HOW THE NATIONAL FOREST POLICY HAS BENEFITED THE PEOPLE

This general policy, which was laid down by the Secretary of Agriculture, has been followed out, with the result that a great many benefits have been derived by the nation as a whole, by the individual States in which the National Forests are located, and, lastly, by the local communities and users of the Forests.

The Remaining Timber Resources Were Saved. First of all the timber, the forage, and the water-power on the public domain has been reserved for the whole people and not for a privileged few. Before the Forest Reserve policy went into effect, the most valuable timber was being withdrawn from government ownership by the misuse of the public land laws, whose purpose and intent were fraudulently evaded. Many claims were initiated apparently for the purpose of establishing a homestead but in reality for the purposes of securing the timber on the land and later to dispose of it to some large timber holder. Every citizen is allowed to exercise his homestead right. Big timber operators would secure the services of many dummy locators, pay the expenses of locating, improving, and perfecting the patent, and then buy the claim from these dummies for small sums. A large timber holder in California secured his hundreds of thousands of acres of timber land in this way. By instructing these men where to locate their claims he was able to secure more or less solid blocks of timber made up originally of 160 acre patches. These patches, which originally were bought by the lumber barons for from $500 to $800 a claim, now have a value of from $8,000 to as high as $20,000. The people of the United States have lost the difference.

It is difficult to say where or how this wholesale misuse of the public land laws would have ended if it had not been for the inauguration of the National Forest policy. Since the Government has taken full charge of its forest domain, this misuse has stopped. In fact many of the fraudulent claims located years ago are being investigated, and if they are found to have been initiated with intent to defraud the Government, the land and the timber is returned to the National Forest in which it is located. To-day the National Forests contain about one fifth of the standing timber in the United States, an amount which will undoubtedly have a great effect upon the supply of timber available for future generations, especially since under present lumbering methods the privately owned timber lands are being practically destroyed, while the National Forests are actually being improved by scientific management. Four fifths of the standing timber is privately owned, and this is usually of much higher quality than the publicly owned timber.

Figure 5. The Big Trees. "Mother of the Forest" in the background. North Calaveras Grove, California.

The Use of Forage and Water Resources Was Regulated. The forage and water resources of the public domain have been subject to similar abuse. Before the National Forest policy was put into effect the large ranges of the West were used indiscriminately by all. The range was subject to considerable abuse because it was used very early in the spring before the forage was mature, or too late in the fall, which prevented the forage from ripening its seed and reproducing for the next season. Not the small, local stockmen, however, but the large sheep and cattle companies, many controlled by foreign capital, benefited by this condition of affairs. These "big men," as they were called, illegally fenced and monopolized large areas, varying in size from townships to entire counties. What chance would a local rancher with fifty or sixty cattle have against a million-dollar outfit with perhaps 40,000 to 50,000 cattle? He was merely swallowed up, so to speak, and had no chance whatever to get his small share. "Might made right" in those days, and it is said that if a man held any title or equity on the range it was a "shotgun" title. Also, the sheep and cattle men had innumerable disputes about the use of the range which in many cases resulted in bloodshed. If a sheep man arrived first on the range in the spring with his large bands of sheep, he simply took the feed. The Government owned the land and the forage but it had no organization in the field to regulate the use of it. It was indeed a chaotic condition of affairs and ended only after the inauguration of the present policy of leasing the lands under the permit system. These permits are issued and charged for upon a per capita basis.

The conservative and regulated use of the grazing lands under Forest Service supervision has resulted in better growth and better weights on stock and more actual profit. There are ample data that show that the National Forests produce some of the best lambs that are put upon the market. Data secured from the Modoc National Forest, California, in 1910, show that lambs brought 50 cents per head more and weighed an average of 10 pounds more than lambs produced outside the Forest. Weights taken of 10,000 head showed an average of 72 pounds for National Forest lambs, while outside the Forest average weights on 3,000 lambs showed only 62 pounds. The regulation of the length of the grazing season, the introduction of better methods of handling sheep, and the prevention of over-grazing are some of the Forest Service methods that produce better lambs.

Then also under the old system the valuable water-power sites were being rapidly eliminated from government ownership by large corporations who secured valuable property for a song. The National Forests, however, still contain about one-third of the potential water-power resources of the United States and over 40 per cent. of the estimated power resources of the Western States. And this vast wealth will not pass from the ownership of the United States but will be leased under long-term leases from which the Government will receive yearly a fair rental.

The Forests Were Protected from Fire and Trespass. But not only have these large timber, forage, and power resources been put under administration for the use of the people. The protection of the National Forests, which goes hand in hand with their administration, means a great deal to the local communities, the States, and the nation as a whole. Until about twenty years ago the forests upon our public lands—the timber of the Rocky Mountains from Montana to New Mexico and of the Pacific Coast ranges from northern Washington to southern California—seemed destined to be destroyed by fire and reckless, illegal cutting. Nothing whatever was being done to protect them from fire or trespass. They were simply left to burn. When the people living near the public domain wanted any house logs, fence posts, or firewood, they went into the public domain and took them. The best trees were usually taken first. In California, especially, there was a common practice of cutting down the finest sugar pine trees and cutting and splitting them into shakes to make a roof covering. Then, too, much government timber was stolen by lumber companies operating in the vicinity of valuable government timber. After the land had been stripped of everything of value a fire was started in the slashing, which among other things burned the stumps and thus practically obliterated all evidence of trespass. Had this destruction continued there would to-day have been little timber left in the West, and the development of the country which demands timber all the time, and not only at certain intervals, would have been retarded, if not stopped altogether.

Figure 6. A scene on one of the famous National Parks. Upper Lake, Glacier National Park, Northern Rockies, Montana.

How terrible the forest fires were in this western country is well illustrated by what an old California settler once told me, and what I have heard repeatedly in many Western States. He said: "In the years before the Forest Service took over the care and protection of the forests around here, the mountains within view of my ranch were not visible for many months at a time, being almost continually enveloped in smoke from the big forest fires that were raging in the forests all summer without ever being under control. They started in the spring as soon as it became dry and were not suppressed until the late fall rains and snows put them out." But he added with great enthusiasm, "Since the Service has taken charge the sky around here is as clear as crystal all summer. I never see any forest fires, not even smoke, because the Rangers seem to get to them before they get to be of any size." Such testimony as this speaks volumes for the efficiency of the present system of protecting the Forests from fire.

The Watershed Cover Was Preserved. The destruction of the forest cover on the watersheds feeding thousands of streams which rise in the western mountains would have had its bad effect on stream flow—low water during the long dry periods, and destructive floods after heavy rains. This condition of affairs would have meant disaster to the systems of irrigation by which most of the western farmers raise their crops. It would also have seriously impeded and in many cases prevented electric power development, to say nothing of affecting the domestic water of many of our large western cities whose drinking water comes from the streams rising in the National Forests. The protection of these valuable watersheds by the Forest Service from fire and destructive lumbering is of such vital importance to the welfare of the nation that it has been made one of the main reasons for establishing National Forests.

Civilization Brought to the Mountains. What the National Forest movement has done for settling and building up the Western States can hardly be overestimated. It has brought civilization into the wilderness. Roads, trails, telephone lines, and other modern conveniences have been brought to remote corners of the mountains. It has encouraged the settlement of the country by calling attention to the agricultural lands within the National Forests. More important than that, it has assured the West permanent towns, permanent civilization, and not a temporary, careless, shiftless civilization which vanishes with the exploitation of resources, as it did under the old régime.

The improvements on the National Forests have benefited not only the Forest officers for the administration of the Forests. They have helped immensely the local population. The pleasure resorts as well as the business of the Forests have been made more accessible. New trails have opened up new and hitherto inaccessible country, where fishing, hunting, and trapping are ideal. All the old and new roads and trails have been well marked with sign boards giving the tourist detailed information about distances between the various points of interest. Roads have opened up new regions to automobiles and to the horse and wagon. In 1916 it was estimated that more than 2,000,000 people visited the National Forests for recreation and pleasure. They came in automobiles, in horse and wagon, on horseback, on mules, on burros, and in all sorts of made-to-order contrivances, and the writer has even seen those that could not afford anything better, pack their camp outfits in a wheelbarrow and push it before them in their effort to leave the hot, dusty valleys below, and go to the refreshing and invigorating Forests of Uncle Sam. In addition to the large numbers of tourists that visit the National Forests every year, over 100,000 persons or companies use the National Forests. Of these a little more than half are paid users, who are charged a fair fee for timber, grazing, or other privileges and a little less than half enjoy free use privileges.

Agricultural Lands Opened to Settlement. The settlement of the agricultural lands in the National Forests is a matter that has received special attention at the hands of the Forest Service in late years. Land more valuable for agriculture than for timber growing was excluded from the National Forests before the boundaries were drawn, so far as this was possible. Small tracts of agricultural land within the Forests which could not be excluded are opened to settlement under the Forest Homestead Act of June 11, 1906. The amount of land, however, that is more valuable for agriculture than for timber is trifling, because the greater part of the valuable land was already settled before the Forests were created. The few small patches that are left inside of the National Forest boundaries are rapidly being classified and opened to entry for homesteads. Much of the land apparently adapted for agricultural purposes has a severe climate because it lies at high altitudes and it is often remote from roads, schools, villages, and markets. Therefore the chance offered the prospective settler in the immediate vicinity of the Forests is far better than in the Forests themselves. The Forest Service is doing everything it can to encourage homesteaders on the National Forests; it wants them because they help to report fires, help to fight fires, and in many other ways assist the Forest officers.

Permanent and Not Temporary Civilization Resulted. Only those people who have been brought up near a large lumbering center can appreciate what it means when a town vanishes; when all that is left of a thriving town of 5,000 or more souls is empty streets, empty houses, and heaps of tin cans. In the days of the Golden Age of lumbering in Michigan many towns flourished in the midst of the forests. These towns had thrifty, busy people, with schools, churches, banks, and other conveniences. These people were engaged in exploiting the forests. The beautiful white pine forests were converted into boards at the rate of thousands of feet every day. When these magnificent forests were laid low, the lumbermen left to seek virgin timber elsewhere. They left behind them empty towns and barren lands; only a few charred stumps remained to show where the forests once stood. But this is not an incident peculiar to the Golden Age of lumbering in Michigan. Even to-day this very thing is happening. The town of Crossfork, Potter County, Pennsylvania, had a population of over 2,500 souls in 1909. When the nearby timber was exhausted, practically the whole town was abandoned. In 1913 it had a population of 50.

In direct contrast to this short-sighted policy of the State of Michigan (and many others also) is the National Forest policy, which provides for a future supply of forest products as well as a present supply; which provides for work and homes and schools and churches for future generations as well as for the present; which provides for a permanent industry and not one that vanishes with the exploitation of the resources of a region as snow vanishes under the warm rays of a spring day. Lumbering even to-day is merely the removal of every vestige of timber that has any sale value. But forestry, which is practiced on the National Forests, removes only the mature trees, leaving the young growth to be cut at some future time. Lumbering has been and is to-day forest destruction; forestry is forest conservation under a system of wise use. Lumbering is followed usually by fire, and often by an entire impoverishment of the region in which it is carried on because it destroys both the mature tree and the young growth; under a system of forestry, cutting is followed by young, green forests which are protected from fire for the benefit of future generations. Such a system leaves the region and the industry in a permanent, good condition. The county under the old system receives no more taxes after its wealth is gone; but each county will receive taxes or money in lieu of taxes every year as long as the National Forests shall endure.

Figure 7. The remains of the old boiler house. The town once had a sawmill, planning mill, lath mill, besides modern conveniences. All these are now gone after the forests have been cut. Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan.

Figure 8. Deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill left. These are the remains of what was once a prosperous town. Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan.

Financial Returns. All the benefits of which I have spoken are without doubt great assets to the local community, to the State, and to the nation as a whole. They are great contributions to the welfare of our country even though they cannot be measured in dollars and cents. This brings us then to the financial aspect of the National Forest movement. Even though the fundamental purpose of the National Forests was in no sense a financial one, it is interesting to look into the finances of this great forestry enterprise.

The total regular appropriation for salaries, general expenses, and improvements for the fiscal year 1918 is $5,712,275. For 1917 it was slightly less than this: $5,574,735. The receipts from the sale or rental of National Forest resources in the fiscal year 1917 reached $3,457,028.41. From these figures it will be seen that the expenditures exceed the receipts by between $2,000,000 and $3,000,000 a year, depending partly on the severity of the fire season and partly on the activity of the general lumber market. When we consider that this is really a newly established business scarcely twenty years old; that large expenditure have been made and must necessarily be made every year for equipment and improvements before the resources could even be used; and that an efficient organization had to be built up to handle the business, we must confess that the receipts are really a wonderful showing.

When the Forest Reserves were taken over by the Government it could not be expected that they would yield a revenue at the very outset, nor could it be expected that even in the long space of twenty-five years they could be made self-supporting. The reasons for this are many. They are located for the most part in rugged, inaccessible mountains. In the case of almost every Forest a great deal of money had to be expended for roads, trails, telephone lines, fences, bridges, ranger stations and other cabins, lookout structures, fire lines, and many other improvements before the resources could even be used. Many of the resources were practically locked up; there were no roads by which to get them out of the wilderness. During the fiscal year 1916 alone there were built 227 miles of roads, 1,975 miles of trails, 2,124 miles of telephone lines, 89 miles of fire lines, 81 lookout structures, 40 bridges, 222 miles of fences, 545 dwellings, barns, and other structures, and many other improvements. Up to date there have been constructed over 3,000 miles of roads, over 25,000 miles of trails, about 23,000 miles of telephone lines, 860 miles of firebreaks, about 360 forest fire lookout cabins and towers, and many other improvements. Their total value is estimated at $7,000,000. And these vast improvements are but a small percentage of the improvements which will be necessary to be able to put these Forests to their highest use.

Not only must enormous sums be spent for improvements. The huge sums which are spent for the protection of the great resources bring no tangible return in dollars and cents; yet the fire protection system prevents the destruction of millions of dollars' worth of timber every year. Then again, when government timber lands are cut over, only the mature trees are taken; the smaller trees, although they have a commercial value, are left on the ground to mature because they will have a still greater value in from forty to fifty years. This is merely foregoing a small present revenue for a larger future one. Also many National Forests have on them large areas of steep mountain slopes where not a stick of timber is allowed to be cut. These areas are maintained intact for watershed protection. In fact many of the Forests of southern California are maintained solely for this purpose. These Forests are covered almost entirely by a low bush-like growth called "chaparral," which has no value either as timber or as browse, but which has great value to preserve an equable stream flow for domestic use, irrigation, and water power.

But there are still other reasons why the cash receipts from the National Forests are not as large as they might be. In addition to the cash receipts the equivalent of a large revenue is foregone every year through the various forms of free use and the sale of timber to settlers at cost instead of at its actual cash value. During the fiscal year 1917 approximately $150,000 worth of timber was given to settlers free of cost. About 40,000 people were served under this policy. Also much timber is sold at cost to settlers for domestic use. In this way over 4,400 persons received many millions of feet of timber whose cost value was about $20,000, but whose sale value was much greater. The privilege of grazing a small number of stock free of charge is granted to settlers living on or near the Forests. The stock thus grazed amounts to about 125,000 animals every year. The Forests are also put to many special uses for which no charge is made although their administration involves some expense. Strict accounting should credit the fair value of such uses to the receipts from the National Forests, for it is in effect income which instead of being put into the treasury is made available for the benefit of the people.

From what has been said it will be seen that a large part of the benefits derived from the systematic administration of the National Forests cannot be measured in dollars and cents. These benefits are in effect privileges extended to the people who in return assist in the protection of the Forests from fire and thus more than repay the Government for what they receive. Even under the rather unfavorable revenue producing conditions mentioned above, it is interesting to note that in 1917 the receipts of thirty-two National Forests exceeded their total expenditures. On fifteen others the receipts exceeded the cost of protection and administration. In other words, one-third of the National Forests are practically self-supporting.

The New Eastern National Forests. The great success with which the National Forest policy was launched in the Western States was largely responsible for the inauguration of a similar policy in the Appalachian and White Mountains. The main purpose for which these forests are to be acquired is to preserve a steady stream flow for water-power navigation and domestic use, and to lessen the damage caused by floods and erosion. These forests are of vital influence in controlling the flow of the Merrimac, Connecticut, Androscoggin, Potomac, James, Santee, Savannah, Tennessee, and Monongahela rivers. Some years ago the Merrimac drove mills worth over $100,000,000, which employed over 80,000 people. Upon these, it is said, 350,000 were dependent for support. In the Carolinas and Georgia alone the cotton mills operated by water-power turn out an annual product valued at almost $100,000,000. In these mills 60,000 people are employed, upon whom 250,000 are dependent for support. These mills utilize 106,000 horsepower. The forests which control these waters are therefore of great pecuniary value.

The Act of March 1, 1911, commonly known as the Weeks Law, made the acquisition of forest lands in the Appalachian and White Mountains possible. Up to June 30, 1917, over 1,500,000 acres have been approved for purchase by the National Forest Reservation Commission. The Forest Service has been designated as the bureau to examine and value such lands as may be offered for purchase. The original appropriation was $2,000,000 per year for five and one-half years, beginning the last half of the fiscal year 1911. The Agricultural Appropriation Bill for the fiscal year 1913 made the appropriation for 1912 and subsequent years available until expended. A further appropriation of $3,000,000 was provided later for the same purpose, to be expended during the fiscal years 1917 and 1918. Under Section 2 of the same law coöperative fire protection with the States was provided for. This section of the law provided that the Forest Service should maintain a coöperative system of forest fire protection with those States which have a law providing for a system of fire protection for state and private forest lands upon the watersheds of navigable streams. In no case was the amount to be expended by the Forest Service to exceed the amount appropriated by the State for the same purpose in any given fiscal year. The original appropriation was $200,000 and subsequent appropriations have been for $100,000 annually. Twenty-one States are coöperating with the Forest Service in this way.

By the passage of the Weeks Bill, Congress has voiced the sentiment that the forest fire problem, even on private land, is not only no longer a private problem, is not even exclusively a state problem, but a joint problem and duty to be borne by the State and nation. Forest fires are now rightfully looked upon as a public enemy rather than a private menace. This is a big step in the right direction, and it is hoped that this same principle will be applied in the not too distant future to all other matters dealing with private timber lands. If the protection of these private timber lands is a public and not a private problem, then certainly their management for continuity is a public problem. A timber owner should not be allowed to cut his timber without the consent of the Government, and the Government should see to it that he leaves the young growth as a basis for a future crop or provides a new growth of timber by planting young trees.

[TABLE OF CONTENTS]

PAGE
Preface[vii]
Introduction[xiii]
Forestry as a National Problem[xiii]
Our consumption of wood[xiii]
The lumber industry[xiv]
Our future lumber supply[xv]
Forests and stream flow[xvi]
Forests and erosion[xvii]
Forestry a public enterprise[xviii]
The Extent and Character of Our National Forests[xix]
How the Government obtained the National Forest lands[xix]
The romance of the National Forest region[xx]
Famous scenic wonders near the Forests[xxii]
The size and extent of the National Forests[xxiv]
The topography and climate of the National Forest region[xxvi]
Why the National Forests were Created[xxvii]
How the National Forest Policy has Benefited the People[xxx]
The remaining timber resources were saved[xxx]
The use of forage and water resources was regulated[xxxii]
The Forests were protected from fire and trespass[xxxv]
The watershed cover was preserved[xxxvii]
Civilization brought to the mountains[xxxviii]
Agricultural lands opened to settlement[xxxix]
Permanent and not temporary civilization resulted[xl]
Financial returns[xliii]
The new eastern National Forests[xlvii]
I The Creation and Organization of the National Forests[1]
Economic Conditions Which Led to Forest Conservation[1]
Prodigality leads finally to conservation[1]
The march of forest destruction[2]
Our lumber and water supply imperiled[5]
The First Steps in Federal Forest Conservation[6]
The upbuilding of the West[6]
The Lake States first to act[7]
The first federal steps[8]
The Act of August 16, 1876[9]
Further work under the Act[11]
The First Forest Reserves Established March 30, 1891[12]
The situation before 1891[12]
The need of the forest policy[13]
The Act of March 3, 1891[14]
An Anomalous Condition—Forest Reserves Without Forest Administration[14]
The Need of Administration on the Reserves[14]
More Reserves created[16]
The Administration of the Reserves Under the General Land Office[16]
The Act of June 4, 1897[16]
The Division of Forestry in 1898[18]
The Bureau of Forestry[19]
The Consolidation of the Forestry Work in the Department of Agriculture in 1905[19]
The Act of February 1, 1905[19]
Early forestry education and literature[20]
Changes in the Forest Service personnel[21]
More National Forests created[21]
The growth of the Forest Service[22]
Recent modifications in the organization[23]
The Present Organization of the Forest Service[24]
The administrative districts[24]
The Washington office[26]
The district offices[28]
IIThe Administration of the National Forests[30]
Personnel[31]
Duties of forest officers[31]
The Forest Supervisor[32]
The Forest Assistant[34]
The Forest Ranger[35]
The Forest Clerk[38]
Forest Service Meetings[39]
How the Forest Service Appropriation is Allotted to the National Forests[40]
Forest Service expenses[40]
The agricultural appropriation bill[42]
The ranger's protection and improvement plans[42]
The Supervisor's plans[43]
Approval of plans by the District Forester[44]
The district fiscal agent[45]
Tax money paid to the states[46]
The Equipment and Supplies for the National Forests[47]
The property auditor and property clerk[47]
Blank forms[48]
Supplies[48]
National Forest Improvements[49]
The need of improvements[49]
Transportation facilities[50]
Communication facilities[53]
Grazing improvements[56]
Protection improvements[57]
Appropriations for improvement work[58]
The Classification and Consolidation of National Forest Lands[61]
Land classification[61]
The consolidation of National Forest lands[63]
How Young Forests are Planted to Replace Those Destroyed by Fire[64]
Reforestation and the timber supply[64]
Reforestation and water supply[65]
Government reforestation policy[67]
Methods of reforestation[70]
Direct seeding work on the National Forests[72]
Planting on the National Forests[78]
The Organization and Scope of Forest Experiments and Investigations[83]
The need of scientific experiments[83]
The science of growing timber[84]
Dendrological studies[86]
Seed studies[87]
Nursery studies[88]
Forestation experiments[89]
Studies of forest influences[89]
Meteorological observations[91]
Forest management studies[92]
Forest protection studies[94]
Protection from grazing damage[95]
Protection from insects and diseases[96]
Tree studies[97]
Grazing investigations[98]
Investigations dealing with poisonous plants and predatory animals[102]
National Forest utilization experiments[104]
Forest Products Laboratory experiments[108]
Industrial investigations[116]
IIIThe Protection of the National Forests[120]
Protection from Fire[120]
Forest Fire danger on the National Forests[120]
Importance of fire protection[121]
Causes of forest fires on the National Forests[124]
Behavior of forest fires[126]
Losses by forest fires on the National Forests[126]
The forest fire problem stated[128]
Fire prevention[129]
Fire suppression[133]
How forest fire funds are distributed[134]
Forest fire history[136]
Relation of forest fires to the weather[137]
Improvements and equipment for protection[138]
Forest fire maps and charts[139]
Forest fire organization[140]
How fires are located[142]
The fire fighting organization[144]
Forest fire coöperation[146]
Fighting forest fires[147]
Protection Against Trespass, Forest Insects, Erosion, and Other Agencies[150]
Trespass[150]
Forest insects[154]
Tree diseases[159]
Water supply[162]
Public health[167]
Violation of game laws[168]
IVThe Sale and Rental of National Forest Resources[170]
The Sale and Disposal of National Forest Timber[170]
Government Timber Sale Policy[171]
Annual yield and cut[172]
Timber reconnoissance[174]
Logging the timber[176]
The first step in purchasing government timber[180]
Procedure in an advertised sale[180]
Timber sale contract clauses[182]
Special contract clauses[184]
When the operation may begin[186]
Marking the timber for cutting[186]
Scaling, measuring, and stamping[188]
Disposal of slash[190]
Payment for timber[192]
Stumpage rates[193]
Cutting period[194]
Readjustment of Stumpage rates[194]
Refunds[194]
The Disposal of timber to Homestead Settlers and Under Free Use[195]
Sales to homestead settlers and farmers[195]
Free Use[195]
Timber Settlement and Administrative Use[198]
The Rental of National Forest Range Lands[200]
Importance of the live-stock industry[200]
Permits issued in 1917[201]
Kinds of range, grazing seasons, and methods handling stock[202]
Grazing districts and grazing units[205]
Who are entitled to grazing privileges[207]
Grazing permits[211]
Grazing fees[214]
Stock associations[215]
Protective and maximum limits[216]
Prohibition of grazing[218]
Protection of grazing interests[219]
Special Uses[220]
Claims and Settlement[223]
The National Forest Homestead Act[224]
The mining laws[229]
Coal-land laws[230]
Administrative Use of National Forest Lands[230]
Water Power, Telephone, Telegraph, and Power Transmission Lines[230]
Appendix[233]

[ILLUSTRATIONS]

Figure1.An observation point for finding forest fires. Vigilance is the watchword on the National Forests. During 1916 forest officers extinguished 5,655 forest fires. Photo by the author[Frontispiece]
FACING
PAGE
Figure2.A typical National Forest landscape in the high mountains. Potosi Peak, 13,763 feet, from Yankee Boy Basin, Uncompahgre National Forest, Ouray County, Colorado[xviii]
Figure3.The climate of most of the National Forests is severe. This view was taken in the early summer and shows the high mountains still covered with snow. Most of the National Forest lands are therefore of small value for agriculture. Photo by Abbey[xxviii]
Figure4.On many high mountains on the National Forests snow banks persist throughout the summer. This view was taken in the latter part of August. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author[xxviii]
Figure5.The Big Trees. "Mother of the Forest" in the background. North Calaveras Grove, California[xxxii]
Figure6.A scene on one of the famous National Parks. Upper Lake, Glacier National Park, Northern Rockies, Montana[xxxvi]
Figure7.The remains of the old boiler house. The town once had a sawmill, planing mill, lath mill, besides modern conveniences. All these are now gone after the forests have been cut. Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan[xlii]
Figure8.Deserted houses, abandoned after the sawmill left. These are the remains of what was once a prosperous town. Lemiston, Montmorency County, Michigan[xlii]
Figure9.Forest officers in front of the Forest Supervisor's summer headquarters. Note the many telephone wires that lead from the office. This is 50 miles from the railroad. Lassen National Forest, California[32]
Figure10.Scene in front of the Forest Supervisor's headquarters. Sheep leaving the National Forest summer range in the fall to go to winter range in the valley. Lassen National Forest, California[32]
Figure11.Forest officers and lumberjacks burning the slash resulting from a timber sale. The snow on the ground makes the burning less dangerous. Washakie National Forest, Wyoming. Photo by the author[38]
Figure12.Forest officers at a winter timber-cruising camp repairing snow shoes. Besides cruising the timber, these men make a logging map of the government lands, to show how the timber can best be taken out. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author[38]
Figure13.A forest fire lookout tower on Leek Springs Mountain, Eldorado National Forest, California[50]
Figure14.A typical Forest Ranger's headquarters. Idlewood Ranger Station, Arapaho National Forest, Colorado[52]
Figure15.A typical view of the National Forest country in Montana. Forest Service trail up Squaw Peak Patrol Station, Cabinet National Forest[54]
Figure16.Forest Rangers repairing a bridge over a mountain stream. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado[56]
Figure17.A forest fire lookout station on the top of Lassen Peak, elevation 10,400 feet, Lassen National Forest, California. The cabin was first erected complete in a carpenter's shop in Red Bluff, about 50 miles away. It was then taken to pieces and packed to the foot of Lassen Peak. On the last two miles of its journey it was packed piece by piece on forest officers' backs and finally reassembled on the topmost pinnacle of the mountain. Photo by the author[58]
Figure18.Forest officers and laborers building a wagon road through trap rock. Payette National Forest, Idaho[58]
Figure19.Drying pine cones preparatory to extracting the seed. Near Plumas National Forest, California[66]
Figure20.Extracting tree seed from the cones. The dried cones are shaken around until the seeds drop out through the wire mesh which forms the sides of the machine[66]
Figure21.Preparing the ground with a spring-tooth harrow for the broadcast sowing of tree seeds. Battlement National Forest, Colorado. This view was taken at approximately 10,000 feet elevation. Photo by the author[70]
Figure22.A local settler delivering a load of Lodgepole pine cones at the seed extractory, for which he receives 45 cents per bushel. Forest officers receiving them, Arapaho National Forest, Colorado[70]
Figure23.In a forest nursery a trough is often used for sowing seeds in drills. The seed scattered along the sides of the trough rattles into position at the bottom and is more even than when distributed by the ordinary worker at the bottom of the trough. Pike National Forest, Colorado[72]
Figure24.Uncle Sam grows the little trees by the millions. These will soon cover some of the bare hillsides on the National Forests of the West[72]
Figure25.One of the largest Forest Service nurseries where the young trees are given the utmost care before they are large and strong enough to endure the rigorous climate of the National Forests. McCloud Nursery, Shasta National Forest, California[76]
Figure26.A view of seed sowing with a corn planter. San Isabel National Forest, Colorado[78]
Figure27.Sowing seed along contour lines on the slopes. Pike National Forest, Colorado[78]
Figure28.A planting crew at work setting out small trees. The man ahead digs the hole, and the man behind plants the tree. Wasatch National Forest, Utah[82]
Figure29.At the Fort Valley Forest Experiment Station, Coconino National Forest, Arizona. A typical meteorological station. Forest officer measuring precipitation. Note the shelter which contains thermometers and also the electrically equipped instruments to record the direction and velocity of the wind[90]
Figure30.Forest officer ascertaining the amount of evaporation from a free water surface. Fort Valley Forest Experiment Station, Flagstaff, Arizona[90]
Figure31.Forest Ranger with his pack horses traveling over his district. Meadow Creek, foot of Mt. Wilson, Montezuma National Forest, Colorado[102]
Figure32.A plank of Incense cedar affected by a disease known as "pin rot." By cutting the cedar timber when it is mature this can be largely avoided. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author[114]
Figure33.The western pine forests will some day be a great source for naval stores. By distilling the crude resin of the Jeffrey pine a light volatile oil—abietene—is secured which has great healing and curative properties. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author[114]
Figure34.A forest fire lookout station at the summit of Mt. Eddy. Mt. Shasta in the background. California[124]
Figure35.A forest fire lookout station on the summit of Brokeoff Mountain, elevation 9,500 feet. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author[128]
Figure36.Turner Mountain lookout station, Lassen National Forest, California. This is a 10 ft. by 10 ft. cabin with a stove and with folding bed, table, and chairs. The forest officer stationed here watches for forest fires day and night throughout the fire season. Photo by the author[128]
Figure37.A fire line cut through the low bush-like growth of "Chaparral" on the Angeles National Forest, California. This "Chaparral" is of great value for regulating stream flow. The streams are used for water power, domestic purposes, and for irrigating many of the largest lemon and orange groves of southern California[132]
Figure38.A forest officers' temporary camp while fighting forest fires. Near Oregon National Forest, Oregon[132]
Figure39.Putting out a ground fire. Even if the fire does not burn the standing timber, it kills the young trees and so weakens the larger ones that they are easily blown over. Wallowa National Forest, Oregon[136]
Figure40.Forest officers ready to leave a tool box for a forest fire in the vicinity. Such tool boxes as these are stationed at convenient places on National Forests ready for any emergency. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado[136]
Figure41.A forest fire on the Wasatch National Forest, Utah. Forest officers trying to stop a forest fire by cutting a fire line. Note the valuable growth of young trees which they are trying to save at the right[140]
Figure42.A forest fire running in dense underbrush on one of the National Forests in Oregon[144]
Figure43.Men in a dense forest with heavy undergrowth clearing away brush to stop the fire as it is running down hill. Crater National Forest, Oregon[144]
Figure44.Fire in a Lodgepole pine forest in Colorado. Arapaho National Forest, Colorado[148]
Figure45.A mountain fire in "Chaparral" five hours after it started. Pasadena, California[148]
Figure46.A few years ago this was a green, luxuriant forest. Picture taken after the great fires of August 20, 1910, on the Cœur d'Alene National Forest near Wallace, Idaho[152]
Figure47.The first evidence of insect attack are the reddish brown pitch tubes on the bark. Lodgepole pine infested by the mountain pine beetle. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author[156]
Figure48.The last stage of an insect-attacked tree. The tree is dead and the dry bark is falling off. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author[156]
Figure49.Wrecked farm buildings due to flood of May 21, 1901, Nolichucky River, near Erwin, Tenn. This is one result of denuding the Appalachian Mountains of their forest cover[162]
Figure50.When steep hillsides are stripped of their forest growth, erosion results. Erosion has been especially serious in the Appalachian Mountains. View taken in Madison County, North Carolina[162]
Figure51.A fertile corn-field covered with sand, gravel and débris brought down from the mountains by floods. These farm lands are ruined beyond redemption. This could have been prevented by preserving the forests on the watershed of this river[166]
Figure52.A view towards Mt. Adams and the headwaters of Lewis River. Council Lake in the foreground. National forest lands lie at the headwaters of practically every large western river. This means that the water supply for the western people used for domestic use, water power, and irrigation is being protected from pollution and destruction. View taken on the Rainier National Forest, Washington[172]
Figure53.A large storage reservoir used to irrigate the ranches in the valley below. Elevation 10,500 feet. Battlement National Forest, Colorado. Photo by the author[176]
Figure54.A sheep herder's camp used temporarily by Forest Service timber cruisers. Elevation about 10,000 feet. Battlement National Forest, Colorado. Photo by author.[176]
Figure55.View taken in the Coast Range mountains of California where Sugar pine and Douglas fir and the principal trees. Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author[180]
Figure56.A typical mountain scene in the California Coast Range. On these steep slopes a forest cover is of vital importance. Klamath National Forest, California. Photo by the author[180]
Figure57.A forest officer at work on a high mountain peak making a plane-table survey and timber estimate of National Forest lands. Photo by the author[182]
Figure58.A government timber cruiser's summer camp. These cruisers get a fairly accurate estimate of Uncle Sam's timber resources at a cost of from 2 to 5 cents an acre. Photo by the author[182]
Figure59.Forest officers moving camp while engaged in winter reconnoissance work. All food, beds, and clothing are packed on "Alaska" sleds and drawn by the men themselves. Photo by the author[184]
Figure60.A winter reconnoissance camp showing snow-shoes, skis, "Alaska" sleds, and bull hide used to repair the webbing on the snow-shoes. Lassen National Forest, California. Photo by the author[184]
Figure61.A group of giant redwoods. Santa Cruz County, California[186]
Figure62.A big Sugar pine tree about six feet in diameter. This is the most valuable timber species in California. Photo by the author[188]
Figure63.A Western Yellow pine forest in California. These trees are from four to six feet in diameter and from 150 to 200 feet high. Note the Forest Service timber cruiser measuring the tree at the left. Photo by the author.[188]
Figure64.Logging in California. Powerful steam engines pull the logs from the woods to the railroad and load them on flat cars. Photo by the author[190]
Figure65.The loaded flat cars reach the sawmill where the logs are unloaded and sawn into lumber. During the fiscal year 1917 timber sales on the National Forests brought into the National Treasury almost $1,700,000.00. Photo by the author[190]
Figure66.Scene in Montana. Forest officers constructing a telephone line through the Flathead National Forest[192]
Figure67.Forest Ranger, accompanied by a lumberman, marking National Forest timber for cutting in a timber sale. Coconino National Forest, Arizona[192]
Figure68.An excellent illustration showing the difference between unrestricted logging as practiced by lumbermen, and conservative logging as practiced by the Forest Service. In the foreground is the unrestricted logging which strips the soil of every stick of timber both large and small; in the background is the Forest Service logging area which preserves the young growth to insure a future supply of timber for the West. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana[194]
Figure69.View showing the Forest Service method of piling the brush and débris after logging, and also how stump heights are kept down to prevent waste. New Mexico[196]
Figure70.A tie-cutting operation on a National Forest. These piles of railroad ties are being inspected, stamped, and counted by Forest rangers. From this point the ties are "skidded" to the banks of a stream to be floated to the shipping point. Near Evanston, Wyoming[196]
Figure71.Brush piles on a cut-over area before burning. Forest Service methods aim to clean up the forest after logging so that forest fires have less inflammable material to feed on. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana[198]
Figure72.At a time of the year when there is least danger from fire the brush piles are burned. Missoula National Forest, Montana[198]
Figure73.Counting sheep as they leave the corral. Sheep and cattle are pastured on the National Forests at so many cents per head, hence they must be counted before they enter in the spring. Wasatch National Forest, Utah[208]
Figure74.Logging National Forest timber. Santa Fe National Forest, New Mexico[208]
Figure75.Sheep grazing on the Montezuma National Forest at the foot of Mt. Wilson, Colorado. Over 7,500,000 sheep and goats grazed on the National Forests during the fiscal year 1917[216]
Figure76.Grazing cattle on a National Forest in Colorado. Permits were issued during 1917 to graze over 2,000,000 cattle, horses, and swine on the National Forests[216]
Figure77.North Clear Creek Falls, Rio Grande National Forest, Colorado. The National Forests contain about one-third of all the potential water-power resources of the United States[230]
Figure78.The power plant of the Colorado Power Company, on the Grand River, Holy Cross National Forest, Colorado. Every fiscal year there is a substantial increase in water power development on the National Forests[230]
Figure79.This is only one of the thousands of streams in the National Forests of the West capable of generating electric power. It has been estimated that over 40 per cent. of the water resources of the Western States are included in the National Forests. Photo by the author[232]
Figure80.View in the famous orange belt of San Bernardino County, California. These orchards depend absolutely upon irrigation. The watersheds from which the necessary water comes are in the National Forests and are protected by the Forest Service. Some of the smaller watersheds in these mountains are said to irrigate orchards valued at $10,000,000[232]

[OUR NATIONAL FORESTS]

[CHAPTER I]
THE CREATION AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL FORESTS