FOOTNOTES:
[34] Several copies of these various publications of the different scientific societies of Java were presented to the Expedition by the members of these learned bodies.
[35] Still the chief article of cultivation is rice, which constitutes almost the sole bread-stuff of the Javanese. Crauford in his admirably digested dictionary of the Indian Archipelago calculates that the annual rice crop is about 500,000,000 lbs., and that each individual consumes annually one quarter, or 480 lbs.!
[36] For some extremely beautiful and costly weapons used by the Malay races we are especially indebted to Mr. J. Netscher, one of the directors of the Society of Arts and Sciences, a profound scholar in the various idioms spoken in Java, and who on the same occasion enriched our collections with some of his own valuable numismatic specimens and philological researches, and to this day neglects no opportunity of advancing the special objects of our Expedition.
[37] Only two of the various races of Java have remained constant to the belief of their fathers, and still honour, some of them Buddha, some Brahma. Among these are the Badawis, who constitute all that remain of a once mighty race at the east end of the island, among the hills of Kendang in the Residency of Bandang, on the Tenggers, also at the east of the island in the Residency of Passeruwan, the former numbering 1500, the latter about 4000 souls.
[38] Garsick, the Grisse of modern days, was the first spot where these jealous sectaries settled about the year 1374, and the two Arabic sheikhs Dulla and Moellana are usually cited by later historians as the introducers of the Mahometan worship into Java.
[39] There are at present two kings reigning on the Island of Lombok: Ratù Agong Agong Suedé Carang-assem, and Ratù Agong Agong Madé Carang-assem. These had submitted under special treaties to the Dutch Government, whose vassals they now are.
[40] Yellow is the royal colour of the Ruler of Lombok. According to the prevalent custom, no one but the king and members of his family is permitted to use that colour in their dress or ornaments.
[41] This peculiarity of Eastern manners is universally prevalent wherever Oriental nations have come in contact with Europeans. It is of course as entirely unlike the genuine hospitality of the rude Bedouin or Tartar as it is possible to imagine, and seems to belong to an early and very imperfect notion of true refinement. Traces of it will be found in all countries, even in Europe, and in its original form of making a present in the expectation of receiving something more valuable in return, which lies at the bottom of all this pseudo-generosity. The astuteness of the Scotch Highlanders, themselves a race remarkably free from such meannesses, has hitched the system into a pithy proverb, the sense of which is to "send a hen's egg in order to get a goose's in exchange."
[42] 73.75 paals (posts) are equal to one degree of the equator, whence one paal = within a small fraction of 4943 feet 6 inches. This method of indicating land-measure originated in the circumstance that on every road intersecting Java from west to east, the respective distances from the three chief places, Batavia, Samarang, and Surabaya, are marked up upon wooden "paale" or posts.
[43] As yet there are no railroads on the island. But a company has been formed with the intention of uniting the more important and productive districts of the island, an enterprise which will extend to about 1000 miles (English), and will cost about £8,500,000.
[44] It is well known that Holland in former days recruited her black regiments of the Netherland Indies by men from the Gold Coast, and in fact had set on foot a sort of traffic in men with the king of Ashantee.
[45] Dr. Junghuhn, in his admirable work upon Java, describes the rainy season—which usually has fairly set in by the month of January, when the westerly and north-westerly winds are driving the rain-clouds before them—in the following spirited language:—"The floods stream from the clouds often for four-and-twenty hours at a stretch without the slightest interruption, and with such violence that the noise of the plash of the falling element drowns the voices of the inhabitants, compelled as they are to keep to their houses. Every brook and river overflows its banks, covering with a tide of muddy brown water the alluvial soil wrested from the bed of ocean, while the frogs croak incessantly day and night, and the lizards and snakes emerge from their holes, and creep into every corner of the dwellings of every man; all through the hours of darkness is heard the loud thousand-voiced hum of insects, of myriads of mosquitoes, till it is hardly possible to find a dry place throughout the house. The hot, sultry air is saturated with moisture, so that everything becomes damp, in consequence of the fine particles of the rain-vapour penetrating into the inmost corners of the house."
[46] Pronounced Chipannas (hot stream), from Tji, water, and Pannas, hot. Tji is always pronounced like chi, and oe like oo.
[47] One can form some idea of the enormous fecundity of this insect, if we mention that it takes 200,000 in a dried state to make one pound of the cochineal of commerce.
[48] Two Vanilla plants, imported in 1841 from the Botanical Garden of Leyden, remained barren for nine years, till recourse was at last had to the system of artificial fructification, upon which these plants increased so rapidly that the plants at present under cultivation at Pondok-Gedeh amount to 700,000!
[49] Now named Cankrienia Chrysantha. The plant most characteristic of this region was the gnaphalium arboreum.
[50] These four species were Cinchona Calisaya, C. Condanimea, C. Lanceolata, and C. Ovata.
[51] According to our latest advices from Java, which extend to November, 1860, there are at present in the Preanger Regency upwards of 100,000 China plants in the very best order, so that this valuable commodity not only may be regarded as fully naturalized in that island, but the Dutch Government even complied with the request of the British Government for a certain number of seedlings for introduction into India.
[52] Pronounce Tschipodas and Tschangschoor (Sweet Water) respectively.
[53] Called in the Sunda dialect Gunung Masigit, or Hill of the Mosque, in consequence of the chalk, of which it is composed, being broken into pinnacles of remarkable uniformity, and strongly resembling the appearance presented by the minarets of a mosque.
[54] As these edible swallows'-nests form a very important article of commerce among the Colonial products, and their collection provides the means of subsistence to a considerable section of the population of Java, we shall follow here the description given by Dr. Junghuhn, in his truly classic Monograph upon Java, in which (Book I. p. 468) he speaks as follows respecting the marvellous abodes selected by this species of swallow, and the perils dared by the native in obtaining their nests. "In Karangbólong, a portion of the entrance to the holes where the swallows breed is on a level with the surface of the water, and at times covered by the sea. In one of these cavities, the Gua Gedé, the edge of the coast-wall rises 80 Paris feet above low water, in a concave form, so that it actually overhangs; however, at an elevation of about 25 feet there occurs a projection, which the Rotang-ladder reaches by being suspended perpendicularly. The ladder is made by two side ropes of reed, which every inch-and-a-half, or two inches, are bound to each other by cross-bars of wood. The roof of the entrance to the cave is only 10 feet above the sea, which even at ebb-tide washes the flow throughout its extent, while at flood-tide the mouth of the cave is entirely closed by the sweep of the rollers. Only during ebb-tide therefore, and with perfectly smooth water, is it possible for any one to penetrate into the interior. Even then this would be impossible, were not the rocky vault, or roof of the cavern, pierced through, eaten away, and corroded into innumerable holes. By the projecting angles of these holes it is that the strongest and most daring gatherer who first makes his way in, has to hold on, while he attaches to them ropes made of Rotang, which thus hang from the roof to a length of four or five feet. At their lower extremities other Rotang ropes are securely fastened crosswise, thus running, rather more horizontally, parallel with the roof, so that they form a hanging bridge as it were along the whole length of the roof. The roof is about 100 feet wide, and from the entrance at the south to the deepest recess in the north end, the cave is about 150 feet in length. Although only 10 feet high at the entrance, the roof becomes gradually more and more lofty as the cavern retreats, till at the farthest extremity it is about 20 to 25 feet above the sea-level. Before any one of the nest-hunters proceeds to erect his ladder, and again before proceeding to climb up upon it in such fearful proximity to the thundering swell, a solemn prayer is proffered to the goddess or queen of the sea-coast, whose blessing is invoked. At this place she bears the name of Njaï-Ratu-Segor-Kidul, or sometimes Ratu-Loro-Djunggrang, and has dedicated to her in the village of Karangbólong a temple, which is kept scrupulously clean. Occasionally the gatherers make also a solemn sacrifice at the tomb of Serot, who, according to a Javanese legend, is revered as the first discoverer of the bird-nest caves." (The meaning of the above Javanese words is as follows: Njaï, the title of honour of a female, corresponding to our "Madame:"—Ratu, Queen:—Segoro, ocean:—Kidul, south:—Lero, maiden:—Djunggrang is a surname.) Compare "Java, its physical Features, Vegetation, and internal Structure," by Franz Junghuhn. Leipsig, Arnold, 1842.
[55] The picul varies in weight between 125 and 133 1⁄3 pounds.
[56] Toestand der aangeweekete Kinabomen op het eiland Java in het laatst der Maand Julij, en het begni van Augustus, 1857. Kort beschreven door F. Junghuhn, 116 pp.
[57] At all events, among the planters up the country the opinion prevails that the coffee beans prepared by the native population on what is called the parching method are of far finer and more durable quality than those prepared by the former process.
[58] Professor Vriese, besides having all expenses paid, drew a salary of £1000 per annum, besides 10 guilders (16s. 8d.) a day for every day passed by him in the interior of the island while engaged in its explorations.
[59] The commercial and statistical particulars of Java, for which we are mainly indebted to the kindness of Mr. Fraser, the Austrian Consul in Batavia, will be specially considered in a different part of the work.
[60] The Javanese agriculturist, especially the coffee planter, is sadly tormented by three kinds of grass, which Dr. Junghuhn has named the Javanese Trinity, and which are invariably found with the coffee plant—Erichthitas Valerianifolia (which was introduced from Mocha with the coffee-shrub, and was never before known in Java), Agerahun Conisoïdes, and Bideus Sundaica. The civet-cat, too (called Luah in Javanese, Jjáruh in the Sunda language), does great damage to the coffee plantations, just as the crop is being collected. It eats only the fleshy part of the brown berry, the beans, at least according to what the Javanese say, actually gaining a flavour by the process to which they are subjected in the maw of the animal!
[61] In 1859 the most important of the colonial products, grown for account of the Government, presented the following quantities:—
| Coffee | piculs | 727,000 (of 125 lbs. each) | ||
| Sugar | " | 901,000. | ||
| Indigo | 558,800 | lbs. | ||
| Cassia | 256,000 | " | ||
| Cochineal (a failure in the crops owing to incessant rains) | 6,700 | " | ||
| Tea | 2,057,400 | " | ||
| Pepper | 45,000 | " |
The duties on imports and exports for that year in the islands of Java and Madura alone amounted to 7,440,579 guilders, or £620,048.
N.B. The picul of 125 lbs. = 136 lbs. 10 ounces avoirdupois.
[62] Since this was written a number of the Dutch officials and savans at Java, who showed so many civilities to the Austrian travellers, were decorated by our Government with Austrian orders, among whom was also the Raden Adipata Wira Nata Kusuma, the first native Javanese Regent ever decorated by a foreign power. The prince was extremely delighted when he was informed of it, and said he longed for the hour when the imperial decoration was to arrive that he might put it on and wear it. Singularly enough the presents and letters of acknowledgment sent to the Dutch Government in the Hague for remittance, were not forwarded direct by the mail steamer, but as customary by sailing vessels, so that they only arrived six months after they were presented!
[63] A genuine Javanese musical instrument, consisting of a number of bells all differently tuned, which are struck with two small bamboo-sticks.
[64] Die Republic Costa Rica, in Central-America, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Naturverhältnisse, und der frage der deutschen Answanderung und Colonisation. Reisestudien und Reiseskizzen aus den Jahren 1853 und 1854. Von Dr. M. Wagner and Dr. Karl Scherzer. Leipzig, Arnold'sche Buchhandlung. 1856. S. 196-197.
[65] Colonel Von Schierbrand, to whom natural science is already under deep obligations for acquiring a variety of valuable objects, is constantly and indefatigably endeavouring, both as a friend of knowledge and a zealous sportsman, to procure, sometimes by personal exertion, sometimes by employing natives engaged at his own expense, a series of rare geological specimens. He appears to be, like so many other of our excellent friends in Java, a living contradiction to the proverb, "Out of sight, out of mind," as he has since the return of the Expedition already sent over as presents to the museums of our native country, valuable selections of curious objects of natural history from the Indian Archipelago.
[66] The Loar-Badang (Public Market) is an immense building, a sort of brothel on a large scale, kept by a Frenchman, who pays a handsome annual sum to Government for the privilege of his infamous traffic. Here, among others, are some 40 or 50 wretched outcasts, whom he sends off in boats every evening to the merchantmen in the port, for the accommodation of their crews!!!
[67] According to official return, the number of criminals, in the year 1857, convicted in the islands of Java and Madura, was 3864, of whom 198 were females and 955 were sentenced to the chain-gang. In the year 1857 alone, 2525 coloured criminals were sentenced to hard labour, with or without chains. The number of convictions in the Dutch East Indies, exclusive of Java and Madura, amounted in the same year to 4430.
[68] Thus the "Prima donna" receives for tragic opera 1500 guilders (£125), and for comic opera 1800 guilders (£150) per month during the season. The "troupe" is usually engaged for a year and a half or two years together.
[69] Of these we cannot refrain from mentioning Dr. Van den Broek, who shortly before our arrival had returned from Japan, where he had resided seven years as physician and Government agent. Dr. Van den Broek, who is at present engaged in the editing a dictionary of the Dutch and Japanese languages, presented us with a botanical work in Japanese with numerous woodcuts, and at the same time was so exceedingly kind as to present us with a small vocabulary of the Court and the popular dialects used in Japan.
[70] Among scientific circles in Batavia the recent departure of the renowned ichthyologist, Dr. Bleeker, who intends to settle in Holland or Germany, will be the more appreciated, that this resolve will be regarded by his numerous European friends as a satisfactory assurance that the valuable materials relating to natural history which he has collected will ere long make their appearance in a suitable form.
[71] Voyagers between Batavia and Manila must not, however, always expect to make so rapid a voyage. In Manila we fell in with a ship captain, who had left Batavia in April, and, owing to the prevalence of calms and contrary winds, had been 59 days on the passage!