I. THE CITY DEFINED
Differences in standpoint and method in the various sciences show graphically in the definitions that each formulates of the same object. This is strikingly illustrated by a comparison of the definitions held by various scientific groups of the phenomenon of the city.
1. The city has been regarded by geographers as an integral part of the landscape. From this standpoint the city is an elevation, rising from the ground like a mountain. Such observations as changes in wind velocity and atmospheric conditions produced by the city regarded as an obstruction of the landscape have been noted. Human geography has lately come to regard the city as the most significant human transformation of the natural environment, and as part of the general product arising out of man’s relation with the natural environment. Urban geography has recently been gaining ground as a phase of regional geography. The location, physical structure, size, density, and economic function of cities are the chief factors emphasized. A substantial literature has grown up which has a direct bearing on the Sociological study of the city.
Aurousseau, M. “Recent Contributions to Urban Geography,” Geog. Rev., XIV (July, 1924), 444–55.
A concise statement of the geographical approach to the city, with a bibliography of the most authoritative and recent literature. Points out the recency of the study of urban geography and the difficulties involved in the methods. (II, 3; III.)
Barrows, Harlan H. “Geography as Human Ecology,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. XIII (March, 1923), No. 1.
While not specifically concerned with the city, defines the viewpoint and method of the geographer.
Blanchard, Raoul. “Une méthode de géographie urbaine,” La Vie Urbaine, IV (1922) 301–19.
An exposition of the principles and methods of urban geography by one of the leading authorities. (III, 2, 3, 4, 6.)
Chisholm, G. G. “Generalizations in Geography, Especially in Human Geography,” Scott. Geog. Mag., XXXII (1916), 507–19. (III, 2, 3, 4.)
Hassert, Kurt. Die Städte geographisch betrachtet (Leipzig, 1907).
One of the early outlines of urban geography. (III, 2, 3, 4, 6.)
——. “Über Aufgaben der Städtekunde,” Petermann’s Mitteilungen, LVI (Part II, 1910), 289–94. (III.)
Jefferson, M. “Anthropography of Some Great Cities: A Study in Distribution of Population.” Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc., XLI (1909), 537–66.
Argues the need for a geographical definition of the city and suggests one based on density of population. (I, 3, 4; III; VII, 2.)
Schrader, F. “The Growth of the Industrial City,” Scott. Geog. Mag., XXXIII (1917), 348–52.
An extensive review of an article by Professor Schrader printed in Annales de Géographie, January, 1917. A statement of the forces responsible for the emergence of the geographical entity “the city,” especially of the industrial city. (I, 4; III, 2, 3, 4; IV, 1, 6; V, 5; VII, 1.)
Smith, J. Russell. “The Elements of Geography and the Geographic Unit,” School and Society, Vol. XVII, No. 441. (III, 2, 3, 4.)
2. The rise of the city introduced an entirely novel element into the historical process. As a result we find the historians among the first to study this phenomenon of human aggregation which culminated in the city. The historian is mainly interested in tracing the development of this new form of social life from the standpoint of structure and formal organization. The origin of the city has been traced, the ancient cities have been described, the Greek city-state, Rome, the rise of the medieval city, and its transformation into the modern city have found an important place in historical literature. The earlier studies are mainly political in nature. Only recently have historians devoted themselves to describing the new modes of life to which the city gave rise, and the interrelations between city and country. The city has been regarded chiefly as a political unit. The name “city” was given to a settlement because it had achieved a certain degree of political autonomy from the central government, or as an honorary title conferred for service rendered to a superior political entity, or, finally, as a result of incorporation or legal enactment.
Bücher, Karl. “Die Grossstädte in Gegenwart und Vergangenheit,” in the volume, Die Grossstadt, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903. (I, 4; II; III; IV.)
Cunningham, William. Western Civilization (Cambridge, 1898–1900).
Has many references to the changing historical conceptions of the city. (I, 4; II. 2, 3.)
The Encyclopedia Americana, 1918 edition, Vol. VI, article, “City.” (II; IV, 3.)
The Encyclopedia Brittanica, 1911 edition, article, “City.” (II; IV, 3.)
Schäfer, D. “Die politische und militärische Bedeutung der Grossstädte,” in the volume Die Grossstadt, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903.
A summary of the city as a political unit, together with its function from the military standpoint. (II; III, 1, 2, 3, 4; IV, 5.)
3. The statisticians have at various times been forced to define a city because census-taking and interpreting presupposes the existence of definite statistical units. The principal statistical methods of defining the city are: (1) by extent of the area of settlement, and (2) by number of inhabitants. In the history of the United States Census the city has been variously defined as an incorporated community of 8,000 inhabitants or more, then of 4,000, and at the present time of 2,500 inhabitants.
Blankenburg, R. “What Is a City?” Independent, XXCV (January 17, 1916), 84–85.
Meuriot, P. M. G. “Du criterium adopté pour la définition de la population urbaine,” Soc. de Statist. de Paris, LV (October, 1914), 418–30.
Reuter, E. B. Population Problems (Philadelphia and London, 1924).
Shows the changing statistical definitions of the city adopted at various times by the United States Census. Contains a great deal of other material relating to urban population. (VII, 2, 3; VIII, 1, 2.)
4. The economists have been interested in tracing the development of the city as an economic unit. The city, from this standpoint, may be regarded as typical of a certain stage in economic development. The rise of the city is intimately associated with the transition from handicraft to machine industry, the division of labor, the market, and exchange. Besides the great number of economic histories which trace the general movement toward urban economy there are many monographs of special cities whose economic history has been studied, and some instances of present-day developments in metropolitan economy.
Below, George von. “Die Entstehung des modernen Kapitalismus und die Hauptstädte,” Schmollers Jahrbuch, XLIII (1919), 811–28. (III, 4; IV, 1, 4, 6.)
Cheney, Edward Potts. Industrial and Social History of England (New York, 1910). (II, 2, 3; IV, 6.)
Day, Clive. History of Commerce (New York, 1920). (II; III, 4; IV, 6.)
Dillen, Johannes Gerard van. Het Economisch karakter der Middeleeuwsche Stad. I. De Theorie der gesloten Stad-Huishanding (Amsterdam, 1914). (II, 2; III, 4, 5; IV, 6.)
Gras, Norman S. B. An Introduction to Economic History (New York, 1922).
Considerable material on the rise of the city as an economic unit. (II, 2, 3; III, 4, 5; IV, 1, 2, 6; X, 1.)
Sombart, Werner. The Quintessence of Capitalism: A Study of the History and Psychology of the Modern Business Man. Translated by M. Epstein (New York, 1915). (II, 3; IV, 6; IX; X; 3.)
Waentig, H. “Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung der Grossstädte,” in the volume, Die Grossstadt, edited by Th. Petermann, Dresden, 1903.
A thorough study of the increasing significance of the city as an economic unit. (III, 4; IV, 6.)
5. A sociological definition of the city must recognize that such a complex phenomenon cannot be adequately characterized in terms of any one single distinguishing mark or any set of formal and arbitrary characteristics. The city is, to be sure, a human group occupying a definite area, with a set of technical devices, institutions, administrative machinery, and organization which distinguish it from other groupings. But in this conglomeration of buildings, streets, and people the sociologist discovers a psychophysical mechanism. For him the city is a set of practices, of common habits, sentiments and traditions which have grown up through several generations of life and are characteristic of a typical cultural unit. Within this larger entity which is called the city he sees many other groupings of people and areas which are the result of growth and of a continuous process of sifting and allocation, each one of which areas has a character of its own and produces its special type of inhabitant. He sees a number of occupational and cultural groups whose interests and characteristics mark them off one from the other, but who, nevertheless, are conscious of their membership in some common larger group known as the city, and who participate in its life.
From another point of view the city is an institution which has arisen and maintains itself to some extent independently of the population because it satisfies certain fundamental wants, not only of the local inhabitants, but also of a larger area which has become dependent upon what the city has to give.
The city, finally, may be regarded as the product of three fundamental processes: the ecological, the economic, and the cultural, which operate in the urban area to produce groupings and behavior which distinguish that area from its rural periphery.
Izoulet, Jean. La Cité moderne et la métaphysique de la sociologie (Paris, 1894).
Maunier, René. “The Definition of the City.” Translated by L. L. Bernard, Amer. Jour. Sociol., XV, 536–48.
A critical examination of the existing definitions of the city in the light of sociological theory. (I, 1, 2, 3, 4.)
Almost every textbook in the field of sociology has some sort of a working definition of the city. In addition there are available the various conceptions of the city underlying the social surveys.