (Points out that the alleged "confused order of events" is that also followed in the Grettis saga.)

1916 Green, A. The opening of the episode of Finn in Beowulf, Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. XXXI, 759-97.

1916 Bright, J. W. Anglo-Saxon umbor and seld-guma, M.L.N. XXXI, 82-4; Beowulf, 489-90, M.L.N. XXXI, 217-23.

1917 Green, A. An episode in Ongenþeow's fall, M.L.R. XII, 340-3.

1917 Hollander, L. M. Beowulf, 33, M.L.N. XXXII, 246-7. (Suggests the reading ītig.)

1917 Holthausen, F. Zu altenglischen Denkmälern—Beowulf, 1140, Engl. Stud. LI, 180.

1918 Hubbard, F. G. Beowulf, 1598, 1996, 2026: uses of the impersonal verb geweorþan, J.E.G.Ph. XVII, 119.

1918 Kock, E. A. Interpretations and emendations of early English Texts: IV, Beowulf, Anglia, XLII, 99-124. (Important.)

1918 ‡Kock, E. A. Jubilee Jaunts and Jottings, in the Lunds univ. årsskrift, N. F. avd. I, bd. 14, nr. 26 (Festskrift vid ... 250-årsjubileum). Reviews: Holthausen, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXX, 1-5; Klaeber, J.E.G.Ph. XIX, 409-13.

1919 Moore, Samuel. Beowulf Notes (Textual), J.E.G.Ph. XVIII, 205-16.

1919 Klaeber, F. Concerning the functions of O.E. geweorðan, J.E.G.Ph. XVIII, 250-71. (Cf. paper of Prof. Hubbard above, by which this was suggested.)

1919 Klaeber, F. Textual notes on "Beowulf," M.L.N. XXXIV, 129-34.

1919 Brown, Carleton. Beowulf, 1080-1106, M.L.N. XXXIV, 181-3.

1919 Brett, Cyril. Notes on passages of Old and Middle English, M.L.R. XIV, 1-9.

1919-20 Kock, E. A. Interpretations and emendations of Early English Texts: V (Incl. Beowulf, 2030, 2419-24); VI (Incl. Beowulf 24, 154-6, 189-90, 1992-3, 489-90, 581-3, 1745-7, 1820-1, 1931-2, 2164); VII (Incl. Beowulf, 1230, 1404, 1553-6); Anglia, XLIII, 303-4; XLIV, 98 etc., 245 etc.

1920 Bryan W. F. Beowulf Notes (303-6, 532-4, 867-71), J.E.G.Ph. XIX, 84-5.

[§ 8]. QUESTIONS OF LITERARY HISTORY, DATE AND AUTHORSHIP: BEOWULF IN THE LIGHT OF HISTORY, ARCHÆOLOGY, HEROIC LEGEND, MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE

See also preceding section.

No attempt is made here to deal with Old English heroic legend in general: nor to enumerate the references to Beowulf in histories of literature. Probably the earliest allusion to our poem by a great writer is in Scott's Essay on Romance (1824):

"The Saxons had, no doubt, Romances, ... and Mr Turner ... has given us the abridgement of one entitled Caedmon, in which the hero, whose adventures are told much after the manner of the ancient Norse Sagas, encounters, defeats and finally slays an evil being called Grendel...."

1816 Outzen, N. Das ags. Gedicht Beowulf, Kieler Blätter, III, 307-27. (See above, p. 4, note.)

1816 (Review of Thorkelin in) Monthly Review, LXXXI, 516-23. (Beowulf identified with Beaw Sceldwaing of the West Saxon genealogy; see above, p. 292.)

1817 Grundtvig, N. F. S. Danne-Virke, II, 207-89. (Identifies Chochilaicus; see above, p. 4, note.)

1826 Grimm, W. Einleitung über die Elfen, Kleinere Schriften, I, 405, esp. p. 467 (extract relating to Grendel's hatred of song). From ‡Irische Elfenmärchen.

1829 Grimm, W. Die deutsche Heldensage. Göttingen. (Pp. 13-17. Extracts from Beowulf, with translation, relating to Weland, Sigemund, Hama and Eormenric.)

1836 Kemble, J. M. Über die Stammtafel der Westsachsen. München. Review: J. Grimm, Göttingische gelehrte Anziegen, 1836, 649-57, = Kleinere Schriften, V, 240.

1836 Mone, F. J. Zur Kritik des Gedichts von Beowulf (in Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der teutschen Heldensage). Quedlinburg u. Leipzig. (Pp. 129-36.)

1839 Leo, H. Bëówulf ... nach seinem inhalte, und nach seinen historischen und mythologischen beziehungen betrachtet. Halle.

1841 Disraeli, I. Amenities of Literature. London. (Beowulf; the Hero-Life. Vol. I, pp. 80-92.)

1841 Grundtvig, N. F. S. Bjovulfs Drape, Brage og Idun, IV, 481-538. (Discusses the story, with criticism of previous scholars, and especially of Kemble.)

1843-9 Grimm, W. Einleitung zur Vorlesung über Gudrun [with an abstract of Beowulf]; see Kleinere Schriften, IV, 557-60.

1844 Müllenhoff, K. Die deutschen Völker an Nord- und Ostsee in ältester Zeit, Nordalbingische Studien, I, 111 etc.

1845 A brief discussion of Beowulf in Edinburgh Review, LXXXII, 309-11.

1845 Haupt, M. Zum Beowulf, Z.f.d.A. V, 10. (Drawing attention to the reference to Hygelac in the liber de monstris; see above, p. 4.)

1848 Müllenhoff, K. Die austrasische Dietrichssage, Z.f.d.A. VI, 435 etc.

1849 Müllenhoff, K. Sceáf u. seine Nachkommen, Z.f.d.A. VII, 410-19; Der Mythus von Beóvulf, Z.f.d.A. VII, 419-41.

1849 Grimm, J. Ueber das Verbrennen der Leichen, Abhandl. d. Berl. Akad., 1849, 191 etc. = Kleinere Schriften, II, 211-313 (esp. 261-4).

1849 Bachlechner, J. Die Merovinge im Beowulf, Z.f.d.A. VII, 524-6.

1851 Zappert, G. Virgil's Fortleben im Mittelalter, Denkschriften der k. Akad. Wien, Phil.-Hist. Classe, Bd. II, Abth. 2, pp. 17-70. (Gives numerous parallels between Virgil and "Beowulf," somewhat indiscriminately.)

1852 Brynjulfsson, G. Oldengelsk og Oldnordisk, Antikuarisk Tidsskrift, Kjøbenhavn, 1852-4, pp. 81-143. (An important paper which has been unduly overlooked. Brynjulfsson notes the parallel between Beowulf and Bjarki (see above, p. 61) and in other respects anticipates later scholars, e.g., in noting the close relationship between Angles and Danes (p. 143) and less fortunately (pp. 129-31) in identifying the Geatas with the Jutes.)

1856 Bachlechner, J. Eomaer und Heming (Hamlac), Germania, I, 297-303 and 455-61.

1856 Bouterwek, K. W. Das Beowulflied: Eine Vorlesung; Germania, I, 385-418.

1857 Uhland, L. Sigemund und Sigeferd, Germania, II, 344-63 = Schriften, VIII, 479 etc. (Incl. Finnsburg.)

1858 Weinhold, K. Die Riesen des germanischen Mythus, Sitzungberichte der K. Akad., Wien, Phil-Hist. Classe, XXVI, 225-306. (Grendel and his mother, p. 255.)

1859 Rieger, M. Ingaevonen, Istaevonen, Herminonen, Z.f.d.A. XI, 177-205.

1859 Müllenhoff, K. Zur Kritik des angelsächsischen Volksepos, 2, Widsith, Z.f.d.A. XI, 275-94.

1860 Müllenhoff, K. Zeugnisse u. Excurse zur deutschen Heldensage, Z.f.d.A. XII, 253-386. (This portion of vol. XII was published in 1860.)

1861 Haigh, D. H. The Anglo-Saxon Sagas. London. (An uncritical attempt to identify the proper names in Beowulf and Finnsburg with sites in England.)

1862 Grein, C. W. M. Die historischen Verhältnisse des Beowulfliedes, Eberts Jahrbuch für roman. u. engl. Litt. IV, 260-85. (Incl. Finnsburg.)

1864 ‡Schultze, M. Ueber das Beowulfslied. Programm der städtischen Realschule zu Elbing. (Not seen, but contents, including the mythical interpretations current at the period, noted in Archiv, XXXVII, 232.)

1864 Heyne, M. Ueber die Lage und Construction der Halle Heorot. Paderborn.

1868 Köhler, A. Germanische Alterthümer im Beóvulf, Germania, XIII, 129-58.

1869 Müllenhoff, K. Die innere Geschichte des Beovulfs, Z.f.d.A. XIV, 193-244. (Reprinted in Beovulf, 1889. See above, p. 113 etc.)

1870 Köhler, A. Die Einleitung des Beovulfliedes. Die beiden Episoden von Heremod, Z.f.d.Ph. II, 305-21.

1875 Schrøder, L. Om Bjovulfs Drapen. København. (See above, p. 30.)

1876 Botkine, L. Beowulf. Analyse historique et géographique. Havre. (Material subsequently incorporated in translation, q.v. [§ 6].) Review: Körner, Engl. Stud. I, 495-6.

1877 Skeat, W. W. The name "Beowulf," Academy, XI (Jan.-June), p. 163. (Suggests Beowulf = "woodpecker"; see above, pp. 365-6, note.)

1877 ten Brink, B. Geschichte der englischen Litteratur. (Beowulf, Finnsburg, pp. 29-40.)

1877 Dederich, H. Historische u. geographische Studien zum ags. Beóvulfliede. Köln. (Incl. Finnsburg.) Reviews: Körner, Engl. Stud. I, 481-95; Müllenhoff, A.f.d.A. III, 172-82; ‡Suchier, Jenaer Literatur-Zeitung, XLVII, 732, 1876.

1877 Hornburg, J. Die Composition des Beowulf. Programm des K. Lyceums in Metz. Full summary by F. Hummel in Archiv, LXII, 231-3. See also under 1884.

1877 Schultze, M. Alt-heidnisches in der angelsächsischen Poesie, speciell im Beowulfsliede. Berlin.

1877 Suchier, H. Ueber die Sage von Offa u. Þryðo, P.B.B. IV, 500-21.

1878 Müller, N. Die Mythen im Beówulf, in ihrem Verhältniss zur germanischen Mythologie betrachtet. Dissertation, Heidelberg. Leipzig.

1879 Laistner, L. Nebelsagen. Stuttgart. (See above, p. 46, note.)

1879 Sweet, H. Old English etymologies: I, Beóhata, Engl. Stud. II, 312-14. (See above, p. 365.)

1880 Gering, H. Der Beówulf u. die isländische Grettissaga, Anglia, III, 74-87. (Important. Gering announced Vigfússon's discovery to a wider circle of readers, with translation of the Sandhaugar episode, and useful comment. The discovery was further announced to American readers by Garnett in the American Journal of Philology, I, 492 (1880), though its importance was there rather understated. See above, p. 54.)

1881 Smith, C. Sprague. Beówulf Gretti, New Englander, XL (N. S. IV), 49-67. (Translation of corresponding passages in Grettis saga and Beowulf.)

1882 March, F. A. The World of Beowulf, Proceedings of Amer. Phil. Assoc. pp. xxi-xxiii.

1883 Rönning, F. Beovulfs-kvadet; en literær-historisk undersøgelse. København. Review: Heinzel, A.f.d.A. X, 233-9. (Rönning criticises Müllenhoff's theories of separate lays. His book and Heinzel's review are both important.)

1883 Merbot, R. Aesthetische Studien zur Ags. Poesie. Breslau. Reviews: Koch, Anglia, VI, Anzeiger, 100-3; Kluge, Engl. Stud., VIII, 480-2.

1884 Earle, J. Anglo-Saxon Literature (The dawn of European Literature). London. (Pp. 120-39 deal with Beowulf. Earle holds Beowulf to be "a genuine growth of that junction in time ... when the heathen tales still kept their traditional interest, and yet the spirit of Christianity had taken full possession of the Saxon mind.")

1884 Fahlbeck, P. Beowulfs-kvädet såsom källa för nordisk fornhistoria, Antikvar. tidskr. för Sverige, VIII, 1-87. Review: Academy, XXIX, 1886, p. 12. (See above, pp. 8, 333.)

1884 Harrison, J. A. Old Teutonic life in Beowulf, Overland Monthly, Sec. Ser. vol. IV, 14-24; 152-61.

1884 Hertz, W. Beowulf, das älteste germanische Epos, Nord und Süd, XXIX, 229-53.

1884 Hornburg, J. Die komposition des Beovulf, Archiv, LXXII, 333-404. (Rejects Müllenhoff's "Liedertheorie.")

1884 Krüger, Th. Zum Beowulfliede. Bromberg. Reviewed favourably by Kölbing, Engl. Stud. IX, 150; severely by Kluge, Literaturblatt, 1884, 428-9. (A useful summary, which had the misfortune to be superseded next year by the publication of Wülker's Grundriss.)

1884 Krüger, Th. Über Ursprung u. Entwickelung des Beowulfliedes, Archiv, LXXI, 129-52.

1884-5 Earle, J. Beowulf, in The Times, London (Aug. 25, 1884, p. 6 (not signed); Oct. 29, 1885, p. 3; Sept. 30, 1885, p. 3. "The Beowulf itself is a tale of old folk-lore which, in spite of repeated editing, has never quite lost the old crust of its outline.... This discovery, if established, must have the effect of quite excluding the application of the Wolffian hypothesis to our poem.")

1885 Wülker, R. Grundriss zur geschichte der angelsächsischen Litteratur. Leipzig. 6. Die angelsächsische Heldendichtung, Beowulf, Finnsburg, 244-315. (An important and useful summary.)

1885 Lehmann, H. Brünne und Helm im angelsächsischen Beowulfliede. Dissertation, Göttingen. Leipzig. Reviews: Wülker, Anglia, VIII, Anzeiger, 167-70; Schulz, Engl. Stud. IX, 471.

1886 Skeat, W. W. On the signification of the monster Grendel ... with a discussion of ll. 2076-2100. Read before the Cambridge Philological Society. Journal of Philology, XV, 120-31. (Not American Jour. of Phil., as frequently quoted.)

1886 Sarrazin, G. Die Beowulfsage in Dänemark, Anglia, IX, 195-9; Beowa und Böthvar, Anglia, IX, 200-4; Beowulf und Kynewulf, Anglia, IX, 515-50; Der Schauplatz des ersten Beowulfliedes und die Heimat des Dichters, P.B.B. XI, 159-83 (see above, p. 101).

1886 Sievers, E. Die Heimat des Beowulfdichters, P.B.B. XI, 354-62.

1886 Sarrazin, G. Altnordisches im Beowulfliede, P.B.B. XI, 528-41. (See above, p. 102.)

1886 Sievers, E. Altnordisches im Beowulf? P.B.B. XII, 168-200.

1886 Schilling, H. Notes on the Finnsaga, M.L.N. I, 89-92; 116-17.

1886 Lehmann, H. Über die Waffen im angelsächsischen Beowulfliede, Germania, XXXI, 486-97.

1887 Schilling, H. The Finnsburg-fragment and the Finn-episode, M.L.N. II, 146-50.

1887 Morley, H. Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg, in English Writers, vol. I, 276-354. London.

1887 Bugge, S. Studien über das Beowulfepos, P.B.B. XII, 1-112, 360-75. Important. (Das Finnsburgfragment, pp. 20-8.)

1887 ‡Schneider, F. Der Kampf mit Grendels Mutter. Program des Friedrichs Real-Gymnasiums. Berlin.

1888 ten Brink, B. Beowulf. Untersuchungen. (Quellen u. Forschungen, LXII.) (Important. See above, p. 113.) Strassburg. Reviews: Wülker, Anglia, XI, 319-21 and Lit. Cbl. 1889, 251; Möller, Engl. Stud. XIII, 247-315 (weighty, containing some good remarks on the Jutes-Geatas); Koeppel, Z.f.d.Ph. XXIII, 113-22; Heinzel, A.f.d.A. XV, 153-82 (weighty); Liebermann, Deut. Zeitschr. f. Geschichtswissenschaft, II, 1889, 197-9; Kraus, D.L.Z. XII, 1891, 1605-7, 1846: reply by ten Brink ("Beowulfkritik und ABAB"), D.L.Z. 1892, 109-12.

1888 Sarrazin, G. Beowulf-Studien. Berlin. Reviews: Koeppel, Engl. Stud. XIII, 472-80; Sarrazin, Entgegnung, Engl. Stud. XIV, 421 etc., reply by Koeppel, XIV, 427; Sievers, Z.f.d.Ph. XXI, 366; Dieter, Archiv, LXXXIII, 352-3; Heinzel, A.f.d.A. xv, 182-9; Wülker, Lit. Cbl. 1889, 315-16; Wülker, Anglia, XI, 536-41. Holthausen, Literaturblatt, 1890, 14-16; Liebermann, Deut. Zeitschr. f. Geschichtswissenschaft, VI, 1891, 138; Kraus, D.L.Z. XII, 1891, pp. 1822-3. (All these reviews express dissent from Sarrazin's main conclusions, though many of them show appreciation of details in his work. See above, p. 101.)

1888 Kittredge, G. L. Zu Beowulf, 107 etc., P.B.B. XIII, 210 (Cain's kin).

1889 Müllenhoff, K. Beovulf (pp. 110-65=Z.f.d.A. XIV, 193-244). Berlin. See above, pp. 46-7, 113-15. Reviews: Schirmer, Anglia, XII, 465-7; Sarrazin, Engl. Stud. XVI, 71-85 (important); Wülker, Lit. Cbl. 1890, 58-9; Heinzel, A.f.d.A. XVI, 264-75 (important); Koeppel, Z.f.d.Ph. XXIII, 110-13; Holthausen, Literaturblatt, 1890, 370-3; Liebermann, Deut. Zeitschr. f. Geschichtswissenschaft, vi, 1891, 135-7; Kraus, D.L.Z. XII, 1891, pp. 1820-2; Logeman, Le Moyen Âge, III, 266-7 ("personne ne conteste plus ... que le poème se composait originairement de plusieurs parties"). Müllenhoff's book, like that of ten Brink, is based on assumptions generally held at the time, but now not so widely accepted; yet it remains important.

1889 Laistner, L. Das Rätsel der Sphinx. Berlin. (See above, p. 67.)

1889 Lüning, O. Die Natur ... in der altgermanischen und mittelhochdeutschen Epik. Zürich. Reviews: Weinhold, Z.f.d.Ph. XXII, 246-7; Golther, D.L.Z. 1889, 710-2; Ballerstedt, A.f.d.A. XVI, 71-4; Fränkel, Literaturblatt, 1890, 439-44.

1890 ‡Deskau, H. Zum studium des Beowulf. Berichte des freien deutschen Hochstiftes, 1890. Frankfurt.

1890 ‡Klöpper, C. Heorot-Hall in the Anglo-Saxon poem of Beowulf. Festschrift für K. E. Krause. Rostock.

1891 Jellinek, M. H. and Kraus, C. Die Widersprüche im Beowulf, Z.f.d.A, XXXV, 265-81.

1891 Bugge, S. and Olrik, A. Røveren ved Gråsten og Beowulf, Dania, I, 233-45.

1891 Jellinek, M. H. Zum Finnsburgfragment, P.B.B. XV, 428-31.

1892 Earle, J. The Introduction to his Translation (q.v.) gave a summary of the controversy, with "a constructive essay."

1892 Brooke, Stopford A. History of Early English Literature (Beowulf, pp. 17-131). London. Reviews: McClumpha, M.L.N. VIII, 27-9, 1892 (attacks in a letter of unnecessary violence); Wülker, Anglia, Beiblatt IV, 170-6, 225-33; Glöde, Engl. Stud. XXII, 264-70.

1892 Gummere, F. B. Germanic Origins. A study in primitive culture. New York.

1892 Ferguson, R. The Anglo-Saxon name Beowulf, Athenæum, June, 1892 p. 763. See above, p. 368.

1892 Haack, O. Zeugnisse zur altenglischen Heldensage. Kiel.

1892 ‡Kraus, K. Hrodulf. (P. Moneta, zum 40 jähr. Dienstjub.) Wien. (p. 4 etc.)

1892 Olrik, A. Er Uffesagnet indvandret fra England? A.f.n.F. VIII (N.F. IV), 368-75.

1892 Sarrazin, G. Die Abfassungszeit des Beowulfliedes, Anglia, XIV, 399-415.

1892 Sievers, E. Sceaf in den nordischen Genealogien, P.B.B. XVI, 361-3.

1892 Kögel, R. Beowulf, Z.f.d.A. XXXVII, 268-76. (Etymology of the name.) Discussed by Sievers, P.B.B. XVIII, 413. See above, p. 367, footnote.

1893 Ward, H. L. D. Catalogue of Romances in the British Museum; Beowulf: vol. II, pp. 1-15, 741-3.

1893 ten Brink, B. Altenglische Literatur, Pauls Grdr.(1), II, I, 510-50. (Finnsburg, 545-50.)

1894 McNary, S. J. Beowulf and Arthur as English Ideals, Poet-Lore, VI, 529-36.

1894 ‡Detter, F. Über die Heaðobarden im Beowulf, Verhandl. d. Wiener Philologenversammlung, Mai, 1893. Leipzig, p. 404 etc. (Argues that the story is not historical, but mythical—Ragnarok.)

1895 Sievers, E. Beowulf und Saxo, Berichte der kgl. sächs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, XLVII, 175-93. (Important, see above, pp. 90-7.)

1895 Binz, G. Zeugnisse zur germanischen sage in England, P.B.B. XX, 141-223. (A most useful collection, though the significance of many of the names collected is open to dispute.)

1895 Kluge, F. Zeugnisse zur germanischen sage in England, Engl. Stud. XXI, 446-8.

1895-6 Kluge, F. Der Beowulf u. die Hrolfs Saga Kraka, Engl. Stud. XXII, 144-5.

1896 Sarrazin, G. Neue Beowulf-studien, Engl. Stud. XXIII, 221-67.

1897 Ker, W. P. Epic and Romance. London. (Beowulf, pp. 182-202. Important. See above, p. 116.) Reviews: Fischer, Anglia, Beiblatt, X, 133-5; Brandl, Archiv, C, 198-200. New edit. 1908.

1897 Blackburn, F. A. The Christian coloring in the Beowulf, Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. XII, 205-25. (See above, p. 125.)

1897 Sarrazin, G. Die Hirschhalle, Anglia, XIX, 368-92; Der Balder-kultus in Lethra, ibid. 392-7; Rolf Krake und sein Vetter im Beowulfliede, Engl. Stud. XXIV, 144-5. (Important. See above, p. 31.)

1897 Henning, R. Sceaf und die westsächsische Stammtafel, Z.f.d.A. XLI, 156-69.

1898 Arnold, T. Notes on Beowulf. London. Reviews: Hulme, M.L.N. XV, 22-6, 1900; Sarrazin, Engl. Stud. XXVIII, 410-18; Garnett, Amer. Jour. of Phil. XX, 443.

1898 Niedner, F. Die Dioskuren im Beowulf, Z.f.d.A. XLII, 229-58.

1899 Cook, A. S. An Irish Parallel to the Beowulf Story, Archiv, CIII, 154-6.

1899 Axon, W. E. A. A reference to the evil eye in Beowulf, Trans. of the Royal Soc. of Literature, London. (Very slight.)

1899 ‡Furst, Clyde. "Beowulf" in "A Group of Old Authors." Philadelphia. (Popular.) Review: Child, M.L.N. XV, 31-2.

1900 Förster, Max. Bêowulf-Materialien, zum Gebrauch bei Vorlesungen. Braunschweig. Reviews: Holthausen, Anglia, Beiblatt, XI, 289; Behagel, Literaturblatt, 1902, 67 (very brief).

1908. 2 Aufl.

1912. 3 Aufl. Review: Wild, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXIV, 166-7.

1901 Powell, F. York. Beowulf and Watanabe-No-Tsema, Furnivall Miscellany, pp. 395-6. Oxford. (A parallel from Japanese legend.)

1901 Lehmann, E. Fandens Oldemor, Dania, VIII, 179-94. Repeated ("Teuffels Grossmutter"), Archiv f. Religionswiss. VIII, 411-30. (See above, p. 49, note, and p. 381.)

1901 ‡Otto, E. Typische Motive in dem weltlichen Epos der Angelsachsen. Berlin. Reviews: Binz, Engl. Stud. XXXII, 401-5; Spies, Archiv, CXV, 222.

1901 Ohlenbeck, C. C. Het Béowulf-epos als geschiedbron, Tijdschrift voor nederlandsche taal- en letterkunde, XX (N. R. XII), 169-96.

1902 Gerould, G. H. Offa and Labhraidh Maen, M.L.N. XVII, 201-3. (An Irish parallel of the story of the dumb young prince.)

1902 Gough, A. B. The Constance-Saga. Berlin. (The "Thrytho saga," pp. 53-83.) Reviews: Eckhardt, Engl. Stud. XXXII, 110-3; Weyrauch, Archiv, CXI, 453.

1902 Boer, R. C. Die Béowulfsage. I. Mythische reconstructionen; II. Historische untersuchung der überlieferung; A.f.n.F. XIX (N. F. XV), 19-88.

1902 Brandl, A. Ueber den gegenwärtigen Stand der Beowulf-Forschung, Archiv, CVIII, 152-5.

1903 Anderson, L. F. The Anglo-Saxon Scop. (Univ. of Toronto Studies, Phil. Ser. 1.) Review: Heusler, A.f.d.A. XXXI, 113-5.

1903 Olrik, A. Danmarks Heltedigtning: I, Rolf Krake og den ældre Skjoldungrække. Kobenhavn. (Most important.) Reviews: Heusler, A.f.d.A. XXX, 26-36; Golther, Literaturblatt, XXVIII, 1907, pp. 8-9; Ranisch, A.f.d.A. XXI, 276-80. Revised translation 1919 (q.v.).

1903 ‡Boer, R. C. Eene episode uit den Beowulf, Handelingen van het 3 nederl. phil. congres., p. 84 etc.

1903 A Summary of the Lives of the Offas, with reproductions of a number of the drawings in MS Cotton Nero D. I, in The Ancestor, V, 99-137.

1903 Hart, J. M. Allotria [on the forms Bēanstān, l. 524 and Þrȳðo, l. 1931], M.L.N. XVIII, 117.

1903 Stjerna, K. Hjälmar och svärd i Beovulf, Studier tillägnade O. Montelius, 99-120. Stockholm. See above, pp. 346 etc.

1903-4 Boer, R. C. Finnsage und Nibelungen-sage, Z.f.d.A. XLVII, 125-60.

1904 Rickert, E. The O.E. Offa-saga, Mod. Phil. II, 29-76 and 321-76. (Important. See above, pp. 34 etc.)

1904 Hagen, S. N. Classical names and stories in Beowulf, M.L.N. XIX, 65-74 and 156-65. (Very fantastic).

1904 Stjerna, K. Vendel och Vendelkråka, A.f.n.F. XXI (N. F. XVII), 71-80. (Most important: see above, pp. 343-5.)

1904 ‡Vetter, F. Beowulf und das altdeutsche Heldenzeitalter in England, Deutschland, III, 558-71.

1905 Moorman, F. W. The interpretation of nature in English poetry from Beowulf to Shakespeare. Strassburg. Quellen u. Forschungen, 95.

1905 Routh, J. E. Two studies on the Ballad Theory of the Beowulf: I. The Origin of the Grendel legend; II. Irrelevant Episodes and Parentheses as features of Anglo-Saxon Poetic Style. Baltimore. Reviews: Eckhardt, Engl. Stud. XXXVII, 404-5; Heusler, A.f.d.A. XXXI, 115-16; Schücking, D.L.Z. 1905, pp. 1908-10.

1905 Heusler, A. Lied und Epos in germanischer Sagendichtung. Dortmund. (See above, p. 116.) Reviews: Kauffmann, Z.f.d.Ph. XXXVIII, 546-8; Seemüller, A.f.d.A. XXXIV, 129-35; Meyer, Archiv, CXV, 403-4; Helm, Literaturblatt, XXVIII, 237-8.

1905 Schücking, L. L. Beowulfs Rückkehr. (Morsbachs Studien, XXI.) Halle. (Important: see above, pp. 118-20.) Review: Brandl, Archiv, CXV, 421-3 (dissenting).

1905 Schück, H. Studier i Ynglingatal, I-III. Uppsala.

1905 Hanscom, E. D. The Feeling for Nature in Old English Poetry, J.E.G.Ph. V, 439-63.

1905 Sarrazin, G. Neue Beowulf Studien, Engl. Stud. XXXV, 19-27.

1905 Stjerna, K. Skölds hädanfärd, Studier tillägnade H. Schück, 110-34. Stockholm.

1905 ‡Stjerna, K. Svear och Götar under folkvandringstiden, Svenska Förnminnesforeningens Tidskr. XII, 339-60. (Transl. by Clark Hall in Essays. See under 1912.)

1905-6 Rieger, M. Zum Kampf in Finnsburg, Z.f.d.A. XLVIII, 9-12.

1905-6 Heusler, A. Zur Skiöldungendichtung, Z.f.d.A. XLVIII, 57-87.

1905-6 Neckel, J. Studien über Fróði, Z.f.d.A. XLVIII, 163-86.

1905-7 Stjerna, K. Arkeologiska anteckningar till Beovulf, Kungl. vitterhets akademiens månadsblad for 1903-5 (1907), pp. 436-51.

1906 Emerson, O. F. Legends of Cain, especially in Old and Middle English (see particularly § VI, "Cain's Descendants"), Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. XXI, 831-929. (Important.)

1906 Skemp, A. R. Transformation of scriptural story, motive, and conception in Anglo-Saxon poetry, Mod. Phil. IV, 423-70.

1906 Duff, J. W. Homer and Beowulf: a literary parallel, Saga-Book of the Viking Club. London.

1906 Morsbach, L. Zur datierung des Beowulf-epos, Nachrichten der kgl. Ges. d. Wiss. zu Göttingen, Phil.-Hist. Klasse, pp. 252-77. (Important. See above, pp. 107-12.)

1906 Pfändler, W. Die Vergnügungen der Angelsachsen, Anglia, XXIX, 417-526.

1906 Garlanda, F. Béowulf. Origini, bibliografia, metrica ... significato storico, etico, sociologico. Roma. (Slight.)

1906 Stjerna, K. Drakskatten i Beovulf, Fornvännen, I, 119-44.

1907 Chadwick, H. M. Origin of the English Nation. Cambridge. (Important.) Reviews: Andrews, M.L.N. XXIII, 261-2; Chambers, M.L.R. IV, 262-6; Schütte, A.f.n.F. XXV (N. F. XXI), 310-32 (an elaborate discussion of early Germanic ethnology and geography); Huchon, Revue Germanique, III, 625-31.

1907 Chadwick, H. M. "Early National Poetry," in Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. I, 19-32, 421-3. Important. See above, pp. 122-6.

1907 Hart, Walter Morris. Ballad and Epic. Boston: Harvard Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature. (Important: see above, p. 116.) Review: Archiv, CXIX, 468.

1907 Olrik, A. Nordisk Aandsliv i Vikingetid og tidlig Middelalder. København og Kristiania. (Translated into German by W. Ranisch, 1908, as "Nordisches Geistesleben.")

1907 Schück, H. Folknamnet Geatas i den fornengelska dikten Beowulf. Uppsala. (Important. See above, pp. 8-10, 333 etc.) Reviews: Mawer, M.L.R. IV, 273; Freeburg, J.E.G.Ph. XI, 279-83.

1907 Cook, A. S. Various notes, M.L.N. XXI, 146-7. (Further classical parallels to Beowulf, 1408 ff., in succession to a parallel from Seneca quoted in M.L.N. XVII, 209-10.)

1907 Sarrazin, G. Zur Chronologie u. Verfasserfrage Ags. Dichtungen, Engl. Stud. XXXVIII, 145 etc., esp. 170-95 (Das Beowulflied und die ältere Genesis).

1907 Brandl, A. Entstehungsgeschichte des Beowulfepos. A five-line summary of this lecture is given in the Sitzungsberichte d. k. preuss. Akad. Phil.-Hist. Classe, p. 615.

1907 Holthausen, F. Zur altenglischen literatur—Zur datierung des Beowulf, Anglia, Beiblatt, XVIII, 77.

1907 ‡Grüner, H. Mathei Parisiensis vitae duorum Offarum, in ihrer manuskript- und textgeschichte. Dissertation, Munich. Kaiserslautern.

1908 Brandl, A. Geschichte der alteng. Literatur. (Offprint from Pauls Grdr.(2): Beowulf, pp. 988-1024; Finnsburg, pp. 983-6; an exceedingly useful and discriminating summary.)

1908 Schücking, L. L. Das Angelsächsische Totenklagelied, Engl. Stud. XXXIX, 1-13.

1908 Weyhe, H. König Ongentheow's Fall, Engl. Stud. XXXIX, 14-39.

1908 Neckel, G. Beiträge zur Eddaforschung; Anhang: Die altgermanische heldenklage (pp. 495-6: cf. p. 376). Dortmund.

1908 Klaeber, F. Zum Finnsburg Kampfe, Engl. Stud. XXXIX, 307-8.

1908 Björkman, E. Über den Namen der Jüten, Engl. Stud. XXXIX, 356-61.

1908 Levander, L. Sagotraditioner om Sveakonungen Adils, Antikvarisk Tidskrift för Sverige, XVIII, 3.

1908 Stjerna, K. Fasta fornlämningar i Beovulf, Antikvarisk Tidskrift för Sverige, XVIII, 4.

1908 Grau, G. Quellen u. Verwandtschaften der älteren germanischen Darstellungen des jüngsten Gerichtes. Halle. (See esp. pp. 145-56.) Review: Guntermann, Z.f.d.Ph. XLI, 401-415.

1909 Schück, H. Studier i Beowulfsagan. Uppsala. Review: Freeburg, J.E.G.Ph. XI, 488-97 (a very useful summary).

1909 Lawrence, W. W. Some disputed questions in Beowulf-criticism, Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. XXIV, 220-73. (Very important.) Review: Brandl, Archiv, CXXIII, 473.

1909 Ehrismann, G. Religionsgeschichtliche Beiträge zum germanischen Frühchristentum, P.B.B. XXXV, 209-39.

1909 Bugge, S. Die Heimat der Altnordischen Lieder von den Welsungen u. den Nibelungen, II, P.B.B. XXXV, 240-71.

1909 Deutschbein, M. Die Sagenhistorischen u. literarischen Grundlagen des Beowulfepos, Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift, I, 103-19.

1910 Olrik, A. Danmarks Heltedigtning: II, Starkad den gamle og den yngre Skjoldungrække. København. (Most important.) Reviews: Heusler, A.f.d.A. XXXV, 169-83 (important); Ussing, Danske Studier, 1910, 193-203; Boer, Museum, XIX, 1912, 171-4.

1910 Panzer, F. Studien zur germanischen Sagengeschichte. I. Beowulf. München. (Most important: see above, pp. 62-8; 365-81. Valuable criticisms and modifications are supplied by the reviews, more particularly perhaps that of von Sydow (A.f.d.A. XXXV, 123-31), but also in the elaborate discussions of Heusler (Engl. Stud. XLII, 289-98), Binz (Anglia, Beiblatt, XXIV, 321-37), Brandl (Archiv, CXXVI, 231-5), Kahle (Z.f.d.Ph. XLIII, 383-94) and the briefer ones of Lawrence (M.L.N. XXVII, 57-60) Sedgefield (M.L.R. VI, 128-31) and Golther (Neue Jahrbücher f. das klassische Altertum, XXV, 610-13).)

1910 Bradley, H. Beowulf, in Encyclopædia Britannica, III, pp. 758-61. (Important. See above, pp. 121, 127-8.)

1910 Schück, H. Sveriges förkristna konungalängd. Uppsala.

1910 Clark Hall, J. R. A note on Beowulf, 1142-5, M.L.N. XXV, 113-14. (Hūnlāfing.)

1910 Sarrazin, G. Neue Beowulf-studien, Engl. Stud. XLII, 1-37.

1910 Klaeber, F. Die ältere Genesis und der Beowulf, Engl. Stud. XLII, 321-38.

1910 Heusler, A. Zeitrechnung im Beowulf-epos, Archiv, CXXIV, 9-14.

1910 Neckel, G. Etwas von germanischer Sagenforschung, Germ.-Rom. Monatsschrift, II, 1-14.

1910 Smithson, G. A. The Old English Christian Epic ... in comparison with the Beowulf. Berkeley. Univ. of California Pub. in Mod. Phil. (See particularly pp. 363-8, 376-90.)

1911 Clarke, M. G. Sidelights on Teutonic History. Cambridge. Reviews: Mawer, M.L.N. VII, 126-7; Chambers, Engl. Stud. XLVIII, 166-8; Fehr, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXVI, 19-20; Imelmann, D.L.Z. XXXIV, 1913, 1062 etc.

1911-19 Heusler, A. A series of articles in Hoops' Reallexikon: Beowulf, Dichtung, Ermenrich, Gautensagen, Heldensage, Hengest, Heremod, Offa, Skjǫldungar, Ynglingar, etc. Strassburg. (Important.)

1911 Neckel, G. Ragnacharius von Cambrai, Festschrift zur Jahrhundertfeier der Universität zu Breslau = Mitt. d. Schlesischen Gesellschaft für Volkskunde, XIII-XIV, 121-54. (A historical parallel between the treatment of Ragnachar by Chlodowech and that of Hrethric by Hrothulf.)

1911 Schönfeld, M. Worterbuch der altgermanischen Personen- und Völkernamen. Heidelberg. See also Schütte, Noter til Schönfelds Navnesamling, in A.f.n.F. XXXIII, 22-49.

1911 Klaeber, F. Aeneis und Beowulf, Archiv, CXXVI, 40-8, 339-59. (Important: see above, p. 330.)

1911 Liebermann, F. Grendel als Personenname, Archiv, CXXVI, 180.

1911-12 Klaeber, F. Die Christlichen Elemente im Beowulf, Anglia, XXXV, 111-36, 249-70, 453-82; XXXVI, 169-99. (Most important: demonstrates the fundamentally Christian character of the poem.)

1912 Chadwick, H. Munro. The Heroic Age. Cambridge. (Important: see above, p. 122.) Reviews: Mawer, M.L.R. VIII, 207-9; Chambers, Engl. Stud. XLVIII, 162-6.

1912 Stjerna, K. Essays on questions connected with the O.E. poem of Beowulf, transl. and ed. by John R. Clark Hall, (Viking Club), Coventry. (Important: see above, pp. 346 etc.) Reviews: Klaeber, J.E.G.Ph. XIII, 167-73, weighty; Mawer, M.L.N. VIII, 242-3; Athenæum, 1913, I, 459-60; Brandl, Archiv, CXXXII, 238-9; Schütte, A.f.n.F. XXXIII, 64-96, elaborate; Olrik, Nord. Tidskr. f. Filol. IV, 2. 127; Mogk, Historische Vierteljahrsschrift, XVIII, 196-7.

1912 Chambers, R. W. Widsith: a study in Old English heroic legend. Cambridge. Reviews: Mawer, M.L.R. VIII, 118-21; Lawrence, M.L.N. XXVIII, 53-5; Fehr, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXVI, 289-95; Jordan, Engl. Stud. XLV, 300-2; Berendsohn, Literaturblatt, XXXV (1914), 384-6.

1912 Boer, R. C. Die Altenglische Heldendichtung. I. Béowulf. Halle. (Important.) Reviews: ‡Jantzen, Z. f. französischen u. englischen Unterricht, XIII, 546-7; Berendsohn, Literaturblatt, XXXV, 152-4; Dyboski, Allgemeines Literaturblatt, XXII, 1913, 497-9; Imelmann, D.L.Z. XXXIV, 1913, 1062-6 (weighty criticisms); Barnouw, Museum, XXI, 53-8.

1912 von der Leyen, F. Die deutschen Heldensagen (Beowulf, pp. 107-23, 345-7). München.

1912 Meyer, W. Beiträge zur Geschichte der Eroberung Englands. Dissertation, Halle. (Finn story.)

1912 Lawrence, W. W. The haunted mere in Beowulf. Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. XXVII, 208-45. (Important. See above, pp. 52-3.)

1912 Schütte, G. The Geats of Beowulf, J.E.G.Ph. XI, 574-602. (See above, pp. 8, 333 etc.)

1912 Stefanovič, S. Ein beitrag zur angelsächsischen Offa-sage, Anglia, XXXV, 483-525.

1912 Much, R. Grendel, Wōrter u. Sachen, IV, 170-3. (Deriving Vendsyssel, Vandal, and the Wendle of Beowulf from wandil—"a bough, wand.")

1912 Chambers, R. W. Six thirteenth century drawings illustrating the story of Offa and of Thryth (Drida) from MS Cotton Nero D. I. London, privately printed.

1913 ‡Fahlbeck, P. Beowulfskvädet som källa för nordisk fornhistoria. (Stockholm, N. F. K. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademiens Handlingar, 13, 3.) Review: Klaeber, Engl. Stud. XLVIII, 435-7.

1913 Nerman, B. Studier över Svärges hedna litteratur. Uppsala.

1913 Nerman, B. Vilka konungar ligga i Uppsala högar? Uppsala.

1913 Lawrence, W. W. The Breca episode in Beowulf (Anniversary papers to G. L. Kittredge). Boston.

1913 Sarrazin, G. Von Kädmon bis Kynewulf. Berlin. Reviews: Dudley, J.E.G.Ph. XV, 313-17; Berendsohn, Literaturblatt, XXXV (1914), 386-8; Funke, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXXI, 121-33.

1913 Thomas, P. G. Beowulf and Daniel A, M.L.R. VIII, 537-9. (Parallels between the two poems.)

1913 Belden, H. M. Onela the Scylfing and Ali the Bold, M.L.N. XXVIII, 149-53.

1913 Stedman, D. Some points of resemblance between Beowulf and the Grettla (or Grettis Saga). From the Saga Book of the Viking Club, London. (It should have been held unnecessary to prove the relationship yet once again.)

1913 von Sydow, C. W. Irisches in Beowulf[^[874]]. (Verhandlungen der 52 Versammlung deutscher Philologen in Marburg, pp. 177-80.)

1913 Berendsohn, W. A. Drei Schichten dichterischer Gestaltung im Beowulfepos, Münchener Museum, II, i, pp. 1-33.

1913 Deutschbein, M. Beowulf der Gautenkönig, Festschrift für Lorenz Morsbach, Halle, pp. 291-7, Morsbachs Studien, L. (Very important. Expresses very well, and with full working out of details, the doubts which some of us had already felt as to the historic character of the reign of Beowulf over the Geatas.)

1913 Benary, W. Zum Beowulf-Grendelsage, Archiv, CXXX, 154-5. (Grändelsmôr in Siebenbürgen: see above, p. 308.)

1913 Klaeber, F. Das Grändelsmôr—eine Frage, Archiv, CXXXI, 427.

1913 Brate, E. Betydelsen av ortnamnet Skälv [cf. Scilfingas], Namn och Bygd, I, 102-8.

1914 Müller, J. Das Kulturbild des Beowulfepos. Halle. Morsbachs Studien, LIII. Reviews: Klaeber, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXVII, 241-4; Brunner, Archiv, CXXXVIII, 242-3.

1914 Moorman, F. W. English place-names and Teutonic Sagas, in Essays and Studies by members of the English Association, vol. V, pp. 75-103. (Argues that "Gilling" and other place-names in Yorkshire, point to an early colony of Scandinavian "Gautar," who may have been instrumental in introducing Scandinavian traditions into England.)

1914 Olson, O. L. Beowulf and the Feast of Bricriu, Mod. Phil. XI, 407-27. (Emphasises the slight character of the parallels noted by Deutschbein.)

1914 von Sydow, C. W. Grendel i anglosaxiska ortnamn, in Nordiska Ortnamn, hyllningsskrift tillägnad Adolf Noreen, Uppsala, pp. 160-4=Namn och Bygd, II. (Important).

1915 Kier, Chr. Beowulf, et Bidrag til Nordens Oldhistorie. København. (An elaborate and painstaking study of the historic problems of Beowulf, vitiated throughout by quite unjustifiable assumptions. See above, p. [333] etc.) Review: Björkmann, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXVII, 244-6.

1915 Bradley, H. The Numbered Sections in Old English Poetical MSS, Proc. Brit. Acad. vol. VII.

1915 Lawrence, W. W. Beowulf and the tragedy of Finnsburg, Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. XXX, 372-431. (Important. An excellent survey of the Finnsburg problems.)

1915 van Sweringen, G. F. The main ... types of men in the Germanic Hero-Sagas, J.E.G.Ph. XIV, 212-25.

1915-19 Lindroth, H. Är Skåne de gamles Scadinavia? Namn och Bygd, III, 1915, 10-28. Lindroth denied that the two words are the same, and was answered by A. Kock (A.f.n.F. XXXIV, 1917, 71 etc.), A. Noreen (in ‡Studier tillegn. E. Tegnér, 1918) and E. Björkman ("Scedeland, Scedenig," Namn och Bygd, VI, 1918, 162-8). Lindroth replied ("Äro Scadinavia och Skåne samma ord," A.f.n.F. XXXV, 1918, 29 etc., and "Skandinavien och Skåne," Namn och Bygd, VI, 1918, 104-12) and was answered by Kock ("Vidare om Skåne och Scadinavia," A.f.n.F. XXXVI, 74-85). Björkman's discussion is the one of chief importance to students of Beowulf.

1915 Klaeber, F. Observations on the Finn episode, J.E.G.Ph. XIV, 544-9.

1915 Anscombe, A. Beowulf in High-Dutch saga, Notes and Queries, Aug. 21, 1915, pp. 133-4.

1915 Berendsohn, Walter A. Die Gelage am Dänenhof zu Ehren Beowulfs, Münchener Museum, III, i, 31-55.

1915-16 Pizzo, E. Zur frage der ästhetischen einheit des Beowulf, Anglia, XXXIX, 1-15. (Sees in Beowulf the uniform expression of the early Anglo-Saxon Christian ideal.)

1916 Olson, O. L. The relation of the Hrólfs Saga Kraka and the Bjarkarímur to Beowulf. Chicago. (Olson emphasises that the monster slain by Bjarki in the Saga does not attack the hall, but the cattle outside, and is therefore a different kind of monster from Grendel (p. 30). But he does not disprove the general equation of Beowulf and Bjarki: many of the most striking points of resemblance, such as the support given to Eadgils (Athils) against Onela (Ali), lie outside the scope of his study.) Review: Hollander, J.E.G.Ph. XVI, 147-9.

1916 Neckel, G. Adel und gefolgschaft, P.B.B. XLI, 385-436 (esp. pp. 410 ff. for social conditions in Beowulf).

1917 Flom, G. T. Alliteration and Variation in Old Germanic name giving, M.L.N. XXXII, 7-17.

1917 Mead, G. W. Wiðerȝyld of Beowulf, 2051, M.L.N. XXXII, 435-6. (Suggests, very reasonably, that Wiðerȝyld is the father of the young Heathobard warrior who is stirred to revenge.)

1917 Ayres, H. M. The tragedy of Hengest in Beowulf, J.E.G.Ph. XVI, 282-95. (See above, pp. 266-7.)

1917 Aurner, N. S. An analysis of the interpretations of the Finnsburg documents. (Univ. of Iowa Monographs: Humanistic Studies, I, 6.)

1917 Björkman, E. Zu ae. Eote, Yte, usw., dän. Jyder, "Jüten," Anglia, Beiblatt, XXVIII, 275-80. (See above, p. 334.)

1917 Rooth, E. G. T. Der name Grendel in der Beowulfsage, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXVIII, 335-40. (Etymologies. Grendel is the "sandman," a man-eating monster of the sea-bottom. With this, compare Panzer's interpretation of Grendel as the "earthman." See above, p. 309.)

1917 Schücking, L. L. Wann entstand der Beowulf? Glossen, Zweifel und Fragen, P.B.B. XLII, 347-410. (Important. See above, pp. 322-32.)

1917 Fog, Reginald. Trolden "Grendel" i Bjovulf: en hypothese, Danske Studier, 1917, 134-40. (Grendel is here interpreted as an infectious disease, prevalent among those who sleep in an ill-ventilated hall in a state of intoxication, but to which Beowulf, whose health has been confirmed by a recent sea-voyage, is not liable. This view is not as new as its author believes it to be, and a letter from von Holstein Rathlau is added, pointing this out. It might further have been pointed out that as early as 1879 Grendel was explained as the malaria. Cf. the theories of Laistner, Kögel and Golther, and see above, p. 46.)

1917 Neuhaus, J. Sillende = vetus patria = Angel, Nordisk Tidsskrift för Filologi, IV. Række, Bd. V, 125-6; Helges Prinsesse Svåvå = Eider = den svebiske Flod hos Ptolemæos, VI, 29-32; Halfdan = Frode = Hadbardernes Konge, hvis Rige forenes med det danske, VI, 78-80; Vestgermanske Navne i dansk Historie og Sprog, 141-4. The inherent difficulty of the subject is enhanced by the obscurity of the writer's style: but much of the argument (e.g. that Halfdan and Frode are identical) is obviously based upon quite reckless conjectures. The question is complicated by political feeling: many of Neuhaus' arguments are repeated in his pamphlet, Die Frage von Nordschleswig im Lichte der neuesten vorgeschichtlichen Untersuchungen, Jena, 1919. His theories were vigorously refuted by G. Schütte, "Urjyske 'Vestgermaner,'" Nordisk Tidsskrift för Filologi, IV. Række, Bd. VII, 129 etc.

1917 ‡Fredborg. Det första årtalet i Sveriges historia. Umeå.

1917 Nerman, B. Ynglingasagan i arkeologisk belysning, Fornvännen, 1917, 226-61.

1917 Nerman, B. Ottar Vendelkråka och Ottarshögen i Vendel, Upplands Fornminnesförenings Tidskrift, VII, 309-34.

1917 Björkman, E. Bēowulf och Sveriges Historia, Nordisk Tidskrift, 1917, 161-79.

1917-18 ‡von Sydow, C. W. Draken som skattevaktare, Danmarks folkeminder, XVII, 103 etc.

1918 Hackenberg, E. Die Stammtafeln der angelsächsischen Königreiche, Dissertation, Berlin. (A useful collection.) Reviews: Fischer, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXXI, 73-4; Ekwall, Engl. Stud. LIV, 307-10; Liebemann, D.L.Z. 1 March, 1919.

1918 Lawrence, W. W. The dragon and his lair in Beowulf, Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. XXXIII, 547-83.

1918 Belden, H. M. Beowulf 62, once more, M.L.N. XXXIII, 123.

1918 Belden, H. M. Scyld Scefing and Huck Finn, M.L.N. XXXIII, 315.

1918 Klaeber, F. Concerning the relation between Exodus and Beowulf, M.L.N. XXXIII, 218-24.

1918 Björkman, E. Bēow, Bēaw, und Bēowulf, Engl. Stud. LII, 145-93. (Very important. See above, p. 304.)

1918 Brandl, A. Die Urstammtafel der Westsachsen und das Beowulf-Epos, Archiv, CXXXVII, 6-24. (See above, p. 200, note.)

1918 Brandl, A. Die urstammtafel der englischen könige, Sitzungsberichte d. k. preuss. Akad., Phil.-Hist. Classe, p. 5. (Five line summary only published).

1918 ‡Björkman, E. Bēowulf-forskning och mytologi, Finsk Tidskrift, 151 etc. (Cf. Anglia, Beiblatt, XXX, 207.)

1918 Björkman, E. Sköldungaättens mytiska stamfäder, Nordisk Tidskrift, 163 etc.

1918 v. Unwerth, W. Eine schwed. Heldensage als deutsches Volksepos, A.f.n.F. XXXV, 113-37. (An attempt to connect the story of Hygelac and Hæthcyn with the M.H.G. Herbort ûz Tenelant.)

1918 Neuhaus, J. Om Skjold, A.f.n.F. XXXV, 166-72. (A dogmatic assertion of errors in Olrik's arguments in the Heltedigtning.)

1918 Clausen, H. V. Kong Hugleik, Danske Studier, 137-49. (Conjectures based upon the assumption Geatas = Jutes.)

1918 ‡Lund University "Festskrift" contains Norlind, Skattsägner; von Sydow, Sigurds strid med Favne.

1919 Olrik, A. The heroic legends of Denmark translated ... and revised in collaboration with the author by Lee M. Hollander. New York. (Very important.) Review: Flom, J.E.G.Ph. XIX, 284-90.

1919 Björkman, E. Bedwig in den westsächsischen genealogien, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXX, 23.

1919 Björkman, E. Zu einigen Namen im Bēowulf: Breca, Brondingas, Wealhþēo(w); Anglia, Beiblatt, XXX, 170-80.

1919 Mogk, E. Altgermanische Spukgeschichten: Zugleich ein Beitrag zur Erklärung der Grendelepisode im Beowulf, Neue Jahrbücher für das klass. altertum ... und deutsche literatur, XXXIV, 103-17. (Mogk here abandons his older allegorical interpretation of Grendel as the destroying power of the sea, and sees in the Grendel-story a Germanic ghost-tale, poetically adorned.)

1919 Björkman, E. Skialf och Skilfing [edited by E. Ekwall, with a note on Björkman's work], Namn och Bygd, VII, 163-81.

1919 Linderholm, E. Vendelshögens konunganamn i socknens 1600-tals-tradition, Namn och Bygd, VII, 36-40.

1919 Fog, R. Bjarkemaals "Hjalte," Danske Studier, 1919, 29-35. (With a letter from A. Olrik.)

1919 Severinsen, P. Kong Hugleiks Dødsaar, Danske Studier, 1919, 96.

1920 Imelmann, R. Forschungen zur altenglischen Poesie. (IX. Hengest u. Finn; X. Enge ānpaðas, uncūð gelād; XII. Þrȳðo; XIII. Hǣþenra hyht.) Berlin. (A weighty statement of some original views).

1920 Björkman, E. Studien über die Eigennamen im Beowulf. Halle. Morsbachs Studien, LVIII. (An extremely valuable and discriminating digest. See above, p. 304.)

1920 Barto, P. S. The Schwanritter-Sceaf Myth in Perceval le Gallois, J.E.G.Ph. XIX, 190-200.

1920 Hubbard, F. G. The plundering of the Hoard. Univ. Wisconsin Stud. 11.

1920 Schücking, L. L. Wiðergyld (Beowulf, 2051), Engl. Stud. LIII, 468-70. (Schücking, like Mead, but independently, interprets Withergyld as the name of the warrior whose son is being stirred to revenge.)

1920 Björkman, E. Hæðcyn und Hákon, Engl. Stud. LIV, 24-34.

1920 Hoops, J. Das Verhüllen des Haupts bei Toten, ein angelsächsisch-nordischer Brauch (Zu Beowulf, 446, hafalan hȳdan), Engl. Stud. LIV, 19-23.

1920 Noreen, A. Yngve, Inge, Inglinge [Ingwine], Namn och Bygd, VIII, 1-8.

1920 La Cour, V. Lejrestudier, Danske Studier, 1920, 49-67. (Weighty. Emphasizing the importance of the site of Leire in the sixth century.) A discussion on the date and origin of Beowulf, by Liebermann, is about to appear (Gott. Gelehrt. Gesellschaft).

[§ 9]. STYLE AND GRAMMAR

Titles already given in previous sections are not repeated here. General treatises on O.E. style and grammar are recorded here only if they have a special and exceptional bearing upon Beowulf.

1873 Lichtenheld, A. Das schwache adjectiv im ags., Z.f.d.A. XVI, 325-93. (Important. See above, pp. 105-7.)

1875 Heinzel, R. Über den Stil der altgermanischen Poesie. Strassburg. (Quellen u. Forschungen, X.) (Important and suggestive: led to further studies on the style of Beowulf, such as those of Hoffmann and Bode.) Review: Zimmer, A.f.d.A. II, 294-300.

1877 ‡Arndt, O. Über die altgerm. epische Sprache. Paderborn.

1877 Schönbach, A. [A discussion of words peculiar to sections of Beowulf, added to a review of Ettmüller's Beowulf], A.f.d.A. III, 36-46. See also Möller, Volksepos, 60 etc.

1879 Nader, E. Zur Syntax des Béowulf. Progr. der Staats-Ober-Realschule, in Brünn. Review: Bernhardt, Literaturblatt, 1880, 439-40 (unfavourable: reply by Nader and answer by Bernhardt, 1881, 119-20).

1881 ‡Gummere, F. B. The Anglo-Saxon metaphor. Dissertation, Freiburg.

1882 Schemann, K. Die Synonyma im Beówulfsliede, mit Rücksicht auf Composition u. Poetik des Gedichtes. Hagen. Dissertation, Münster. (Examines the use of noun-synonyms in the different sections of the poem as divided by Müllenhoff, and finds no support for Müllenhoff's theories.) Review: Kluge, Literaturblatt, 1883, 62-3.

1882 ‡Nader, E. Der Genitiv im Beówulf. Brünn. Review: Klinghardt, Engl. Stud. VI, 288.

1882 Schulz, F. Die Sprachformen des Hildebrand-Liedes im Beovolf. Königsberg.

1883 Nader, E. Dativ u. Instrumental im Beówulf. Wien. Review: Klinghardt, Engl. Stud. VII, 368-70.

1883 Harrison, J. A. List of irregular (strong) verbs in Béowulf, Amer. Jour. of Phil. IV, 462-77.

1883 Hoffmann, A. Der bildliche Ausdruck im Beówulf u. in der Edda, Engl. Stud. VI, 163-216.

1886 Bode, W. Die Kenningar in der angelsächsischen Dichtung. Darmstadt and Leipzig. Reviews: Gummere, M.L.N. II, 17-19 (important—praises Bode highly); Kluge, Engl. Stud. X, 117; Brandl, D.L.Z. 1887, 897-8; Bischoff, Archiv, LXXIX, 115-6; Meyer, A.f.d.A. XIII, 136.

1886 ‡Köhler, K. Der syntaktische gebrauch des Infinitivs und Particips im Beowulf. Dissertation, Münster.

1886 Banning, A. Die epischen Formeln im Bêowulf. I. Die verbalen synonyma. Dissertation, Marburg.

1887 Tolman, A. H. The style of Anglo-Saxon poetry, Trans. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. III, 17-47.

1888-9 Nader, E. Tempus und modus im Beowulf, Anglia, X, 542-63; XI, 444-99.

1889 Kail, J. Über die Parallelstellen in der Ags. Poesie, Anglia, XII, 21-40. (A reductio ad absurdum of the theories of Sarrazin. Important.)

1891 Davidson, C. The Phonology of the Stressed Vowels in Béowulf, Pub. Mod. Lang. Assoc. Amer. VI, 106-33. Review: Karsten, Engl. Stud. XVII, 417-20.

1892 Sonnefeld, G. Stilistisches und Wortschatz im Beówulf. Dissertation, Strassburg. Würzburg.

1893 Todt, A. Die Wortstellung im Beowulf, Anglia, XVI, 226-60.

1898 Kistenmacher, R. Die wörtlichen Wiederholungen im Bêowulf. Dissertation, Greifswald. Reviews: Mead, J.(E.)G.Ph. II, 546-7; Kaluza, Engl. Stud. XXVII, 121-2 (short but valuable).

1902 Barnouw, A. J. Textkritische Untersuchungen nach dem gebrauch des bestimmten Artikels und des schwachen Adjektivs in der altenglischen Poesie. Leiden. (Important, see above, p. 107.) Reviews: Kock, Engl. Stud. XXXII, 228-9; Binz, Z.f.d.Ph. XXXVI, 269-74; Schücking, Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1905, 730-40.

1902 Heusler, A. Der dialog in der altgermanischen erzählenden Dichtung. Z.f.d.A. XLVI, 189-284.

1903 Shipley, G. The genitive case in Anglo-Saxon Poetry. Baltimore. Reviews: Kock, Engl. Stud. XXV, 92-5; Mourek, A.f.d.A. XXX, 172-4.

1903 Krackow, O. Die Nominalcomposita als Kunstmittel im altenglischen Epos. Dissertation, Berlin. Review: Björkman, Archiv, CXVII, 189-90.

1904 Schücking, L. L. Die Grundzüge der Satzverknüpfung im Beowulf. Pt. I. (Morsbachs Studien, XV.) Halle. (Important.) Reviews: Eckhardt, Engl. Stud. XXXVII, 396-7; Pogatscher, D.L.Z. 1905, 922-3; Behagel, Literaturblatt, XXVIII, 100-2; Grossmann, Archiv, CXVIII, 176-9.

1904 Häuschkel, B. Die Technik der Erzählung im Beowulfliede. Dissertation, Breslau.

1905 Krapp, G. P. The parenthetic exclamation in Old English poetry, M.L.N. XX, 33-7.

1905 Scheinert, M. Die Adjektiva im Beowulfepos als Darstellungsmittel, P.B.B. XXX, 345-430.

1906 Thomas, P. G. Notes on the language of Beowulf, M.L.R. I, 202-7. (A short summary of the dialectal forms.)

1906 Barnouw, A. J. Nochmals zum ags. Gebrauch des Artikels, Archiv, CXVII, 366-7.

1907 Ries, J. Die Wortstellung im Beowulf. Halle. (An important and exhaustive study by an acknowledged specialist.) Reviews: Binz, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXII, 65-78 (important); Borst, Engl. Stud. XLII, 93-101; Delbrück, A.f.d.A. XXXI, 65-76 (important); Reis, Literaturblatt, XXVIII, 328-30; Lit. Cbl. 1907, p. 1474; Huchon, Revue germanique, III, 634-8.

1908 Krauel, H. Der Haken- und Langzeilenstil im Beowulf. Dissertation, Göttingen.

1908 Lors, A. Aktionsarten des Verbums im Beowulf. Dissertation, Würzburg.

1908 ‡Mourek, E. Zur Syntax des konjunktivs im Beowulf, Prager deutsche stud. VIII.

1909-10 Rankin, J. W. A study of the Kennings in Ags. poetry, J.E.G.Ph. VIII, 357-422; IX, 49-84. (Latin parallels; very important.)

1909 Shearin, H. G. The expression of purpose in Old English poetry, Anglia, XXXII, 235-52.

1909 ‡Riggert, G. Der syntaktische Gebrauch des Infinitivs in der altenglischen Poesie. Dissertation, Kiel.

1910 Richter, C. Chronologische Studien zur angelsächsischen Literatur auf grund sprachl.-metrischer Kriterien. Halle. (Morsbachs Studien, XXXIII.) Reviews: Binz, Anglia, Beiblatt, XXII, 78-80; Imelmann, D.L.Z. 1910, 2986-7; Hecht, Archiv, CXXX, 430-2.

1910 Wagner, R. Die Syntax des Superlativs ... im Beowulf. Berlin. (Palaestra, XCI.) Reviews: Schatz, D.L.Z. 1910, 2848-9; Kock, A.f.n.F. XXVIII, 347-9.

1910 Schuchardt, R. Die negation im Beowulf. Berlin. (Berliner Beiträge zur germ. u. roman. Philol. XXXVIII.)

1912 Bright, J. W. An Idiom of the Comparative in Anglo-Saxon, M.L.N. XXVII, 181-3. (Bearing particularly upon Beowulf, 69, 70.)

1912 Exner, P. Typische Adverbialbestimmungen in frühenglischer Poesie. Dissertation, Berlin.

1912 Grimm, P. Beiträge zum Pluralgebrauch in der altenglischen Poesie. Dissertation, Halle.

1913 Paetzel, W. Die Variationen in der altgermanischen Alliterationspoesie. Berlin. See pp. 73-84 for Beowulf and Finnsburg. (Palaestra, XLVIII.) Pt. I. had appeared in 1905 as a Berlin dissertation.

[§ 10]. METRE

For bibliography of O.E. metre in general, see Pauls Grdr. (2), II, 1022-4.

1870 Schubert, H. De Anglosaxonum arte metrica. Dissertatio inauguralis, Berolini.

1884 Sievers, E. Zur rhythmik des germanischen alliterationsverses: I. Vorbemerkungen. Die metrik des Beowulf: II. Sprachliche Ergebnisse, P.B.B. X, 209-314 and 451-545. (Most important.)

1894 Kaluza, M. Studien zum altgermanischen alliterationsvers. I. Kritik der bisherigen theorien. II. Die Metrik des Beowulfliedes. (Important.) Reviews: Martin, Engl. Stud. XX, 293-6; Heusler, A.f.d.A. XXI, 313-17; Saran, Z.f.d.Ph. XXVII, 539-43.

1905 Trautmann, M. Die neuste Beowulfausgabe und die altenglische verslehre, Bonner Beiträge zur Anglistik, XVII, 175-91. (A discussion of O.E. metre in view of Holthausen's edition.) Review: Klaeber, M.L.N. XXII, 252.

1908 Morgan, B. Q. Zur lehre von der alliteration in der westgermanischen dichtung: I. Die tonverhältnisse der hebungen im Beowulf: II. Die gekreuzte alliteration; P.B.B. XXXIII, 95-181.

1908 Bohlen, A. Zusammengehörige Wortgruppen, getrennt durch Cäsur oder Versschluss, in der angelsächsischen Epik. Dissertation, Berlin. Reviews: Dittes, Anglia, Beiblatt, XX, 199-202; Kroder, Engl. Stud. XL, 90.

1912 Trautmann, M. Zum altenglischen Versbau, Engl. Stud. XLIV, 303-42.

1913 Seiffert, F. Die Behandlung der Wörter mit auslautenden ursprünglich silbischen Liquiden oder Nasalen und mit Kontraktionsvokalen in der Genesis A und im Beowulf. Dissertation, Halle. (Concludes the dialect of the two poems to be distinct, but finds no evidence on these grounds which is the earlier.)

1914 Fijn van Draat, P. The cursus in O.E. poetry, Anglia, XXXVIII, 377-404.

1918 Leonard, W. E. Beowulf and the Niebelungen couplet, in Univ. of Wisconsin Studies in Language and Literature, II, 98-152. (Important. Pp. 123-46 advocating the "four-accent theory.")

1920 ‡Neuner, E. Ueber ein- und dreihebige Halbverse in der altenglischen alliterierenden Poesie. Berlin. Review: Bright, M.L.N. XXXVI, 59-63.

INDEX

Abingdon, sheaf ordeal at, [83]-4, [303]

Adam of Bremen, on the Götar, [339]

Æthelbert of East Anglia, [239]-43

Agnerus, [132]-3

Alboin and Thurisind, [281], [282], [285]

Alcester, Grindeles pytt near, [305]

Alcuin, [22], [332]

Aldfrid, [325]

Aldhelm, [331]

Alfsola, [69]

Ali, see Onela

Aliel, see Riganus

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Pedigrees in, [72] etc., [312] etc.

Archæology in relation to Beowulf, [122] etc., [345]-65

Asbiorn, [186]-92

Athils, Athislus, see Eadgils

Attila, funeral of, compared with that of Beowulf, [124]

Atuarii, see Hetware

Ayres, Prof. H. M., on the Finnsburg story, [266] etc.

Baldæg, [321]

Baldr, [69]

bana, [270]-1

Battersea, Gryndeles sylle near, [306]

"Bear's-son" folk-tale, [62] etc., [369]-81

Bēas broc, Bēas feld, [310]

Bede, the Venerable, [326] etc.

Bedwig, [303]-4

Beow(a), Beaw, [10], [42] etc., [87]-8, [202]-3, [291] etc., [296] etc.

Beowi, [303]

Beowulf the Dane (Beowulf Scyldinga), [41] etc., [88], [92] etc., [291] etc.

Beowulf son of Ecgtheow, king of the Geatas, [10]-13;

his struggle with Grendel and Grendel's mother, [41] etc.;

with the dragon, [92] etc.;

his funeral rites, [122] etc.;

etymology and meaning of the name, [365]-9

Beowulf, suggested translation from a Scandinavian original, [98]-104;

dialect, syntax and metre of, [104]-12;

theories as to the structure of, [112]-20;

the Christian elements in, [121]-8;

date of, [122], [322] etc., [353] etc.;

possible classical influence upon, [329] etc.;

archæology of, [345]-65;

division into fittes or passus, [294] etc.

Biar, [7], [45]

Biuuulf, [367]

Bjarkamál, [26], [264];

Saxo's Latin translation quoted, [135]-6

Bjarka rímur, [58], [182]-6

Bjarki, [9], [12], [54]-61, [132]-6, [138]-46, [182]-6

Bjarndreingur, [374]-5

Bjørnøre, [377]

Blackburn, Prof., on the Christian element in Beowulf, [125]

Blood-feud, in primitive society, [276] etc.

Boar-helmets, [350]-1, [358]-9

Bocus, [26], [135]

Boerinus, [201]

Bothvar Bjarki, see Bjarki

Bow, the, in Beowulf, [361]

Bradley, Dr Henry, on the Christian elements in Beowulf, [127];

on Beow and Beowulf the Dane, [293] etc.;

on the passus in Beowulf, [294]-5

Brusi, [187]-92

Brutus (Hildebrandus), [222]

Bugge, Sophus, on the Finnsburg story, [257]-66

Burial mounds, Scandinavian, [356]

Burials, [122] etc., [353]-5

Byggvir, [45], [297] etc.

Cerdic, his ancestry, [316] etc.

Chadwick, Prof. H. M., on the date of Beowulf, [122], [353] etc.

Chatuarii, see Hetware

Chochilaicus, [2], [3]

Christianity of Beowulf, [121] etc., [322] etc.

Cities of Refuge, [276]-7

Clyst, river, [44], [310]

Creedy, the, Grendeles pyt near, [305]

Crying the Neck, [82]-3, [302]

Cynethryth, [37] etc.

Dan, king of the Danes, [129], [204]

Danes, first mentioned soon after A.D. 500, [14];

their early kings, [13]-31;

their early history as recorded in Saxo, [129]-37;

in the Little Chronicle of the Kings of Leire, [204]-6;

in Sweyn Aageson, [211];

their relation to the English, [314] etc.

Date of Beowulf, [122], [322] etc., [353] etc.

Dialect of Beowulf, [104]

Dorestad, [259], [288]-9

Dragons, not extinct in 1649, [11] (note);

Frotho's dragon, [92] etc., [130]-1;

the Vendsyssel dragon, [192]-5

Dunstan, [332]

Drida, [36] etc.; [238]-43; see also Thryth

Eadgils (Athils, Athislus), [5]-8; [184], [186], [356]

Eaha, [246]

Eanmund, [5]

Edda of Snorri, [69]

Engelhardt, on the Moss-finds, [345] etc.

Eomaer (Eamer), [31], [197]-8

Eotan, Eote, see Jutes

Eotenas, part played by them in the Finnsburg Episode, [219] etc.; [260] etc.; [283] etc.

Eric, jarl, [277], [278]

Esthonian cult of Pekko, [299] etc.

Ethelwerd, [70] etc., [202], [318] etc.

Fahlbeck, Pontus, his Jute-theory, [8], [333] etc.

Faroe "Bear's-son" tale, [375]-6

ferhð-freca, [276]

Fifeldor, [35], note

Finn, son of Folcwald, [199], [200], [248] etc., [253]-4, [283] etc., [289]

Finnsburg, the story of, [245]-89;

site of, [259]

Florence of Worcester, [8]

Folcwald(a), [199]

Frealaf, [321]

Freawaru, daughter of Hrothgar, [21] etc., [282]

Frisia in the Heroic Age, [288]-9

Froda (Frothi, Frotho), [21], [24]-5, [211], [282]

Frotho and the dragon, [92]-7, [130]-1

Frowinus, [33]-4

Funeral rites, see Burials

Garulf, his part in the Finnsburg story, [246]-7; [283] etc., [287]

Gautar, see Geatas

Geatas (O.N. Gautar), [2], [8]-10, [333]-45;

their kings, [2]-13;

boundaries of their territory, [339]

Gefwulf, [286]-7

Genealogies, [311] etc.

Giovanni dell' Orso, [371]

Glam, [48], [147] etc., [164] etc.

Godulf, [200]

Götar, see Geatas

Gokstad ship, [363]-4

Gold in the Heroic Age, [348] etc.

Gram Guldkølve, [192], [194]

Grändels môr in Transsylvania, [308]

grandi, [309]

Greek scholarship in Anglo-Saxon times, [329]

Gregory of Tours, his account of the death of Hygelac, [3]-4, [9], [342]

Grendel, [41] etc.;

occurrence of the name in English charters, [305]-6;

etymology, [309]-10

Grendles mere, [43]-4, [306]

Grettir Asmundarson, [48] etc., [152]-62, [169]-82

Grettis Saga, [162];

extracts from, [146]-62;

translation, [162]-82;

death of Illugi, [280]

Grimm's story of Der Starke Hans, [370]

Grindale village, [308]

Grindle or Greendale brook, near Exeter, [44], [309]

grundel, [309]

Grundtvig, his identification of Chochilaicus, [4]

Guest (Gestr), see Grettir

Gullinhjalti, [141], [146]

Guthlaf, [246]-7, [252], [267], [285]

Haki, [68]-9

Halga (Helgi, Helgo), [14] etc., [132], [205], [211]

Hall, Dr Clark, on the archæology of Beowulf, [346] etc.

Hall, the, in Beowulf, [361]

Ham, Grendles mere near, [43]-4, [306]

Hamlet (Amlethus), [39];

Hengest's hesitation compared to that of Shakespeare's Hamlet, [266]

Hans, der starke, [370]

Harold Fairhair and the Gautar, [340]

Harvest customs, [81] etc.

hēaburh, [259] note

Healfdene (Halfdan, Haldanus), [14] etc., [131], [205], [211]

Heardred, slain by Onela, [5], [13]

Heathobeardan, [20] etc., [244]

Hendon, "Grendels gate" near, [306]-7

Hengest, [246], [250] etc., [284] etc.

Henry (Henrik) slays a dragon, [192]-5

Heorogar, [14], [287]

Heorot, [13]-20; see also Leire

Heoroweard (Hjǫrvarðr, Hiarwarus), [14], [15], [29]-30, [134]-7, [205]-6, [277]

Heremod, [89] etc.

Hermuthruda, [39]

Heruli, identified by some with the Heathobeardan, [24]

Hetware (Atuarii), [2]-3

Hiarthwarus, Hiarwarus, see Heoroweard

Hickes, his text of the Finnsburg Fragment, [245]-6

Hildebrandus, another name for Brutus, q.v.

Hildeburh, [248] etc.

Hjalti (Hott), [55] etc., [132] etc., [138]-46, [182]-6

Hnæf, [247] etc., [283] etc.

Hocingas, [249]

Hott, see Hjalti

Hrethric, [25]-7, [135] (Röricus), [211] (Rökil)

Hrothgar (Hroarr, Roe), [14] etc., [132], [204], [244]

Hrothulf (Rolf Kraki, Roluo), [15], [25]-9, [132]-7, [139]-46, [205]-6, [244]

Hugleikr, [323]

Huglek, [323]

Humblus, [129]

Hunlafing, [252], [267], [283]

Hygelac, death of, [2]-4

Ialto, see Hjalti

Icelandic "Bear's-son" tale, [374]-5

Illugi, see Grettis Saga

Ingeld, son of Froda, [21] etc., [244], [282], [284]-5

Intercourse between tribes in Heroic Age, [348] etc.

Ivashko Medvedko, [372]-4

Jean l'Ourson, [378]-9

Jenny Greenteeth, [307]

Jomsvikings, [278]

Jovial huntsmen, the Three, their views, [310]

Jutes, attempt to identify them with the Geatas, [8]-10, [333]-45;

Jutes and Eotenas, [261] etc., [272] etc.

Jutland, "Bear's-son" tale in, [377]

Kálfsvísa, [7], [45]

Kemble, his mythological theories, [291] etc.

Keto, [33]-4

Klaeber, on the Christian element in Beowulf, [126]

Lawrence, Prof. W. W., on mythology in Beowulf, [43] etc., [291] etc.;

on Finnsburg, [270] etc.

Laxdæla Saga, parallels from, [278]-9

Leifus, [252], note

Leire, [16] etc., [134], [204], [211], [216], [365];

see also Heorot

Leire, Little Chronicle of the Kings of, extracts from, [204]-6

Lethra, see Leire

Liber Historiae Francorum, account of the death of Chochilaicus (Hygelac) in, [3]

"Lichtenheld's Test," [105] etc.

Lokasenna quoted, [297]-9

Loki, [297]-9

Lombard story of the "Bear's-son," [371]

Longobardi, relation to the Heathobeardan, [23]; [311];

see also Alboin

Lother(us), [89] etc., [129]

Malmesbury, William of, see William of Malmesbury

Mercian genealogy, [195]-8

Milio, [220]

Minstrelsy forbidden to priests, [332]

Mitunnus, [218] etc.

Möller, on Finnsburg, [254]-7

Monsters and Strange Beasts, account of Hygelac in the Book of (Liber Monstrorum), [4], [339]

"Morsbachs Test," [107]-12

Moss-finds, [345] etc.

Müllenhoff's theories on Beowulf, [113] etc., [292] etc.

Myrgingas, [31]-2, [244]

Mythology in Beowulf, [46] etc., [291] etc.

Neck, see Crying the Neck

Neckersgate, [307]

Njáls Saga, parallels from, [271], [277], [280]-1

Norka, the, [371]-2

North Frisians, [249], note, [273]

Northumbrian anarchy in the eighth century, [324]

Norwegian folk-tale ("Bear's-son" type), [376]-7

Nydam, [345] etc.

Nydam boat, [362]-3

Odyssey, parallels with Beowulf, [329]

Offa I, king of Angel, [31]-40, [197]-8, [206]-15, [217]-35, [244]

Offa II, [36] etc., [235]-43

Ohthere, [5], [343] etc.;

see also Ottar Vendel-crow

Onela, [5]-8, [184]-6

Ongentheow, [4]-5, [8]

Ordlaf (Oslaf), [246], [252], [267], [285], [287]

Origin of the English, [314] etc.

Orm Storolfsson, [53], [186]-92

Oseberg ship, [363]-4

Oslaf, see Ordlaf

Oswin, king, [324] etc.

Oswiu, king, [325]

Otta, [220]

Ottar Vendelcrow, his mound, [343]-5, [356];

see also Ohthere

Panzer, his derivation of the story of Beowulf from the "Bear's-son" folk-tale, [67]-8, [369]-81

passus of Beowulf, [294] etc.

Peg o' Nell, [307]

Peg Powler, [307]

Pekko, [87], [299] etc.

Pellon-Pecko, see Pekko

Peter Bär, [378]

Pinefredus, see Offa II

Procopius, mentions the Goutai (Geatas), [8]-9, [338]

Riganus (or Aliel), [218] etc.

Ring-corslets, [351], [360]

Ring-money, [351]-2

Ring-swords, [349] etc.

Roe, see Hrothgar

Rökil, see Hrethric

Röricus, see Hrethric

Rolf Kraki, Saga of, [16], [55] etc.;

extract from, [138]-46;

quoted in illustration of the Finnsburg story, [281], [282]

Rolf Kraki, see Hrothulf

Roluo, see Hrothulf

Roskilde, [18], [132], [204]

Runkoteivas, [300]

Russian variants of the "Bear's-son" story, [371]-4

Ruta, [133]

Sämpsä, [84]-5, [300]

Saga of Rolf Kraki, see Rolf Kraki, Saga of

Sandhaugar, [48], [66], [156]-62, [175]-82

Saxo Grammaticus, [16];

his story of Starcatherus, [22]-3;

of Röricus, [26];

of Hiarwarus, [30];

of Uffo (Offa), [32]-3;

of Biarco (Bjarki), [57] etc.;

of Skyoldus, [77];

of Lotherus, [89] etc.;

of Frotho, [91] etc.;

on cremation, [123];

extracts from, [129]-37, [206]-11;

on text of, [215]-16; [282]

Sceaf, [68]-86, [200]-3, [302] etc., [311] etc.

Sceafa, [311]

Scenery of Beowulf, [101]

Schücking, Prof.,

on the structure of Beowulf, [117]-20;

on the date of Beowulf, [322] etc.

Schütte, on the Geatas, [8], [333] etc.

Sculda, [133]-4, [204]-5

Scyld, [68]-86, [201]-4, [303], [314] etc.

Secgan, [269], [286]

Setukese, [301]

Sheaf, see Sceaf

Shield, see Scyld

Shield, the, in Anglo-Saxon times, [360]-1

Ships, [362]-4

Sigeferth, [246]-7, [269], [286], [287]

Sigmund, [91]

Sigurd Ring, [69]

Sinfjotli, his foul language, [28]

Skeggjatussi, [375]

Skjold (Skyoldus), [71] etc., [130], [211]

Skjoldunga Saga,

account of Adilsus (Eadgils) in, [7];

of Rolf Kraki (Hrothulf), [16] etc.;

quoted, [69], [252] note

Spear, the, in Anglo-Saxon times, [360]

Starkad (Starcatherus), [22]-3

Steenklöwer, Stenhuggeren, [380]

Stein, [49], [66], [156]-62, [175]-82, [380]

Steinspieler, [380]

Steinvǫr, [157]-62, [175]-82

Stjerna, Knut,

on the funeral customs of Beowulf, [124];

on Ottar Vendelcrow, [343]-5;

on the archæology of Beowulf, [346] etc.

Sueno, [222]

Svold, battle of, [277]

Sweden, kings of, [4]-8;

see Eadgils, Ohthere, Onela, Ongentheow

Sweyn Aageson, his account of Uffo (Offa), [33];

extract from, [211]-15; [216]

Swinford, Grendels mere near, [306]

Swords in Beowulf and in Anglo-Saxon grave-finds, [357]

Ten Brink's theories on Beowulf, [113] etc.

Theodoric, king of the Franks, [3]

Thorgaut, [150] etc., [167] etc.

Thorhall Grimsson, [146]-56, [163]-74

Thorsbjerg, [345] etc.

Thryth, [37] etc., [238]-43

Tours, Gregory of, see Gregory of Tours

Uffo, see Offa

Ull, [303]

Unferth, [27]-30

Ursula, [205]

Vendel finds, [347] etc.

Vendsyssel, dragon of, [192]-5

Virgil, possible influence of, upon Beowulf, [329] etc.

Vitae duorum Offarum, [34] etc., [217]-43

Vǫlsunga Saga, parallels from, [275], [286]

Wäder Öar and Wäder Fiord, [342]

Warmundus, see Wermundus

Weak and strong forms of heroic names used alternatively, [311]

Wealhtheow, her forebodings, [25]

Weapons in Beowulf, [357]-61

Wederas, name applied to the Geatas, [342]

Wener, Lake, [9], [342]

wer-gild, [277]

Wermund, [32] etc., [197]-8, [206]-15, [217]-26

West-Saxon genealogy, [72] etc., [198]-201, [311] etc.

Widsith,

account of the Heathobeardan in, [20] etc.;

of Hrothulf, [25];

of Offa, [31];

of Sceafa, [80];

extract from, [243]-4; [286]; [338]

Wiggo, [133]-7, [264]-5

Wigo, [33]-4

Wijk bij Duurstede, see Dorestad

William of Malmesbury, [70] etc., [203], [302]

Woden's ancestors, [311] etc.

Ynglinga tal and Ynglinga Saga, [5]-7, [68]-9, [344]

Yte, see Jutes

Ytene, [8], [337]