Narrative of the Circumnavigation of the Globe by the Austrian Frigate Novara, Volume I / (Commodore B. Von Wullerstorf-Urbair,) Undertaken by Order of the Imperial Government in the Years 1857, 1858, & 1859, Under the Immediate Auspices of His I. and R. Highness the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Commander-In-Chief of the / Austrian Navy.

by Ritter von Karl Scherzer

IX.

Madras.

Duration of Stay from 30th January to 10th February, 1858.

"Catamarans" and "Massuli" boats.—Difficulty of disembarkation, and plans for remedying it.—History.—Brahminism.—Festival in honour of Vishnu.—Employment of Heathens under a Christian Government.—Politics and Religion.—Laws of Brahminic faith.—The Observatory.—Museum of Natural History and Zoological Garden.—Academy of Fine Arts.—Medical School.—Infirmary.—Orphan Asylum.—Dr. Bell.—Lancastrian Method of Teaching Children first applied in Madras.—Colonel Mackenzie's Collection of Indian Inscriptions and Manuscripts.—The Palace of the former Nabob of the Coromandel Coast.—Journey by rail to Vellore.—Fête given by the Governor in Guindy Park.—Visit to the Monolithic Monuments of Mahamalaipuram.—Excursion to Pulicat Lake.—Madras Club.—Fête in honour of the members of the Novara Expedition.—"Tiffin" and dance on board.—Departure from Madras.—Zodiacal light.—Shrove Tuesday in the tropics.—Arrival at the Island of Kar-Nicobar.

The morning after our arrival in Madras Roads, a native boat came alongside, of the sort known as "Catamarans," having on board two natives, who brought off from the authorities of the port the customary papers to be filled up. This extraordinary and very primitive boat consists of merely two or three trunks of trees bound together raft-fashion, on which these daring boatmen kneel. As a great part of their body is necessarily under water, they carry the papers and letters entrusted to them for transmission to the ships in the Roads, in turban-like wrappings which envelope their heads. Ordinarily, these men are excellent swimmers, a most requisite accomplishment to enable them to regain their boats, in the event of being swept off by the waves, or to save themselves and others from the innumerable sharks, which frequent the entire Coromandel coast, and render it eminently dangerous. About noon, a larger boat approached us, manned by from 15 to 20 natives, who offered their services as caterers, washers, agents, servants, in short as "Dubashes" a sort of Hindoo factotum; while each individual, shrieking and vociferating at the top of his voice, held high in the air, with outstretched arm, a number of written testimonials of ship-captains that had already employed him. These boats, called "Massuli," or "Musli" boats (from Muchly—fish), about 36 feet long by 5 or 6 in width, and in which alone it is possible to bring passengers and goods to land, are light, as flexible as if made of leather, and are fastened together with the elastic fibres of the cocoa-nut, being in every particular specially adapted to yield to the tremendous blows of the heavy surf, which a boat of ordinary construction could not possibly live through. They are for the most part pretty deep, and are usually manned with from 12 to 15 naked natives, who make use of an exceedingly smooth pallette-shaped paddle. In one of these boats, the officers of the frigate on leave, and the naturalists of the Expedition, were conveyed to land in the midst of a fresh breeze from the N.E. The more we approached the shore, the more formidable was the appearance of the tumultuous tempest-driven waves. Amid frightful yells and hurrahs, we passed in safety the first and second lines of surf. But we had yet to encounter the third, and by far the most furious. The boatmen spread a couple of cloths over our heads, to prevent our getting a soaking; the boat made several violent plunges forward, and was for an instant apparently covered by the tremendous foaming billows, but seemed to glide in a most extraordinary manner over these, and finally was neatly laid alongside the beach on the crest of the last breaker. This is the critical moment, and the most disagreeable, because the boat is, by this manipulation, thrown on its side, and one feels disposed to rush out, ere the returning wave throws the boat high and dry on the sand. The noisy shrieks of the boat's crew and Coolies, or Lascars (Indian porters), with which the disembarkation is accompanied, combine to render it still more annoying and unpleasant. One feels a sensation of satisfaction at having gone through this remarkable, and to some extent wholly peculiar, experience; but no one was ever known to encounter it voluntarily a second time. The glowing picture, which numbers of travellers have drawn of the landing at Madras, might impress many readers with the idea that their representations were most probably tinged somewhat with a colouring of romance; but, in view of our own experience at what is confessedly the pleasantest season of the year, there can be at certain times no description, however vividly sketched, but what must lag behind the reality.

There could hardly have been selected a more unsuitable site for a city, than that of Madras, and it is only the circumstance that the entire Coromandel coast presents no more eligible haven, as also the importance of the place as the chief city of the Carnatic, which alone has a population of 5,000,000, that has enabled Madras to boast a population of 700,000 inhabitants, and a commerce of such magnitude that 6000 vessels, British and foreign, are annually[101] cleared inwards and outwards, laden with upwards of 650,000 tons of produce and goods of a total value of more than £8,000,000 sterling.

[101] In the year 1857, the number of trading vessels was 6241, carrying 652,146 tons merchandise, of which 1438 were square-sailed ships; and 4803 native boats and Chinese junks. The imports of goods and metals amounted to Rs. 40,563,826 (about £4,050,000 in round numbers); the exports to Rs. 40,060,656 (about £4,000,000 in round numbers). We are indebted to the kindness of Dr. Balfour for a variety of interesting statistical data, the information contained in which must be transferred to the statistical portion of the Novara publications.

The spot at which vessels anchor can by no stretch of terms be called a roadstead, being in fact nothing but an open strip of coast running nearly due north and south, so that during the N.E. monsoons, the sea that sets in is something extraordinary, and produces a tremendous surf. At no season of the year is it practicable to reach the shore by ordinary ship-boats, because the beach, being utterly unprovided with any artificial appliances, is left in its natural state—that is to say, covered with fine sand, which lies so level that the depth is only nine fathoms two miles out at sea! Singular to say, no steps have to this day been taken to carry out the proposition, made many long years ago, of remedying this difficulty in reaching land, by the construction of a mole or pier, although three or four plans have already been presented by distinguished engineers. The last and most feasible scheme, and the most likely to be put in execution, consists in constructing a mole 1000 feet in length and 60 feet in breadth, to be erected upon iron piles driven into the sand, and with a cross-piece at the seaward extremity—the mole construction resembling the letter T. On either side of the mole, tramways will be laid down to facilitate the transport of goods that have been discharged. The entire cost of this undertaking would be about £100,000—an entirely disproportionate, and, indeed, insignificant amount, when one takes into consideration the important consequences which must result to trade and passenger traffic on the completion of this erection.

The earliest British settlement was at Armegon, about 36 miles north of Pulicat (or about 78 miles N. by W. of Madras). The cession of a piece of land by the native Rajah of Besnayor induced the president of the old factory at Armegon, Mr. Francis Day, to abandon the latter, and in the year 1639, the Fort of St. George was erected at the newly-selected station, where formerly stood the little Hindoo village of Ischinapatam. This fort formed the nucleus, at a later period, of the city of Madras, which is built on the flat alluvial soil along the coast, and at present comprises an area of about 30 (English) square miles. Its extent along the beach from north to south is about 9 miles by an extreme width of 3¾ miles. Madras, like all the rest, consists of a White town, exclusively inhabited by Europeans, and a Black town, or Pettah, in which the natives and all coloured residents carry on business.

The White town, which, however, presents none of the carefully laid-out streets and compact blocks of houses involuntarily suggested by the word "town," but rather resembles a gigantic park, in which are situated a vast number of comfortable ornamental villas, rises at its highest point 20 feet above the sea; whereas the Black town, at several points—for instance, Popham's Broadway—is hardly 8 feet above the level of spring floods.

While in Ceylon we had had an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the influence exercised by Buddhism over the political and social condition of the island; here we, for the first time, found ourselves confronted with the followers of Brahmah. At the moment of our arrival, the principal festival of the year was being celebrated in honour of Vishnù, one of the three godheads of the Brahminical faith. It lasted fourteen days, and was celebrated with much pomp. Temples were improvised, and some dancing platforms erected for the female servants of the temple and "bayadères." In one of these dancing saloons, adorned in the most marvellous manner, a sort of altar rose in the background, richly hung with gold filagree work and stained cut-glass, and fringed with singular representations of the god. In the doorway stood, on the left hand side, a copy of the statue of the Venus de' Medici; on the right, of the Apollo Belvedere; on a small table were visible butterflies, fire-flies, and conchs, in ornamental glass cases. On the walls, of plain deal boards, were suspended on one side, adjoining the portrait of Anthony da Padua, a number of representations of voluptuous Oriental "odalisques;" on the other, near an engraving in copper of Carlo Barromeo, all sorts of obscene engravings, such as are offered for sale only in the most abandoned quarters of Paris and London, and then under the cover of night. For that matter, we believe that the Hindoo priests, who superintended the erection of this hall consecrated to the worship of Vishnù, gave themselves less anxiety respecting the subjects treated of in the pictures suspended round, than that the walls should appear richly decorated with engravings and pictures. Adjoining this half-open dancing booth for the women in attendance on the temple, rises the chief Hindoo temple in Madras, a stately edifice of blocks of syenite, and surrounded by a lofty wall painted with the usual white and red streaks; and on which a fleecy-coated long-tailed baboon was performing his antics. Two gloomy pyramidal towers shoot up from the wall of the temple, and a beautiful colonnade leads to the entrance porch. A huge tank, almost resembling a pond, in which the Hindoos thrice daily performed their ceremonies, and went through their ablutions, lies in front of the temple, surrounded on its remaining sides by buildings for various purposes, while a stately elephant, specially consecrated to the service, is kept on the side next the temple, which carries up a pitcher of water every forenoon from the pool in front of the pagoda, one of the servants attached to the temple sitting on his back holding it, while a second, seated behind him, keeps waving a fan in either hand. The elephant is first conducted round the temple and then inside, in order to present the water to the god. This elephant (which animal it seems is itself an incarnation of Vishnù) had the distinguishing mark of the sect, as also several other indications of a similar nature richly tatooed upon his huge broad forehead. Every evening during the continuance of the fourteen days' festival, the various temples and dancing booths were brilliantly illuminated with wax tapers and oil lamps, but admission was refused to the profane, and in the eyes of Brahmah, unbelieving Europeans, a rule which was everywhere enforced with much politeness but unvarying firmness. Moreover, everything that the hand of a European has touched is unclean to the Hindoo. Only the Pariah, or "outcaste," the very lowest class of the people, eats any food that has been prepared in the kitchen of a Christian.

The most substantial part of the festival, however, was fortunately not confined to the interior of the temple, but took place in the streets, through which, during the period the festival lasted, immense processions of Hindoos, praying, singing, and dancing, used to pass every evening about 11 p. m. on their way from one temple to another, so that we were in no want of picturesque objects. First, a band of musicians would lead the way, with the peculiar little drum or tom-tom, whining pipes, and blaring clarinets. It was more like the noise of a lot of children's instruments than music. Next came a Hindoo riding on a gaily-bedizened ox, after whom appeared a number of girls and "Bayadères," dressed in white clothes, their hair richly dressed, and with rings through their nostrils, while the flaps of their ears were adorned with richly-gemmed ear-rings hanging down to the neck, and moving both hands and feet as they danced before the sacred figure, which was drawn along by 24 sturdy believers in Vishnù. The image was placed on a daïs thickly overspread with flowers, filagree work, and small mirrors, approached by steps, and with a parasol outspread overhead; in a vehicle in front was a sort of figure dressed up in flowers. On either side a multitude of torch-bearers strode along, with sulphurous lights and other means of illumination, or iron frames, on which were disposed in pyramidal form or like a bow, from 7 to 13 fireballs, which, let off at intervals alternately with Bengal lights and rockets, formed a veritable ocean of light. A tub filled with cocoa-nut oil was dragged behind, from which the cotton wicks were kept constantly replenished, so that the flames continued unintermittently. Wherever the procession passed the by-standers stood with hands reverentially folded. Many had the thresholds of their houses gaily adorned with flags and illuminated with paper lamps, others let off sky-rockets. From time to time, the procession halted for a moment, the female dancers formed two rows, and some of their number went through a sort of dance, in which they performed a set of stereotyped motions with their hands, and chanted the praises of the god in a most monotonous chorus. Thousands upon thousands of Hindoos joined the procession, so that we could hardly make way through the crowds. The yelling, heat, odour of oil, and stink of sulphur were absolutely intolerable. As often as the procession paused, the noise was redoubled, the confusion became tenfold. Itinerant confectioners, who offered for sale all sorts of sweetmeats, prepared either from the kernel or milk of the cocoa-nut, drew back reluctantly when the eye of a stranger was directed towards their piled-up delicacies, through dread lest a mere glance from him should blight their stock in trade. On the other hand, we remarked some of these vendors pressing forward with eagerness to satisfy the curiosity of strangers by offering small samples of their eatables, so as the more easily to propitiate and get rid of these dangerous guests, and leave the poor Hindoo in peace and unharmed! As Christianity makes but slow progress among the Hindoos, and as the tendencies of the English residents in India do not point, as of yore among the Spaniards in America, towards the violent conversion of the heathen natives with the alternative of annihilation, but rather towards political and commercial influences, we find the British Government regarding with placid indifference the abominations of Hindoo worship, which, even to this hour, take the form of laceration of the flesh and self-immolation, rather than, by ruling with the strong hand, fan the religious fanaticism of the multitude, without the possibility of Christianity becoming a gainer. Among the thousands upon thousands who were celebrating the festival of Vishnù in such a heathenish fashion, there undoubtedly were many who are in the employ of Government, which has no scruples about appointing Hindoos of all sorts to the various posts in the public service. The English State Church which held that such appointments tended, not very indirectly, to support heathenism,[102] earnestly remonstrated against the practice, but the Government becoming daily more convinced that the doctrines and homilies of the Christian faith continued to be entirely a dead letter among the Hindoos, seems to hold fast to a policy of seeking gradually to introduce Christianity and European civilization among the Indian races, by means of equality of rights and assimilation of laws, by a system of well-organized national, trade, and industrial education, and, above all, by the influence of personal example. This, to be sure, is a very slow and arduous method of conversion, inasmuch as a life of religious observances is more deeply intertwined with the very foundations of the social system in India than in any other country of the globe, and fairly blocks the way against the expansiveness of European civilization. For as simple as the Hindoo religion appears in its primitive principles, the proper observance of its various rites is proportionately difficult, and full of subtle distinctions for the sincere Hindoo believer.

[102] The East India Company even undertook the maintenance of the Hindoo temples, and defrayed the receipts of the annual festival in honour of Vishnù out of the revenues. There exist in the Presidency of Madras alone 8292 Hindoo temples, with an annual revenue of about £100,000, all under the protection and control of the Company. (See "India, Ancient and Modern," by David O. Allen, Boston, 1856.)

The worship of Brahma, according to the doctrines enunciated by Brahma's own lips in the Vedas, or holy books, took its rise in the adoration paid to the powers of nature, regarded as so many divinities, especially in the exalted transcendentalism of their ideas respecting the sun, the moon, the stars, and the firmament. Thence was readily developed the belief in a sole, eternal, Almighty Creator and Ruler of the world, Brahma, represented as having four faces looking to the four quarters of the globe, and reposing on a swan. This simple monotheistic belief was gradually developed into the divine manifestation of Brahma as a Triune divinity, namely, as the Creating power (Brahma), the preserving power (Vishnù), and the destroying, and at the same time renewing, energy of nature (Siva).

Although the revelation of Brahma has long since been completed, while Vishnù and Siva are still active agencies in the world as Supporter and Augmenter respectively, Brahma is assigned a very inferior rank in the worship of the masses, although, according to the lawgiver Menù, the Moses of India, he created the Brahmins out of the substance of his head, to guide and instruct man; from his arms the Chetriyas, to protect and defend him; from his trunk the Veisigas, to nourish and support him; and, lastly, from his feet the Sadras, to serve and be the property of all the other castes.

To Brahma, the fulness of whose existence no earthly notions can embrace, there are no temples dedicated, these being rather erected in honour of Vishnù, the Intercessor and Supporter, who manifests himself in the atmosphere and in water, and Siva the destroyer and regenerator of the various races, as also to the other divinities whom the Hindoo religion numbers by millions, although the majority of these have several names, and the lower classes are simply Avatars, that is incarnations or manifestations, of the superior deities. This peculiarity of the Hindoo religion makes it impossible correctly to classify or define Indian mythology. The god Rama, for example, is frequently named for Krishna, and the latter again for Vishnù. Vishnù, on his part, sometimes figures as Rama, when he is to destroy Ravana, the tyrant of Ceylon, or as Buddha, in order to found Buddhism. Like the Proteus of Grecian fable, the Hindoo mythology assumes a thousand different shapes,—it is, in short, Pantheism in its most perfect development.

A zealous Hindoo requires about four hours of each day to get through his religious ceremonies, these being performed at different periods, as he must bathe in the morning, at noon, and again at night, in a tank or pool before the temple, and recite certain prayers. For purposes of recognition, the two chief castes wear special marks, the worshippers of Vishnù having a trident painted on the forehead in either white or yellow, while those of Siva, on the other hand, sport three horizontal stripes, or one round spot marked with the ash of burnt sandal-wood. Many Hindoos write on their foreheads the distinguishing insignia of both Vishnù and Siva, and look thus the more strange and peculiar.

After every ablution these marks are painted afresh, and with much care upon the forehead, so that paint and rouge-boxes play an important part in a native household. No Hindoo can partake of his exclusively vegetable nutriment, if cooked in a European kitchen, such being entirely contrary to the principles of his faith. Every servant, therefore, leaves his master regularly at noon, in order to partake of his simple meal of rice and vegetables, either with his family or in one of the numerous Hindoo cook-shops. The frequent holidays of the Hindoos, of which there are twenty-one within two months, seriously interfere with trade among the natives, and still more with the instruction of the young.

Hindooism, however, appears to have lost much of its originality by constant contact with Europeans, and by the various political revolutions, and although many of these ceremonies are still kept up, and the bodies of their dead are still burned on pyres, yet the modern Hindoo has so far relaxed from his ascetic austerity, as to admit of his being employed in the various pursuits of active life. And it is not a little surprising to see these handsome, tall, brown figures, with their insignia of Vishnù or Siva marked on their foreheads, and dressed in their sweeping plaited togas of pure white, employed on the telegraph, the railway, the arsenal, and even the observatory, all which employments demand the utmost exactness and punctuality, and thus afford the most gratifying evidence of the adaptability of the Hindoo race to be impressed and to benefit by European civilization. With the exception of Major Jacob, the director of the astronomical and magnetic observatory, the whole of the employés are natives, who are not indeed employed in making the actual observations, but are found perfectly competent to compute the various calculations, and make the requisite reductions. The institution itself is at present of but little importance as a place of scientific observation, in consequence of the small support it receives, but it is to be provided with a meridian circle, similar to that in the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope, when it must become an important station. Strange to say, here, as at the Cape, there are no observations made on the Sundays, which in the course of a year gives rise to lamentable deficiencies, especially when some natural phenomenon of rare occurrence happens to fall upon a Sunday.

We were greatly surprised at the flourishing condition of the Central Museum, with which is united a Zoological Garden, both set on foot in 1851. In the spacious rooms of this stately edifice are ranged costly Indian antiquities and sculptures, inscriptions in Sanscrit, in stone, or marble slabs, antique fragments of Indian monuments,[103] as also an instructive collection of technical and ethnographical subjects, models of fortresses, ships, agricultural implements, instruments, tools, machines, and native forts. The geological department of the Museum is the weakest and poorest department; and as spirits of wine and glass jars are expensive articles in India, the greatest number of the animals, even the fish and snakes, are simply stuffed. In the garden which surrounds the museum buildings are a considerable number of cages inclosing living animals, such as monkeys, panthers, bears, giraffes, stags, gazelles, cobras, Indian hens, pigeons, marsh-birds, and singing-birds. In addition there were Aquaria with fishes arranged in groups at various spots all round the garden. Of objects of special interest there was a powerful baboon (Pithecus Satyrus), above 5 feet high, fastened to a chain in a large monkey-house, around whom were gambolling a number of smaller species, as also a number of cobras in a large box with glass sides, so that one could examine them at leisure on every side. Here we witnessed the uncomfortable spectacle of a native engaged in cleaning the panes inside the cage and directly beneath these formidable animals, which thronged around him in such numbers that he was continually compelled with one hand to resist their importunate caresses. Anyone not aware of the fact that these animals have been rendered harmless by the extraction of their poison-fangs, must experience a feeling of terror and astonishment at the sight of this brood of malign, stealthy-moving, hissing serpents, with a naked Hindoo in their midst!

[103] These important inscriptions are explained and described in the Selections from the Records of the Madras Government, Report on the Elliot Marbles (p. 191) by R. W. Taylor, Madras, 1857.

Most astonishing and gratifying is the immense number of casual visitors that frequent this institution for advancing education. The book for inscribing names lying in the Museum, showed for a single month no less than 36,522 visitors, mostly natives, and this it seems has been about the average number since the foundation of the Museum. There is also a small, valuable library, which, by means of purchases, gifts, and exchanges, is being visibly added to with each year, and is accessible to visitors of all classes, the custodian and inspectors being all natives.

The Madras Literary Society, an offshoot of the Royal Asiatic Society in London, and now reckoning but a small number of associates, publishes from time to time the most valuable information as to the latest achievements of science in India, and serves in a measure as a medium by which to compare the intellectual progress of Asia and Europe. To the members of this society the naturalists of the Novara Expedition are specially beholden for their great attention during their stay in Madras, as also for their hearty participation in the objects of the Imperial Expedition as evidenced by their sending copies of their own various and useful publications.

There are in Madras numerous institutes devoted to the diffusion of useful knowledge among the masses, part founded and maintained by Government, part by private enterprise, and this liberality is the more praiseworthy that the European community of Madras does not comprise much more than 1600 persons, of whom only a very few settle any length of time. The Europeans resident here are chiefly military men and merchants, who leave the country after remaining five or ten years, as almost every one regards his stay in this hot, sandy capital of the desert Coromandel coast, as purely provisional, and views it as a stepping-stone towards attaining some better post, or becoming suddenly wealthy by some favourable conjuncture of circumstances. That the majority of these institutions have more practical objects in view admits of ready proof, and is but one instance the more of the moulding power of surrounding circumstances. In the school of arts for instance, under Dr. Hunter's superintendence, there are 20 pupils, mostly Hindoos, who are receiving instruction in drawing, sculpture, lithography, woodcutting, etching, and photography. But in order to reduce, as far as possible, the expenses of this institution, there is also included a manufacture of earthenware, the proceeds arising from the sale of which are applied to the support of the school.

Another eminently useful institution, the Medical College, which, as well as most of the other professional foundations, we visited in the company with our hospitable and influential friend, Dr. Kelly, possesses one division, in which such of the natives as purpose to set up as apothecaries, are at the same time so far educated as to be able, in case of necessity, to perform a few of the minor surgical operations. Of the hundred of an auditory who at the period of our visit were attending a lecture on chemistry, the majority were half-blooded Indians, dressed in the European fashion, with a sprinkling of barely 9 or 10 Hindoos in their white robes, and with the Vishnù or Siva marks on their forehead. We frequently heard the professors, among whom are several gentlemen of high scientific attainments, such, for instance, as Messrs. Evans, Lorimer, Mudge, Montgomery, Mayr, &c., express their regret at the severe check which the development of science sustained by the outbreak of the late revolt. Plans for a new university, a hospital, and a medical school to correspond are all ready, and but for that ruinous catastrophe would have been by this time in working order.

In other respects the present Infirmary is an ugly and unsuitable building, making up about 100 beds for patients. Several of these were occupied by soldiers, who had been severely wounded under Havelock at the storming of Delhi. The introduction of punkahs, or wind-fans, into the wards has proved so salutary, that there is an intention to have them worked without intermission day and night, by means of water power, instead of by manual labour as hitherto. In order to be able to estimate the boon conferred by such an improvement upon the condition of the poor invalids, we must call to mind that the average annual temperature of Madras is about 94° Fahr., which is slightly in excess of the average temperature at the equator, although Madras is 10 degrees north of the line. Under such climatic conditions, it is no wonder that the invigorating wholesome breeze is known at Madras as "The Doctor."

Among the benevolent institutions visited by us, we found the twin asylums for male and female orphans of soldiers well worthy of notice in many particulars. These are for the most part the offspring of European soldiers married to native women, and are known as "half-castes," or "Mestizoes." In the Military Female Asylum, there were at this time 216 girls, who were brought up to all manner of female work, as well as taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, and remained in the institution until suitably provided for in marriage. The marriage outfit, as also a small wedding present of Rs. 50 (£5), for each girl is provided by Government, and the entire working expenses, which amount to about Rs. 30,000 (£3000) annually, are defrayed by a Government grant of Rs. 1000 (£100) a month, together with the interest of the funded capital, upon which Government pays 8 per cent. interest.

The Military Male Orphan Asylum was founded in 1788 by means of voluntary contributions, supplemented by a Government Subvention, and possesses a special historical interest from the circumstance that it was here that Dr. Bell, who held the post of Head-Master in the establishment, first projected and put into execution the method of imparting elementary instruction, afterwards so widely renowned as the Lancastrian method of teaching, which since that period has traversed the globe, and has been introduced into every capital in Europe. The course of instruction of the institution includes writing, reading, arithmetic, grammar, geography, history, English, Tamil, and music. The capital of the institution is vested by Government in the 4 per cent. stocks, paying 8 per cent. interest, which, with the large amount realized within the establishment itself, is sufficient to defray all expenses without any further assistance. The number of boys is about 242. The head teacher, who obligingly conducted us over the whole establishment, which is very handsome, called a dozen boys forward just as we were leaving, who played a few simple pieces on wind instruments, on which they performed a variety of national airs with great precision. The music master was a German.

Among its casual attractions, Madras has occasionally flower shows, and exhibitions of industry, and it is exceedingly gratifying to observe how European science is even here called in to elicit the treasures of nature, and administer to the necessities of mankind. The catalogue of the industrial exhibition of 1857 shows, inter alia, 17 sorts of spices, 20 varieties of resin, 64 plants suitable for the distillation of oil, and 41 different drugs, and Dr. Kirkpatrick, a physician in Mysore, has taken the trouble to enumerate, by their botanical and Indian names, 240 native drugs, which had been sent to the Madras exhibition, as also their market value, and at the same time has subjoined the modes in which the natives use them.

Among the most remarkable private museums which have been formed at Madras for the illustration of the history and monuments of the southern provinces of the Deccan, must undoubtedly be included the collection of native inscriptions and manuscripts of the well-known Colonel Mackenzie, which first attracted the attention of all friends of Oriental science, as also the British Government, through a memoir[104] of Alexander Johnston, Esq. It is a magnificent testimony to the conservative spirit of the British resident among heathen nations, as compared with the barbarous spirit of destruction that characterized the Spanish colonists. From an erroneous idea that they were in so doing promoting the interests of Christianity, these Romanist conquerors destroyed all sculptures and monuments of the pagan Indian races, and, by this fanatical Vandalism, at the same time prevented the hand of science from unfolding, as it might have done from these important vestiges, the history of these very remarkable races from the most remote ages.

[104] On Colonel Mackenzie's Collection, in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain. London, 1835, p. 4, vol. ii.

In the immense old palace, surrounded by adjacent edifices and gardens, once occupied by the King of the Coromandel coast, the renowned nabob of the Carnatic, the offices of the English Government employés are at present located. The last of these sovereigns died a few years since, and his former minister receives from the British Government a pension of Rs. 1300 (£130) a month. Great men who have fallen do not ordinarily like to be sought out or gazed at. There is, however, on the contrary, no difficulty in obtaining access to the last minister of the last monarch of the Coromandel coast, who seems to feel flattered by a visit from strangers. On our entering, the venerable old gentleman rose from a rich thick carpet, on which he was sitting cross-legged, held out his hand in the most affable manner, and did us the honour of accompanying us through the palace. He had a long white beard, and wore a white turban on his head, while his person was enveloped in white linen. A splendid staircase conducted to a council-room, adorned with a portrait of the late nabob, life-size, executed in London. A second room has a likeness of George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales, dedicated to his friend, Omadal-Omrah, nabob of the Carnatic, 1st January, 1797, and of Lord Cornwallis, arm in arm with a nabob, the former represented as walking among pines, the latter among palms. In the harness-room and coach-house adjoining, our obliging attendant revealed to us an endless array of golden howdah trappings, gilt with cunning hand, which seemed to have formerly borne the mighty nabob, when riding on his elephant. As we emerged from this lumber room, filled with dust and mud, we perceived in the square before us an immense dust-cloud, which approached nearer and nearer in its gyrations, and gradually assumed the shape of an elephant. It was a gigantic and magnificent specimen, and proved to be the favourite elephant of the last nabob, which, like the minister himself, was reduced to eat the bread of charity. His enormous tusks were sawn half off, for which his attendant assigned the singular reason that the tusks of an elephant must be cut, just as we pair our nails! This pensioner-elephant, however, seemed to find himself in very good quarters, and was a carefully-tended gentle creature, who carried about his chain with his proboscis, and knelt down at the word of command.

Among the other spacious apartments of this deserted palace was the banquetting hall, as it is called, which was represented by various writers as one of the largest rooms in the world, which, however, is a transparent fallacy. It is hard to believe that above a thousand persons could find room in it. At the period of our visit this apartment was used as a barrack for the English troops, in consequence of which the splendid full-length pictures already mentioned were carefully covered. One of the soldiers, anxious to show them to us, tore away the covering of one before we could interfere, when we found it to be a splendid likeness, painted in London, of Sir Thomas Monroe, a former governor of Madras.

In the first few days of our stay in Madras, we made an excursion to the fort of Vellore, distant about 80 miles (English) from Madras, formerly a renowned native fort, which is now reached in a few hours by rail. This line passes through a flat uninteresting country, which is barely relieved here and there by a couple of solitary palms or a Hindoo temple, and altogether presents a strongly African character in its scenery. Only at those points, at which there are tanks, or artificial basins, either excavated or formed by damming the water, does there occur a luxuriant green vegetation covering the parched, brown, dusty soil. These tanks are filled in the rainy season, and during the dry season, which continues for months, supply the rice-fields with water for irrigation, the culture of that plant requiring an unusually large supply of water.

If English railroads are proverbially comfortable in the mother-country, they certainly fall off lamentably in that particular in the cars used in India. This deficiency is the more provoking and remarkable, considering the various other appliances for comfort which are to be found in this country. The conductor, as well as the other servants of the Company, was a Hindoo. On the entire line we saw but five or six white men employed. The fares are pretty moderate, that for the entire distance, 80 miles, being Rupees 7½ (15s.), for first-class, and Rupees 3 (6s.), second (about 2¼d. and 1d. per mile, respectively). The line is to be extended from Bejapoor, so as to unite the eastern and western coasts of the peninsula. There are also lines projected from Madras to Bombay by Poonah and Bellary, and from Madras to Calcutta. The Governor, who (the evening previous to our departure, as we were being entertained at his summer residence, Guindy Park,) had been apprized of our intention to visit Vellore, was so attentive as to order the commandant to be informed by telegraph of our projected excursion at a late hour of the evening, and when we reached Vellore at 11 a. m., Captain Stevens was awaiting us at the station, to greet the voyagers by the Novara in the name of the commandant of the fort, and convey them to the fort, three miles off, in a waggon drawn by oxen, as is the custom of the country. The waggon was about as large as an ordinary sized sitting-room, and contained several arm-chairs and cane stools, the position of which could be altered at pleasure.

Vellore was once one of the strongest fortresses in India, the wells of which were formerly rendered inaccessible by numerous colonies of alligators. These Hindoo fortifications have, however, lost their military importance for Europeans, as they are on all sides "overcrowed," as Rittmeister Dugald Dalgetty would say, by eminences, from which they could easily be cannonaded. Within the fort itself are several extraordinary buildings, once pagodas and houses of entertainment for priests and pilgrims (choultries). The former sanctuary, now used as an arsenal, is a chef-d'œuvre of architectural skill, with splendid relievos and figures sculptured in granite blocks. Most of the divinities have four arms, symbolical of the universality of their power. The various edifices seem to have been once an abode of Brahmins, a sort of Hindoo monastery in which, in addition to the pagoda, there were ranged all round, a temple, colonnades, and halls for the residence of the priests. In some of the smaller apartments there still are openings for windows, with a finely carved grating hewn out of the solid granite, the workmanship of which even the stone-cutters of our own days might feel proud of. Captain Mitchell, an English officer stationed at Madras, had hit upon the idea of photographing the most interesting of these monuments.

The fortress of Vellore has been fortified for about 1000 years! Captured by the English at the close of the last century, the then Nabob, a Mussulman, was taken prisoner, and his descendants have ever since inhabited the fort as State prisoners, without ever being permitted to leave it. We inquired of the officer who accompanied us, whether the Nabob was permitted at least to make use of the space within the fortress for exercise in the open air. "The Mussulmen," replied the cautious Englishman, "do not care to show themselves in public; they prefer taking their exercise in the court in front of their residence, or in the garden." Accordingly, the aged prince is rarely known even to take an airing in a palanquin. The town of Vellore itself is, in a great measure, another place altogether, whose inhabitants are Mahometans, about 80,000 in number, chiefly engaged in rice culture.

We originally intended to return the same day to Madras, the length of the journey, as well as the distance of the fort from the railway station, having been represented to us as much shorter than was actually the case. Accordingly, we telegraphed to the Austrian Consul, M. Campbell, Esq., an exceedingly courteous gentleman, that we should not return till the following morning. How great was our astonishment to find that the telegraph employés at Vellore, both in the transcribing department, and in the management of the apparatus, which was on Morse's system, were Hindoos, with their curious marks upon their foreheads, and their old-fashioned costume! They went, however, through the duties connected with this modern invention with great adroitness. The telegraph is already in operation to Bombay, and in this direction has two separate lines. There are, moreover, other lines in course of construction,—along the coast to Calcutta,—along the coast to Pondicherry by Adam's Bridge,[105] from Madras to Point de Galle, and from Madras to Hyderabad, Bangalore, and Bellary.

[105] Adam's Bridge—called by the Hindoos Rama's Bridge,—is a bank extending between Ceylon and the mainland of Hindostan, by the islands of Manaar and Ramisseram. It is about 30 miles in length, running in a N.W. by W. direction, about a quarter of a mile in breadth, and principally composed of shelving sand, through which are three main openings or channels, that admit the passage of boats of very light draught.

In proceeding from the fort to the town of Vellore, which is charmingly situated and regularly laid out, and is inhabited by numerous pensioners of the East India Company, we must cross the river Palaar (or Peliar), which, during the rainy season, is a headlong dangerous torrent, while in the dry season its bed, 1000 feet wide, is but a bare expanse of sand. It is only by dint of strenuous exertions that the traveller is able to pass this sand waste in a waggon, as it sinks at some points above the hubs of the wheels. We had four buffalo oxen yoked, and even then had to be propelled at certain points by the assistance of some 30 coolies or Indian porters besides. This serious inconvenience was shortly after our visit to be remedied by the erection of a splendid bridge of solid masonry, which was to span the river by 42 arches, and will reduce the time of transit from the station from 1¼ hour to 20 minutes. Hereabouts oxen are usually employed for draught, which are of the same humped species as those we had previously seen in Ceylon. These animals trot with uncommon swiftness, so that the rapidity of transport may stand comparison with that where horses are employed.

A few miles distant from Vellore, and visible from the hills around, lies Arcot (Arucati), the residence of the nominal nabob of the Carnatic, who has long been a pensioner of the British. The population of Arcot are mostly Mahometans, who speak a dialect of Hindustani, and drive a very active trade.

At Vellore we resided in the house of the hospitable Lieut.-Colonel McCally, who, in the absence of the Commandant, did the honours of the Fort to the members of the Novara Expedition. Here we experienced a most cordial reception, and passed a few most delightful hours in the domestic circle of his amiable family. In the evening we made out an excursion to an adjoining eminence, 1400 feet above sea-level, 300 above Vellore, from which there is a commanding view over the town and neighbourhood. Seen from this point, the Fort looked charming, presenting itself to us, surrounded as it is by moats and watercourses, like an island in the foreground. On the top of this hill is the bungalow or country-seat of the collector of revenue, W. A. Sulivan, Esq., where we revelled in the enjoyment of the exquisite natural scenery, and partook of refreshment.

In the evening a number of officers, with their wives, met us at dinner at Lieut.-Colonel McCally's house. The gaieties were prolonged till far in the evening, music and songs alternating with round games and dancing, so that we had hardly composed ourselves to sleep ere we were awakened by the servants, in order to avoid missing the train, which leaves Vellore for Madras at 6.30 a. m. By 11 a. m., we were once more in the chief city of the Carnatic.

The same afternoon the officers of the Novara, and the naturalists of the Expedition, were invited to an Indian fête, which Lord Harris gave every year at this season in his palace at Guindy Park, and to which it was customary to invite the majority of the European residents at Madras, together with their families,—military, civil service, and mercantile community, all being honoured with cards. This festival originated in a children's entertainment, which the governor had been in the habit of giving on the birthday of his son; the latter had long since gone to an English University, but the custom had survived, and the day was equally carefully observed this year also, having been looked forward to for months before by the "white" young folks of Madras. The entertainment still retains the character of a children's party, inasmuch as on the present occasion there were assembled above 250 children of both sexes, varying from 5 to 12 years of age. The total number of guests who, in addition to these, shared in the festivities was probably more than a thousand. The fête began with the performances of some 30 Indian jugglers and acrobats, on a large lawn in the park. These, as may be conceived, had been selected from among the most athletic and skilful. They presented a singularly-picturesque appearance, from the diversities of age, agile boys, athletic young men, slender voluptuous-looking Bayadères, old grey-headed men, and marvellous-looking old hags, with streaming white hair, and dark, piercing, gleaming eyes, recalling in their manners and appearance our own gipsies. All played at once, and performed with the most astonishing precision a succession of breakneck feats, that set the spectator's hair on end. It was a spectacle entirely sui generis, thoroughly Indian in short, to behold these wild-looking brown figures, unawed by the presence they were in, going through their various performances and feats of agility. In front of us knelt an old man who played with a dozen knives, which he kept circling around him with wild yells, apparently without looking at them, till he finally turned them in such a manner that it seemed as though the sharp points of the knives had transfixed his hand. Next youthful acrobats sprang through paper balloons set on fire,—girls in boys' dresses climbed up bamboo poles 100 feet high, in the midst of continual yells,—boys executed on the damp meadow ground the most extraordinary feats of agility and contortions of the limbs, while one old fellow, to the intense astonishment of the assembled children, swallowed swords, as also tow and other combustible matter, whereupon flames presently seemed to issue from his month. These, indeed, are feats of conjuring which have been performed in Europe, usque ad nauseam, but here all was done with such precision and dexterity (each man especially playing entirely con amore, evidently not to impress the spectators, but because he felt a pleasure in it himself), that the whole exhibition left quite a different impression from anything of the sort elsewhere.

After this introductory amusement, the children invited were regaled with a refection under an enormous tent. This was for the grown-up guests another source of great amusement. More than 300 children took their seats at a long well-covered table, while their fathers, mothers, governesses, &c., stood behind the benches, and took special care to supply the little watering mouths with a sufficient supply of the many delicacies before them.

A distribution of souvenirs to the various children present succeeded the repast, the various articles being fastened to a gigantic tree under a tent. The tree was profusely hung with elegant paper lamps, and although there were no pine-branches, only palm leaves, the "tout ensemble," bore a strong resemblance to a genuine Christmas tree. Fathers and mothers expressed to us their own feelings of pleasure at beholding the glee of their children, and, indeed, seemed to think this the most entertaining part of the fête. The distribution lasted a considerable time, and many of the children affected to coquette disparagingly with the presents of their neighbours, which these latter held fast with both hands, till at length the whole joyous train were dismissed homewards, thoroughly pleased with the day's proceedings.

After this interlude there were fireworks on the lawn for the grown-up children, which seemed intended to serve merely as a stop-gap to while away the time between the distribution of the presents to the children and the supper, which was laid out in the brilliantly-illuminated dining-room of the palace. The fine band, which a few days previously had so pleased us by its performances during dinner at Guindy Park, drew up on the large lawn fronting the ball-room, and during this interval played a few select pieces with admirable precision. At last, supper was announced by a flourish of trumpets. Despite the spacious proportions of the apartment, the company was too numerous to admit of all sitting down at once. We calculated the number of guests still remaining at at least 500. The ladies supped first, and afterwards the gentlemen—the Governor, Lord Harris, doing the honours in person, in the most courteous and kindly manner. After supper the party proceeded in couples to a splendid ball-room, where dancing speedily began, while over their heads an omnipresent punkah, of rich tapestry-paper, and elegantly adorned with beautiful arabesques, swung to and fro, and kept the half-breathless dancers continually fanned by its currents of air.[106] In spite, however, of this artificial ventilating machine overhead, one must have had an extraordinary love for the dance to find pleasure in a polka or galop at a temperature of 86° of Fahrenheit.

[106] In many English families in India there prevails a sort of punkah mania, so that there is a regular hurricane incessantly blowing over their heads. Undoubtedly these artificial gales are particularly agreeable in apartments where, a large number of persons being assembled, the atmosphere becomes intolerable—as, for instance, courts of justice, churches, hotels, and hospitals. Under such circumstances, they are, indeed, a most valuable contrivance. But their application is entirely overdone; and there are persons who, even while they are sleeping, have a Hindoo servant continually working the punkah, which, under such circumstances, is usually worked from an adjoining room by means of silken cords, so that the motive power is not visible from the apartment, but only the effect felt. Strangers at first find these artificial currents very apt to superinduce headache, until continued residence makes him regard the punkah as a most necessary article of furniture.

Lord Harris had taken measures for ensuring our proceeding direct from his residence in Guindy Park upon the favourite excursion from Madras—that, namely, to the Seven Pagodas. We had accordingly provided ourselves with only what was indispensable in the way of luggage; and towards 1 a. m., we left the ball-room, and proceeded on our way to the renowned Hindoo Temples to the south of Madras. A waggon conveyed us to the Adyar bridge, where a Government boat was in waiting for us, together with some Hindoo servants of the Governor, who were to be our guides to the Seven Pagodas. One of these peons, as they are called in India, named Iritschapa, presented us with a document, in which he was commissioned to place himself at our disposal during the whole period we were absent, and anticipate all our requirements without further authorization, to the best of his ability, so as to ensure our comfort and assist the objects we had in view. The Government boat was supplied with everything that could minister to our comfort, a second boat following us exclusively for the conveyance of our heavy baggage, personal effects, tents, and provisions. Towards 2 a. m., we embarked on the Eastern Coast Canal, which goes as far as Sadras, and by which we reached the Seven Pagodas, called also Mahamalaipuram, the city of the Great or Holy Mountain, at 9 a. m.

THE HOLY MOUNTAIN.

These singular and majestic specimens of architecture are about 3 miles from Sadras, being situated on the coast northwards, and about 500 paces from the canal. They consist of temples, grottoes, bas-reliefs, cisterns, stone-benches, and thousands of sculptures in long ranges of bas-reliefs, which afford an abundant store of antiquarian research. They go by the name of the Seven Pagodas (from Baghavati—Holy House, whence the European corruption, Pagoda), from the circumstance, that there are, upon the very brink of the ocean, seven temples hewn out of one piece of rock. The Brahminical legends speak of an entire city having existed here, of which only the fragments are now washed by the sea. But, according to Babington's and Heber's minute researches in this neighbourhood,[107] there seems no doubt that there never existed any large city here, but that the whole was a mere myth of the Brahmins, who procured a royal gift, an Agrabaram in this neighbourhood, and with subtle forethought left here a caste of stone-cutters, who from time to time, under the guidance of their priests, executed these sculptures for the adornment of their sanctuary, which are justly the objects of wonder to their descendants. To this day, even, there dwell here certain families of stone-cutters, who work these singular rocks as granite quarries, and make money by the trade. The Seven Pagodas, specially so-called, are monolith temples, hewn on the spot out of massive blocks of rock. The mountain itself, a huge block of granite, to which the entire locality owes its reputation as a site of works of art, is covered, behind as well as in the front slope, with innumerable figures.

[107] Benjamin Guy Babington. An Account of the Sculptures and Inscriptions of Mahamalaipuram, illustrated by Plates I.-XVIII., in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain, London, 1819, p. 258. Bishop Heber's Narrative, London, 1828, Vol. III., p. 216.

After our arrival, we made a hasty circuit through the place, so as first of all to be able to identify them, and be in a position to recognize the various sculptures and bas-reliefs cut out in the solid granite rock. The greater number of the sculptures represent either the one or the other descriptions of the Avatars (the incarnations or transfigurations) of Vishnù, to whom the larger proportion of the temples is dedicated. In one of these temples, we perceived the god Vishnù in the fifth, or Dwarf Incarnation, in the course of which he had, under the guise of a Brahminical dwarf, begged of King Balitscha-Kravathi—who, by his piety, had acquired so much power over the gods, that they had to transfer to him the dominion of sea and land, and had in consequence waxed arrogant—as much soil as he could traverse in three steps! The wealthy Rajah made no objection to complying with the apparently moderate request of the pigmy being before him. On the opposite wall of the temple we now see, in a large admirably executed bas-relief, how Vishnù, represented on this occasion with eight arms, at once embraced heaven and earth with his left foot, and as there was thus no more room left for the next step, Vishnù released the haughty Rajah from his promise, on condition that he should descend to the infernal regions. From this feat, Vishnù bears the name of Triwikrama and Tripadas (thrice-stepper).

In the next rock grotto we came to, we beheld the Life of Krishna, the shepherd-god, represented, first as tending his sheep, surrounded by cows, goats frisking about, &c. Walter Elliot names this representation "Krischna's Choultry," or the abode of the priests. The temple has a frontage of 50 feet, is from 30 to 40 feet in depth, and has about twenty figures.

From this spot, our guide, a Brahmin, brought us to what is called the Ganeza Temple, a monolith Pagoda. When we expressed a wish to touch the face of Ganeza (a son of Siva), cut in stone and plentifully besmeared with oil and lard, one of the Hindoo attendants hurried forwards to prevent us from being guilty of insult to this much-beloved divinity. The inscription to the right, in front of the niche in which Ganeza, hewn out of a single block of granite, is represented in a sitting posture, consists of verses and prayers to Siva, written in Sanscrit.

THE GOD GANEZA.

We also remarked, on our way to the village, an ellipsoidal block of rock, 68 feet in circumference, by 25 in height, which, from its very peculiar position, seems to shift every moment, and presents a very extraordinary appearance.

As we were proceeding to the beach, we came upon the Pagoda of Kovulgobrom, which is at present in use (first constructed in the days of Rajah Apatsch, 400 or 500 years since), situated on a large oblong plot of ground, which is surrounded by a wall from 6 to 8 feet high. We were not permitted to cross the threshold of the pagoda, the door of which always stands wide open, and the minor apartments of which, so far as we could discern at a little distance away, were quite empty. We could just descry a few sculptures on the walls.

The whole village contains at present about 400 inhabitants,[108] who reside in eighty small dwellings. Of these, three, built of bricks and with tiled roofs, belong to the caste of Brahmins, thirty to the Pariahs, five to families occupied in fishing, and two mere hovels of palm-wood to the Willis, the lowest and most wretched caste of all. The families of stone-cutters reside outside the village. One remarks here that the walls of the houses are hidden by heaps of cow and horse-dung, which the inhabitants, as in Egypt, use for fuel, and which they pile up to dry against those of the walls which are most exposed to the sun. The peon of the settlement, by name Randghajaneik, a sort of overseer, gave us a drawing of the various groups of houses, their inhabitants, and also the names of the various castes in Tamil, engraved as usual with an iron tool upon palm-leaves, and very elegantly rolled up in a small envelope. Among the customs and fashions of the inhabitants which attracted our notice, we were informed that they always burn their dead from four to five hours after life has departed—usually four hours and forty minutes—alleging that the released soul takes that length of time to reach heaven! The bones are collected and thrown into the sea. Widows are no longer required, on the death of their husbands, to ascend the pyre with them. Accordingly, the mortality upon this score is small enough in Mahamalaipuram. All seem hale and hearty, although for the most part they live upon rice and fruits, tasting flesh but seldom, as it is never used by the Brahmin caste. The Brahmins will not even eat eggs, because they are the produce of hens; nor drink milk because it is procured from cows! The girls generally marry at thirteen. They are, however, usually betrothed from the time they are two or three years of age, the bridegroom-elect taking the bride-elect to reside with himself.

[108] Of these inhabitants 50 belong to the Brahmin caste, 250 to the Malabar, Sentù, and Siva castes, and 100 are Pariahs.

All the natives whom we fell in with could read and write, but the Sanscrit inscriptions on the rock-temples were quite unintelligible to them, as they only spoke Tamil, Telùgu, and Malabar. The greater number had their foreheads painted according to the caste they belonged to. Those worshipping Siva wore, suspended by a cord round the neck, small silver amulets, called Lingams, which have images of Siva enclosed. The adherents of Brahma, as already mentioned, wear no distinguishing mark upon the forehead, except that those that are married wear a five-ply cord (panul), tied obliquely across the upper part of the body. One must not, however, attach too much faith to these varieties of external markings, since many tattoo their foreheads with red, or yellow, or ashen-gray punctures, which usually have no special signification, but simply imply that on account of the pressure of business requiring frequent absence, they have neither time nor opportunity to have the distinguishing insignia of their caste properly designed. According to the natives, the yellow colour is procured from the crushed, yellow-tinted root of the Curcuma longa, (a species of spice), the red from the Cardomum (Amomum repens), citron-juice, and red rice; while the white is prepared from common chalk.

BIVOUAC AT MAHAMALAIPURAN.

Lord Harris had, with true Indian hospitality, made the most admirable arrangements for our accommodation while at the Seven Pagodas. When, after our first survey of the locality, we came down to the beach, we found two large and two small tents ready pitched, and a number of men collected round a fire preparing our breakfast. But how great was our astonishment, on entering the first tent, to find it spread with carpets, with an elegant sleeping-apartment with two large commodious bedsteads, and fitted up with all the usual necessaries for the toilette; while, in the passage which ran between the inner and outer walls of the tent, stood two immense baths ready filled with soft water to reinvigorate our exhausted frames! Ere we had recovered from our surprise, we were advised of the voice of the Government Peon, apprising us that breakfast was served in the second tent. This was used exclusively as a dining and reception room, and was also furnished with every conceivable appliance to promote our comfort. His lordship was even so attentive as to send his own travelling canteen for our use on the excursion. This tent, likewise, had double walls, with a passage between; the exterior wall being lined with blue, by means of which the glare of the sun and of the blinding white sand was rendered less painful and more tolerable to the eye. A number of coolies were employed in sprinkling water from time to time upon the fine-grained sand, which produced a most refreshing coolness all around. The Government Peon, as also the chief of police of the district, wore their best uniforms of white, with bran new bandoliers over their shoulders, of broad deep-red scarves, with gold-lace edgings, and, in the centre, a gilt plate, with the words, "Government Peon" engraved on it. A number of men and children ran hither and thither,—in a word, the whole village seemed in an uproar to see the strange gentlemen, and supply them with flowers, in the hope of receiving some trifling present. At 12.30 p. m., the thermometer suspended within the tent marked 84° Fahr., although a gentle breeze was blowing from seaward through the fragrant luxuriant grass (Kus-kus, or Vetiveyr), which hung like a curtain over both entrances. It is an exceedingly happy idea to use this fragrant Kus-kus, (Andropogon muricatum) in the manufacture of mats, which are intended to be suspended in the entrance-halls of houses, and to be sprinkled with water, whereupon the penetrating, hot, parching wind is passed through the fine damp texture, which thus at once tempers the heat, and fills the air with perfume.

Towards 5 p. m., the heat having somewhat abated, we strolled to the Five Pagodas, distant about one English mile from our encampment. The prevalent tree in this locality is the Palmyra palm, which, though it does not boast the majestic proportions of the Oreodoxia Regia, or the cocoa-nut palm, presents, nevertheless, a very imposing appearance. Generally speaking, however, the district is quite bare and destitute of trees; and, in short, like all the rest of this coast, has very much the appearance of the flat coasts of Africa.

Of the five monolith temples, four were dedicated to the brothers of Vishnù, Dharma Rajah, Bimen, Nagulan, and Sawadewen, the fifth being excavated in honour of Dubrotis, the consort of Dharma Rajah. The legend relates that the four brothers lived in a state of Polyandry, or plurality of husbands, and had but one wife in common, who was a species of Amazon. All these temples are tolerably sculptured, which, indeed, constitutes their chief claim to attention; but they are far from showing the artistic finish of the bas-reliefs and sculptures, at what is known as the Holy Mount.

Rhanganatha Swami, for instance, is the finest, though not the most important of these artificial grottoes. The sculptures here are incontestably the most highly-finished. The upper portion, to which access is obtained by some steps cut in the rock, rises above the huge granite block, known as Jamapuram; the lower portion is a temple hewn out of one piece of rock, and with the most marvellously-executed allegories.

Among the reliefs on the north wall is perceived Donga, Siva's wife, riding on a lion (according to the natives, on a tiger), and bending her bow in conflict with Mahishasura, a giant with the head of a buffalo, who brandishes a club. According to Elliot's interesting interpretation, this represents the contest between the matronly Amazon and heroine, Donga, the representative of active virtue, and the bull-headed Mahishasura, the personification of brute strength and animal passion. Over the head of either figure, a parasol, such as is used by the natives, is outspread, giving a most grotesque appearance to the group.

BAS-RELIEF ON ONE OF THE MONOLITH TEMPLES.

The relief on the southern wall represents a sleeping Vishnù (Rhanganatha), 9½ feet high, apparently representing the idea of the Creation, as the serpent, Sescha, with its five heads, encircles his head. At his feet one perceives two rajahs or princes, and one female figure, in a praying attitude, with uplifted hands, only the bust being represented. In one of the niches at Swami are two busts, life-size, of Siva, and his wife Paravathi, the latter holding an infant at the breast, his offspring Supramanión. Above this representation, and, like them, only showing from the shoulder upwards, are represented on the right Brahma, on the left Vishnù, each with four arms, symbolical of their power and dominion.

The superstructure of these rock sculptures is a sort of platform of loose stones accurately fitted to each other without mortar, so as to make an ornamental whole. The interior is adorned with much more highly-finished specimens of art, to view which, a large number of Hindoos, doing penance, annually climb, with great difficulty, into this part of the building, and make their way into the unfinished interior apartments. While we were giving free scope to our surprise at all we saw, we were greatly annoyed in our contemplations by the natives, who offered us bouquets of flowers, wreaths, and fruit. Also, a couple of flute-players (Pulanpolen) who were passing, made their appearance to give us a specimen of their musical skill. One old man, of whom we procured a curious figure of Vishnù, neatly carved in wood, as also several manuscripts, remarked that there was in the neighbourhood, written upon Palmyra leaves, a manuscript, known as the Istálam-purànam which gave the history of the Seven Pagodas, written in Tamil.

The late president of the Madras Society, the learned Walter Elliot, who formed an extensive collection of the various valuable Hindoo manuscripts and inscriptions of Mahamalaipuram, and has partly published a translation of them,[109] told us afterwards, that this renowned Tamil Manuscript consisted of nothing but fables, and did not give one single reliable particular as to the history of the Seven Pagodas.

[109] Journal of the Madras Literary Society, 1846, Nos. 30 and 31.

In Varaha Swami, one of the pagodas at present in use, and surrounded by a modern walled cemetery, there is visible, on the exterior of the Temple, an inscription in Tamil, which is, however, utterly unintelligible to the natives. This inscription, deciphered latterly by Babington, refers to a donation to the pagoda by a sincere Hindoo believer, and gives the most complete detail, together with signature of the donor. The name Mahamalaipur,[110] the "City of the Sacred Hill," occurs frequently in it.

[110] Dr. Elliot writes Mamallaipuram; the natives call the place Mahawalipuram, obviously a mere corruption of the customary mode of spelling.

In the course of conversation with some of our Hindoo followers, we remarked that they made no difference between a "kovül" or praying-house, in which the divinities are never produced, but are guarded under lock and key, and a pagoda, which is a residence of the gods, from which they can be carried forth and afterwards brought back. Hence it is that a pagoda is more readily accessible than a kovül, the sanctity of which it is forbidden him to violate.

In 1845, Mr. Elliot, by a private arrangement with the Brahmins, was permitted, on payment of Rs. 30 (£3), to break away the partition which divided the inscriptions into two portions, in order to prepare three copies, and have them translated by three Tamil scholars. One of these translators was the learned Tandavaraya Mudaliar, of Chingleput. The inscription contains the history of two donations, on the enlargement and laying the foundation-stone of the temple, accomplished by the "Kanattan" of the village, and, lastly, a gift of 90 goats by the Siva Brahmin Paramesvara-Mahavara, on the stipulation that a lamp should be kept constantly burning in the temple: the whole dating from the year 1073. It results from this interpretation that the inscription was put up towards the end of the 11th century, thus supplying some clue to the age of this rock temple, which, according to Mr. Elliot's researches, does not exceed a thousand years.

ENTRANCE TO ONE OF THE TEMPLES.

To this Vahara Swami, which seems to contain their whole history, the natives wander regularly every morning, and sometimes two or three times during the day, to offer flowers, cocoa-nuts, and other fruits. A flight of steps cut in the rock leads to the highest platform, whence there is an excellent view over these monumental edifices.

That fancy has been called in to invest these unique unfinished sculptures with the character of pleasure-grottoes, baths, &c., &c., of historical personages, is readily intelligible. Thus, for example, the guide does not fail to point out to the stranger a sort of stone cistern hewn out of the solid rock, traditionally reported to have been once the plunge-bath of Dubrotis. This colossal basin has about 2½ feet water during the rainy season, which gradually evaporates, or is drawn off for use. The water, tinged with the yellow colour of the soil, leaves a mark behind on the stone sides, which naturally becomes very visible during the dry season. This the natives maintain marks the height of the water as often as Dubrotis, (Dharma Rajah's consort), bathed herself in it. Another similar block of gneiss was transformed into a stone couch, and is called Dharma Rajah's bed, at the upper end of which, near the head, a tiger is crouched to guard it. This gigantic ellipsoidal block of rock, which seems as though balanced on a sharp point, could neither be displaced nor made to oscillate by continued leaping. Some masses of rock piled up above the grottoes were once Siva's kitchen, and so forth. All these spots, however, have in reality not the slightest historic significance; it is only the present generation that have tacked on to them legends, traditions, and interpretations, which assuredly never were in the intention of the constructors.

On a slope on one side of the mountain are a number of sculptures of remarkable beauty, representing the history of Tapasa, or the deep penitence of Ardschuna. On the right hand, close to the figure of the penitent Ardschuna, one perceives a multitude of people, two elephants as large as life and wonderfully finished, a tiger, and a figure, half woman half serpent. This relief, one of the finest we have seen, is a huge sculpture on the rock, 20 feet long by 30 in height, comprising hundreds of figures, with an idol in the centre, to which from all sides worshipping deities, men, and beasts, bow the knee in supplicatory attitudes; along the edge are elephants, life size, with their young. The colour of the rock, somewhat resembling that of the animal, tends still more to deceive the eye, and make the beholder doubt whether he is looking upon sculptures or upon living elephants. Elliot and others who have described these rock temples, assign to them, as already mentioned, a comparatively small antiquity. They are representations borrowed from the poem of Mahabharata, in the Hindoo mythology. The five roundish temples to the south of the village are beyond all question the oldest of these monuments. They are pagodas that have never been completed; solid, and here and there showing marks of work, but only adorned externally, the interiors being masses of unhewn granite; each of these temples is 30 feet in length by 20 in breadth and height. Thus far, the inscriptions have been ascertained to be in threefold characters, of which two are as yet undecipherable. Babington was the first to attempt to decipher them, or at all events to find the key by which to decipher them. The most important has been copied and interpreted. But neither the inscriptions nor the various representations give the slightest historical clue as to the object of these monuments. Taylor's researches seem to establish the fact, that in the 17th century this district was inhabited by the Corumbas, a half-civilized race of the Dschaina religion. About this period, or a little later, in the reign of Abondai, one of the princes, whose capitals were Conjeveran and Tripetty, the Brahmins were introduced to this neighbourhood. The extent of these works, however, their nature, and the immense expense incurred, all point to a long-continued influence of the Brahmins. Most of these temples seem to have been first erected in the 17th century, under Prince Sinhamanayadu, and Elliot assigns to several even a much later date.

As for the report of a smaller pagoda, of which only an old pyramidal pagoda-stone is visible on the very edge of the sea, peering up from amid the furious foaming surf, it seems to be altogether a myth, so that such enquirers as Ellis, Mackenzie, and Heber, making allowance for what Hindoo traditions are known to be, will no longer take the trouble of searching for any traces of the sunk pagoda, or of seeking to recover the ruins of the submerged city. Several writers, indeed, are of opinion, that the sea on the Cormandel coast is retiring; but this appears to be a mistake, for here the sea seems encroaching rapidly, as is the case at Fort St. George, which 80 years ago was at some distance from the sea-shore, whereas its walls are at present washed by the tremendous surf.

But the inroads of the sea could hardly have been so sudden and extensive as to have swallowed up an entire city, without leaving any traces. Not one of the natives to whom we spoke in the place could say for certain, that the sea had materially gained upon the land within the memory of man. Nowhere are there any traces visible of the ruins of a city. One can safely assert that there never existed such a city at Mahamalaipuram, but that it has always been a mere abode of priests, with temples, sanctuaries, &c., without any more extensive settlement, similar to Copan, Quirigua, or Peten, in Central America, but altogether larger and more artistic, and evidencing a far higher culture on the part of the artist. The supposed antiquity of the sculptures at Mahamalaipuram is too low, to admit of our supposing that since their erection the greater part had been swallowed up in the sea. None of the sculptures that we saw belonged to any period (before the flood extended so far), whereas they are all susceptible of explanation out of the modern Hindoo mythology, with the aid of the Epic poems of Mahabharata, all referring to Vishnù and his world of deities.

While some of the Novara expedition were visiting Mahamalaipuram, others made out a trip to the Pulicat Lake, near the shore, northwards from Madras. About 40 or 50 miles on the road thither, the Neilgherries (or Blue Hills), with their jagged outline, came into view on the gray horizon to the N.W., the height of which may be about 1,500 to 2000 feet. A narrow bulwark or quay of unequal breadth, varying from 20 feet to 5 miles, separates this salt lake from the ocean, the fierce surf of which, at some narrow places, actually breaks over, and mingles its waters. The lake varies in breadth, from 5 to 10 miles, and is about 60 to 70 miles long. The level of its bed is so remarkably regular, never exceeding from 3 to 5 feet, that when the wind fails, the boats that navigate the lake can be pushed along with poles, and one everywhere sees the naked inhabitants of the coast standing in the very middle of the water, with their landing or drag-nets, or busily occupied with rod and line! Being but a few hours distant from Madras, the lake is connected with the city by an artificial canal, along both sides of which are a number of outlets, carefully faced with masonry, so as to convert the adjoining land into lagoons, in which during the rainy seasons the strongly brackish water enters, and is used to make sea-salt.

In the canal there is considerable trade, as well by fishing-boats, as by those laden with wood and fruit, which they convey to the city for disposal. Most especially remarkable is the enormous number of fen-birds, which frequent its shores and all around it. At several places where the shores, for a width of about a mile, are mere swamps with barely a foot of water, they are literally covered with myriads of curlews, which fly about in flights of incredible numbers, and stretch out like clouds. Long rows of flamingoes stand, their bodies half bent to the earth, seeking their food in the mud; far as the eye can reach, one saw whole ranks of these birds blending with storks, perched upon scattered stumps; while in the water itself, vast flocks of sea-mews swam about, and the sea-swallows, in pursuit of their prey, flew to and fro in the air. As evening came on, the naturalists of the Novara were sailing as though in a sea of fire. Hundreds of fish, as they sprang out of the water, left a fiery wake behind them, like a rocket, while a flame-coloured ever-widening circle marked the spot at which they struck the water again. Hundreds of various notes of birds, above, near, and round the boat, united with the singular melancholy cry of the jackal, which resounded from the shore, while overhead flights of birds flew restlessly about in the air, whirring in the ear like the rustling of disembodied spirits.

From the lake, a short excursion was made to one of the artificial canals, which unite this basin of water at various points and in different directions with the surrounding country, so as to get to the Strihoricotta Forest, which supplies Madras with fuel. This consists of a sort of underwood or brush, which grows again within the extraordinary short space of ten to twelve years. Sisyphus vulgaris (Rhamnea), Gardenia Ficus, tamarinds, and several species of Mimosa, form the principal part of the forest, which is thickly grown with immense quantities of climbers. The wood is cut by the natives, who have constructed huts in the jungle, into pieces of about 2 feet in length, which are transported in ox-carts to the shore, whence they are forwarded by boat to Madras.

When the members of the Novara Expedition had returned, greatly pleased, from their various excursions, the Madras Club gave a grand banquet in honour of the captain and staff, to which the élite of Madras society were invited. Immediately on our arrival the managing committee of the club had the courtesy to place the officers and scientific members of the Expedition upon the free list of the club during the ship's stay. The Madras Club-house, though not so luxurious or magnificent as the Clubs of London, fairly surpasses them in extent and commodiousness. It is, in fact, a small portion of the city in itself, in which one finds assembled all that can conduce to a comfortable, agreeable mode of existence; parlours, with wide arm-chairs and American rocking-chairs; reading-rooms, in which are all the best journals and an excellent assortment of the best and newest literature; dining apartments, in which one can dine in either the English or French style; billiard-rooms, shower and plunge-baths, and a large swimming-bath. Members from the country, or strangers, can be accommodated with lodging as well.

At the splendid banquet in honour of the Expedition, at which above 200 persons sat down, the chair was taken by the Chief Justice Sir Christopher Rawlinson—next to the Governor, the most influential person in the community. The extremely friendly disposition manifested on that occasion found its expression in toasts on all sides, which in few, but appropriate words, welcomed the foreign guests; while, on the other side, they gave unmistakable evidence of the admiration and sympathy which the voyagers by the Novara carried away with them from the hospitable shores of Madras.[111]

[111] After the customary official toasts had been proposed by the chairman, and thanks returned by the Commander-in-chief of the Expedition, the health was also proposed of the scientific staff, on which occasion one of the naturalists present expressed his thanks for this honour, in his name and that of his colleagues, in the following speech, which may be permitted to find a place here, as best showing with what impression the members of the Expedition left Madras.

"Gentlemen,—It is not without some feeling of anxiety that I am rising, for I have so many things to say, and yet it is but the thousandth part of what I, of what my fellow travellers all feel! Surely, it is always flattering to a man to be distinguished by his fellow-men; but such a distinction becomes the more honouring if those who concur to distinguish him are—as this is the case with you—a most estimable part of the British nation! Of a nation, which has done more than any other on the globe for the propagation of Christianity, the diffusion of knowledge, the advancement of science, for the progress of civilization, industry, and commerce. I do not intend, gentlemen, to return with the shiny currency of flattery the many proofs of attention and kindness which all the members of the Expedition have witnessed during our short, but most pleasant, ever-remembered stay in this city, the birth-place of hospitality! What I say is but truth! Every page in modern history certifies my words! Which nation has done more for the propagation of Christianity among savage tribes all over the world? Some years ago, when I was rambling in British America, and along the north shores of Lake Superior, I often found villages of 300 or 400 Indians, and but one single white man amongst them. And who was that white man, who voluntarily shared their misery, their wants, and their privations? He was an English missionary!

"And again! Which nation has made greater and more serious efforts to suppress the slave trade, and to abolish slavery in all countries where it still exists, a shame to the nineteenth century?—Slavery! that hideous leprosy on the limb of the gigantic body, called the United States! Who is even now anxiously engaged to open, with the heartblood of its noblest sons, a vast empire—the Chinese kingdom—to civilization, to Christianity, to the traffic of all seafaring nations of the globe!

"And is not this very city, Madras, where we have been so heartily welcomed, the best proof of the energy and perseverance of the political and commercial greatness of the British nation? Nothing but English steadiness and English perseverance could succeed to build on this barren, inhospitable, and even most perilous coast, a vast, flourishing city, rivalling in size and the number of inhabitants the largest capitals in Europe! And what is still more pleasing and satisfactory, is the intellectual and physical condition in which one finds the Indians, especially if compared with the condition of the natives in North and Central America, &c. There he meets a population, rapidly dying away, in proportion as the axe of civilization is resounding from the backwoods. One may almost determinate the day when the last of the red men will have disappeared from the North American Continent, the land of his ancestors! Here in India, on the contrary, the traveller meets with a thriving, industrious population. Who can see Hindoos, Malabar, Sentus, &c., occupy most important employments at the observatory, at the telegraph offices, at the railroad, in any branch almost of the public service, and still believe the Hindoo race like the Indians of North America to be a doomed people—to be a people that has no future? No, it has a future, and, under the wise and humane government of the British Crown, I am sure the coloured race of India will even have a most glorious future!

"These are the impressions and feelings, gentlemen, with which we part from Madras, with which I and my scientific colleagues bid you all a most sincere and heartfelt farewell."

As a number of our new-found friends expressed a wish, notwithstanding the difficulties of getting out to, and back from the roads, to visit our ship, the commodore invited some forty guests, shortly before our departure, to a "tiffin" on board. Although the frigate rolled pretty heavily, yet we, nevertheless, had the pleasure of the company of some twenty gentlemen and ten ladies. After "tiffin," which was served on the poop, under a tent improvised with flags for the occasion, all felt sufficiently comfortable to try a dance on the quarter-deck, our band of music being called into requisition for quadrilles, polkas, and waltzes; and, indeed, our guests paid so little attention to the approach of night, that their return was postponed till it was absolutely dark, of which opportunity we gladly availed ourselves to light our pleasant guests homewards with Bengal lights.

PLATE VII.—TRACK FROM MADRAS TO THE NICOBAR ISLANDS.
[Larger.]

At length, on 10th February, shortly after noon, we set sail. As the frigate was perceived, from Fort George to weigh anchor, a thundering salute was fired of 21 guns—an extraordinary honour and mark of attention, to which we responded by a similar salute. In consequence of calms and light winds, we were 48 hours ere losing sight of land; and it was not till the 12th February we could proceed on our voyage. For several evenings after, that magnificent, and as yet unexplained, phenomenon, the Zodiacal light, which is conjectured by the greatest physicist of our age, to be the beams radiated from a vapour-like, flattened ring, revolving in the space between the orbits of Mercury and Venus, was visible with much regularity. What was afterwards observed, however, of this remarkable zone of light, during the course of our voyage, will be found detailed in the meteorological portion of the scientific volumes. Unbroken fine weather accompanied us during our entire voyage to the Nicobar Islands, our next station. But although, as was rendered necessary by the climate so near the Equator, we were clothed entirely in summer apparel, and there was nothing to remind us of its being winter and carnival at home, our sailors did not let Shrove Tuesday pass over without celebrating that day, to be marked with a white stone, by masking and dancing according to ancient custom. Jack has an especially good memory for the return of such junketings, and is by no means prone to letting the sensible vicinity of the Equator put him out of his reckoning; so he danced near the line also, not because he had any pleasure therein, but because it has always been his custom to do so at carnival-time!

The state of health of the ship's company was excellent, there being but eight on the sick list, of whom only two were seriously ill.

On the 22nd February towards 10 a. m. the Island of Kar-Nicobar hove in sight, and towards afternoon we found ourselves but a few miles distant. The land seemed for the most part level, only a low eminence thickly covered with frost rising towards the centre. The coast was overgrown with cocoa-nut-palm. In the N.W. and S.E. we could see three Malay boats at anchor. On the beach were some huts of beehive-like shape, in and out of which naked brown figures were seen moving; while, as night fell, numerous lights glimmered from the shore.

The following morning, Tuesday 23rd February, 1858, we anchored off the N.W. side of the island, in 14½ fathoms coral sand, about 2 miles distant from the shore, and just between the two villages of Mosse and Sàui, each consisting of a few huts. One can approach within 3 or 4 cable-lengths of the shore, where there are still 10 fathoms, with clay bottom. Several natives, some naked, some with their bodies covered in the most ludicrous fashion with cast-off European clothes, approached the frigate while she was being secured, in small but elegant canoes, and called out anxiously when within hailing distance, in an inquisitive tone and a broken English, "No fear? good friend?" which we interpreted into an inquiry as to whether they had anything to fear, and whether we were disposed to be friendly. When, however, we did not immediately throw them a rope to make fast their little canoes, and they got sight of our numerous guns, they speedily turned tail and hurried away.

ARRIVAL AT KAR-NICOBAR.

END OF VOL. I.

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APPENDIX A.

LIST OF THE OFFICERS OF THE "NOVARA" EXPEDITION.

Commodore—	B. v. Wüllerstorf-Urbair, Commander-in-Chief.
Captain—	Frederick Baron Pöck.
First Lieutenant—	Bela Saal de Gyula.
Lieutenants—	Maurice Monfroni de Montfort.
	Alexander Count Kielmansegge.
	William Lund.
	Robert Müller.
	Ernest Jacoby.
	Eugen Kronowetter.
	Gustavus Battlogg.
Purser—	Antonio Basso.
Principal Surgeon—	Dr. Francis Seligmann.
Assistant Surgeons—	Dr. Avé Robert Lallemant.
	Dr. Edward Schwarz.
	Charles Ruziczka.
Chaplain—	Edward de Marocchini.
Midshipmen—	Henry Fayenz.
	Joseph Natty.
	Gustavus v. Semsey.
	Richard Baron Walterskirchen.
	Louis Meder.
	Alexander Kalmar.
	Augustus Baron Skribanek.
	Andreas Count Borelli.
	Francis Baron Cordon.
	Frederick Baron Haan.
	Edward Latzina.
	Michal de Mariassi.
	Eugen Prince Wrede.
	Joseph Berthold.
Engineer—	Wenceslas Lehmann.

Naturalists.

Geology—	Dr. Ferdinand Hochstetter.
Botany—	Dr. Edward Schwarz.
	Mr. Anthony Tellinek, horticulturist.
Zoology—	Mr. George Frauenfeld.
	Mr. John Zelebor.
Ethnography—	Dr. Charles Scherzer.
Artist—	Mr. Joseph Selleny.

The entire crew, including sailors, marines, gunners, servants, and the ship's band, amounted to 352 men.

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APPENDIX B.

List of the various Provisions and Stores furnished to the Frigate "Novara" before her departure from Trieste.

Coals—23 tons (at 260 pounds daily consumption)					for	198	days
Water—86 tons (the daily consumption was furnished by the distilling apparatus)
Biscuit—50,965 pounds (Vienna weight)					"	145	"
Wine—(light red Istrian wine), 8777 mass (= 3510 gallons)					"	50	"
Rum—7913 mass (= 3165 gallons)					"	226	"
Salt Beef—17,800 pounds	for	105	days	Meat (boned)	"	264	"
Preserved Meat (in tins)		122	"
Pork—5760 pounds weight		87	"
Rice—6850 pounds		77	days	(for Soup)	"	135	"
Essence—3184 pounds		58	"
Mélanges d'Equipage, 40,000 rations		114	days	Vegetables	"	298	"
Sour-crout, 16,000 rations		46	"
Cabbage, 16,000 rations		46	"
Potatoes, 32,000 rations		92	"
Cocoa—10,290 pounds (Vienna weight)					"	610	"
Sugar—3494 pounds					"	156	"
Salt—1000 pounds					"	100	"
Vinegar—831 mass (= 332 1⁄5 gallons)					"	95	"

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APPENDIX C.

SUMMARY OF EXPENDITURE

DURING THE VOYAGE OF THE AUSTRIAN IMPERIAL FRIGATE "NOVARA."

• KEY:
• A - Pay of Commodore, in Austrian currency.
• B - Pay of Staff.
• C - Pay of Naturalists, and incidental Expenses of this department.
• D - Pay of Crew, including extras.
• E - Victuals for Crew and Hospital (Sick).
• F - For Sundries, Repairs, and Ship's Material.
• G - Purchase of Books, Instruments, and Medicines.
• H - Pilots and Tug Steamers.
• I - Pay of Servants, including extras.
• J - Boat-hire, Postages, Travelling Expenses of the Staff, &c.
• K - Totals.

Period of Expenditure.			A		B		C		D		E		F		G		H		I		J		K
			Fl.	Kr.	Fl.	Kr.	Fl.	Kr.	Fl.	Kr.	Fl.	Kr.	Fl.	Kr.	Fl.	Kr.	Fl.	Kr.	Fl.	Kr.	Fl.	Kr.	Fl.	Kr.
April to June,		1857	2,112	..	5,413	51	1,744	53	7,522	52	133	55	146	7	37	10	...	..	811	34	5,277	59	23,200	21
III.	Quarter	"	2,327	10	8,214	10	3,302	40	10,562	37	2,316	40	362	47	16	28	28	..	363	53	186	18	27,680	43
IV.	ditto	"	3,261	20	9,604	50	4,816	57	10,560	50	27,344	29	2,839	3	644	49	356	26	435	9	2,027	31	61,891	24
I.	ditto	1858	3,118	..	9,377	..	4,073	..	10,557	49	2,099	39	646	10	36	34	85	53	397	28	96	22	30,487	55
II.	ditto	"	3,212	..	10,542	30	4,358	5	10,755	39	21,514	37	2,170	53	349	54	...	..	1,144	43	814	25	54,764	46
III.	ditto	"	5,102	30	9,638	30	5,421	17	10,245	24	17,443	32	5,925	48	338	14	645	50	566	8	1,351	46	56,678	59
IV.	ditto	"	2,217	10	6,931	50	5,272	56	10,020	6	5,762	30	...	..	212	34	2,197	55	29	24	651	59	33,296	24
I.	ditto	1859	4,914	20	16,958	20	9,578	23	10,840	43	30,715	17	18,185	34	2,286	40	647	54	1,592	30	1,258	51	96,978	32
II.	ditto	"	3,227	16	11,008	..	4,090	20	11,151	56	3,179	24	767	4	23	2	94	23	200	5	1,258	32	35,000	2
III.	ditto	"	3,117	7	10,911	41	3,857	14	11,009	29	11,444	..	7,551	15	306	24	...	..	1,910	..	793	..	50,900	10
IV.	ditto	(not full)	984	18	2,564	5	1,990	5	3,314	16	2,163	40	...	..	33	30	...	..	269	46	5	..	11,324	40
			——	—	——	—	——	—	——	—	——	—	——	—	——	—	——	—	——	—	——	—	——	—
	Grand Total		33,593	11	101,164	47	48,505	50	106,541	41	124,009	43	38,594	41	4,285	19	4,056	21	7,720	40	13,721	43	482,193	56

Thus the Expenditure, during the voyage, amounting to 483,193 florins 56 kreuzer, Austrian currency, which, calculated at the rate of 10 florins to a pound sterling at par, is equal to about £48,219 sterling. To this sum must be added the outfit and armament of the frigate for the purposes of the voyage, amounting to about £6000 sterling, and the expenses for four months' provisions, taken in at Trieste before our departure, and estimated at about £4500 sterling, so that the entire Expenditure of the Expedition, from the time of starting till its return, amounted to about £58,000 sterling.

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LONDON:
PRINTED BY WOODFALL AND KINDER,
ANGEL COURT, SKINNER STREET.

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66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, W.

Messrs. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, & Co.'s
LITERARY ANNOUNCEMENTS.

THE VOYAGE OF THE NOVARA ROUND THE WORLD. The Circumnavigation of the Globe, by the Austrian Frigate Novara. English Edition. Containing an Unpublished Letter from Baron Humboldt. With numerous wood engravings. Dedicated, by special permission, to Sir Roderick Murchison. 3 vols., 8vo.

THE MARQUIS OF DALHOUSIE'S ADMINISTRATION of BRITISH INDIA. By Edwin Arnold, M.A., of University College, Oxford.

THE POLITICAL LIFE of the EARL of DERBY.

THE LIFE of the RIGHT HON. BENJAMIN DISRAELI, M.P.

THE SPEECHES AND ADDRESSES of the LORD BISHOP of OXFORD from 1841 to the Present Time. Edited by the Author. 1 vol., 8vo.

THE LIVES of the SPEAKERS of the HOUSE of COMMONS. By William Nathaniel Massey, Esq., M.P., author of "The History of England," and Chairman of Ways and Means.

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MESSRS. SAUNDERS, OTLEY, AND CO.'S

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66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, London, W.

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LITERARY AND POLITICAL NEWSPAPER FOR INDIA AND THE COLONIES.

THE ORIENTAL BUDGET,

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Published on the First of every Month by Saunders, Otley, and Co., 66, Brook Street, Hanover Square, London.

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TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: Blank pages have been deleted. The title page has been
rearranged to meet accessibility requirements. Illustrations may have been
moved. Tags at the beginning of the work going directly to the table of
contents etal were added to ameliorate the effects of an Internet Explorer
7 bug and for convenience of the reader. To the table of illustrations
have been added entries for the preceding illustrations. Discovered
publisher's punctuation errors have been corrected. The publisher's
corrections listed at the end of Volume III have been applied. In
addition, the following changes were made:
xxvii: analagous[analogous] to the mountain chains
xv: Crossing the Breede Rivier[River].
169: to be reaped from European emigation[emigration]
171: Namely: 9159 Portuguese[Two footnotes were improperly swapped]
191: we were still able vividly to recal[recall]
203: If any one desires [to] see a veritable
226: towards the end of the rainy reason[season],
252: their bite produces on the the[del 2nd the] hand
264: that such soundings are only succesful[successful] when
294: they cannot recal[recall] having perceived,
308: Terrestrial Magnetism, Liuteenant[Lieutenant] Robert Müllar;
320: of New Bedford, Massachussets[Massachusetts],
322: pendant les annés[années] 1791-94
331: there there[del 2nd there] is nothing resembling a beach
358: custom that seems to recal[recall] the frightful
420: This time, morever,[moreover]
433: and chaunted[chanted] the praises
459: all to be able to indentify[identify] them,
462: thirty to the Parias[Pariahs],
Lit. Announcements: Ry[By] T. Lewis Farley, Esq.,
Lit. Announcements: effected. Every other descripion[description]
Also, the publisher on one occasion confused the degrees Réaumur and
Fahrenheit used in measuring temperature with degrees and minutes used to
determine lattitude and longitude:
Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as 24°
5′, (87° 12′ Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.);
between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72° 5′ to
74° 75′ Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39′ S.) and
Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13° 8′ to 10° 5′ (63°·05 to 5° 62′
Fahr.); between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from
18° 8′ to 9° 2′ (74° 3′ to 52° 7′).
The corrected paragraph is as follows:
Between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Panama, north-east of the cold current,
the temperature of the sea during the month of April rose as high as
24°·5, (87°·12 Fahr.). Within the range of the current, Mr. Dirckinck had
carried on his observations in compliance with my instructions, by means
of thermometers that had been compared by Arago. Everywhere in the
current, in December 1824, he found from 16° to 18° (68° to 72°·5 Fahr.);
between Quilca and Callao, in January, 1825, from 18° to 19° (72°·5 to
74°·75 Fahr.); between Chorillos, near Lima (Lat. 12° 39′ S.) and
Valparaiso, in August, 1825, from 13°·8 to 10°·5 (63°·05 to 55°·62 Fahr.);
between Chorillos and San Carlos de Chiloe, in June, 1825, from 18°·8 to
9°·2 (74°·3 to 52°·7).]

[Start of text.]

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VERTICAL SECTION OF THE FRIGATE NOVARA.

a.	Spare Spars.	hh.	Officers' Mess or Ward-room.	n.	Powder Magazine.	v.	Boatswain's Cabin.
b.	Captain's Cabin.	h'.	Commodore's Stores.	o.	Preserve fresh provisions in tins.	w.	Painters' Stores.
c.	Commodore's Apartment.	iii.	Officer's Cabins.	p.	Pantry.	x.	Coal-cellar.
c'.	Captain's Apartment.	i'i'i'.	Officers' Lockers.	p'.	Store-room for Rice, Cocoa, and Dried Vegetables.	y.	Tins of fresh provisions for the crew.
d.	Gun-room (also used as Reading-room.)	j.	Half-deck (for Crew.)	q.	Spirit Room.	z.	Iron Water-tanks.
e.	Cabins of Naturalists.	k.	Sergeants' Cabins.	r.	Salted Provisions.	z'.	Tank for the Distilling Apparatus(f').
f.	Pumps.	k'.	"Sick bay."	s.	Buckets, Holystones, &c.
f'.	Kitchen, with Distilling Apparatus.	l.	Shot-hold.	t.	Sail-room.
g.	Side-board & Lockers of Officers.	m.	Bread-lockers.	uu.	Tool Room, &c.

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