The city

by Robert Ezra Park; E. W. Burgess; Roderick Duncan McKenzie

VI. THE CITY AS A PHYSICAL MECHANISM

The aggregation of large numbers of human beings within a restricted area, as is represented by the modern city, makes possible, and at the same time makes imperative, the communal effort to satisfy certain essential needs of all the inhabitants. The manner in which these needs are met has become institutionalized. The facilities which have been created to meet these needs make up the physical structure of the city as a social mechanism.

1. The need for uninterrupted water supply, fuel, and light have brought it about that the means of satisfying these wants are either in the hands of the city as a corporate body, or, if in private hands, are controlled and regulated by the city government. These public utilities are of interest to the sociologist only in so far as they have a bearing on group life and call forth attitudes, sentiments, and behavior which influences the group. These factors may have an important relation to the ecological organization of the city, and may furnish indexes to the selective and distributive processes which result in the grouping of the population. The lighting of the city may have a direct bearing on the crime of the city, the water supply, on the health, etc. The regulation of public utilities may become issues at elections and call forth factionalism, thus bringing into play the social groupings in the community.

Fassett, Charles M. Assets of the Ideal City (New York, 1922).

A brief statement of various structural aspects of the city, with a bibliography. (V, 4, 5; VI.)

Grahn, E. “Die städtischen Wasserwerke,” in Wuttke, Die Deutschen Städte (Leipzig, 1904), pp. 301–44.

A statement of the water-supply problem in German cities.

Höffner, C. “Die Gaswerke,” in Wuttke, Die Deutschen Städte (Leipzig, 1904), pp. 198–238.

A statement of the evolution and present status of the technique of gas supply in the modern city.

Jephson, H. L. The Sanitary Evolution of London (London, 1907). (VI.)

Kübler, Wilhelm. “Über städtische Elektrizitätswerke,” in Wuttke, Die Deutschen Städte, pp. 239–300.

An account of the municipal electricity works in German cities.

Most books on the modern city contain a chapter on public utilities, and a great many technical journals and municipal reports are accessible giving detailed accounts of various aspects of both the technical, the administrative, and the functional sides of the public utility situation.

2. One of the most characteristic features of city life is the high degree of intercommunication. This is made possible by technical devices, such as the telephone, street cars, and the automobile. While the sociologist has no intrinsic interest in these technical devices, they become an object of study as factors entering, for instance, into the problem of mobility of the city population.

D’Avenel, G. le Vicomte. Le Mécanisme de la Vie moderne (3 vols.; Paris, 1922).

Among many other aspects of the city as a physical mechanism, has a chapter on publicity, urban transportation, and communication. This work has gone through many editions and is written in a popular style. (VI; IX, 1.)

Harris, Emerson Pitt. The Community Newspaper (New York, 1923). (IX, 3.)

Kingsbury, J. E. The Telephone and Telephone Exchanges: Their Invention and Development (London and New York, 1915).

Lewis, H. M., and Goodrich, E. P. Highway Traffic in New York and Its Environs (New York, 1924).

The results of a study embodied in a report for the Committee on a Regional Plan for New York and its Environs. (IV, 2; V, 4, 5; VI, 2; VII, 2, 4.)

Park, Robert E. The Immigrant Press and Its Control (New York, 1922).

A study of the organization and the influence of the press in the immigrant communities of the large city (IX, 3.)

The municipal transportation and communication question has developed a large literature which is to be found in many separate works on the telephone, telegraph, radio, street-car systems, busses, automobile, mail service, newspaper, and railways as well as in municipal reports, technical and administrative journals, and textbooks on the city.

3. The existence of streets, pavement, alleys, sewers, and other devices of the same sort that characterize the city as a physical mechanism influence the behavior of the person and the group, and as such are of interest to the sociologist.

Hirschfeld, Magnus. Die Gurgel Berlins, Vol. XLI in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A study of the main street of Berlin from the standpoint of its effect on the individual and as a revelation of city life. (VI, 2; VII, 2, 4.)

Quaife, Milo Milton. Chicago’s Highways, Old and New (Chicago, 1923).

The changes wrought in the character of the city as viewed from the point of view of the streets. (VI, 2; VII, 1, 2.)

Whipple, G. C. “Economical and Sanitary Problems of American Cities,” American City (February, 1921), p. 112. (VI.)

4. The many devices in the realm of public safety and welfare which are the characteristic product of the city, such as fire department, police, health inspection, and the manifold activities of the social agencies concern the sociologist as typical expressions of group life in the city environment.

Addams, Jane. Twenty Years at Hull House; With Autobiographical Notes (New York, 1910).

City life as seen in a typical social agency—the social settlement. (V, 2, 3; VII, 5.)

Assessor (pseudonym). Die Berliner Polizei, Vol. XXXIV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A personal account of the police force of the modern city. (IX, 1.)

Anonymous. Berliner Gerichte, Vol. XXIV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Daily experiences in a typical city court.

Carbaugh, H. C. Human Welfare Work in Chicago (Chicago, 1917).

A brief account of the various specialized social agencies operating in the large city. (VII, 5; IX, 1.)

Fitzpatrick, Edward A. Interrelationships of Hospital and Community, reprint from Modern Hospital, February, 1925. Pamphlet.

A sketch of the possible place and nature of a health agency in a modern urban community.

Fosdick, Raymond, and Associates. Criminal Justice in Cleveland, directed and edited by Roscoe Pound and Felix Frankfurter (Cleveland, 1922). (VI, 7.)

Fosdick, Raymond B. European Police Systems (New York, 1915).

——. American Police Systems (New York, 1920).

Harrison, Shelby M. Public Employment Offices; Their Purpose, Structure, and Method (New York, 1924). (IX, 1.)

Richmond, Mary E. The Good Neighbor in the Modern City (Philadelphia and London, 1913).

Suggestions to the layman about the social agencies and their work in the large modern city. (V, 2; VII, 5.)

Wilson, Warren H. The Evolution of the Country Community: A Study in Religious Sociology (Boston, New York, Chicago, 1912).

Gives types of organizations and institutions. (V, 3; X, 2.)

In almost every large city the number of social agencies and public institutions is so large and their work so varied that directories of these agencies have been made available. In addition, reports and surveys of many cities are at hand, and the periodical literature is tremendous.

5. The cultural needs of the community find expression in the city in the form of schools, theaters, museums, parks, monuments, and other public enterprises. They exert an influence extending beyond the boundaries of the city itself, and may be regarded as agencies for the definition of the person’s wishes. They are indicative of the level of social life which the community has achieved.

Carroll, Charles E. The Community Survey in Relation to Church Efficiency (New York, 1915).

Typical of studies bearing on the place of religious and cultural agencies in city life. (X, 2.)

For a basic statement of the problem of education in the modern city, compare Dewey, John, Democracy and Education (New York, 1916).

Moore, E. C. “Provision for the Education of the City Child,” School and Society, III (February 19, 1916), 265–72.

Phelan, J. J. Motion Pictures as a Phase of Commercialized Amusement in Toledo, Ohio (Toledo, Ohio, 1919).

Tews, Johannes. Berliner Lehrer, Vol. XX in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

An intimate study of a professional group in the large city. (IX, 1.)

Trawick, Arcadius McSwain. The City Church and Its Social Mission (New York, 1913).

Turszinsky, Walter. Berliner Theater, Vol. XXIX of “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905). (III, 4; V, 1; VI, 6.)

Ward, Edward J. The Social Center (New York and London, 1915). (VI, 6; VII, 5.)

6. The leisure-time activities which the city produces are so intimately connected with the life of the people that they furnish clues as to the pathology or disorganization typical of city life. The dance hall, the movie, the amusement park, the back-yard or vacant lot improvised playground, and the many other forms of public, commercialized, or improvised recreation facilities are phases of group life which cannot escape the Sociologist.

Arndt, Arno. Berliner Sport, Vol. X in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Describes various specialized, institutionalized, and commercialized forms of sport life in Berlin. (IX, 2, 4.)

Bowman, LeRoy E., and Lambin, Maria Ward. “Evidences of Social Relations as Seen in Types of New York City Dance Halls,” Jour. Social Forces, III (January, 1925), 286–91. (IX, 2, 3, 4.)

Buchner, Eberhard. Berliner Variétés und Tingeltangel, Vol. XXII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Analysis of various types of the variété, cabaret, and burlesque, and the development of these institutions in the city. (IX, 1, 3, 4.)

Günther, Viktor. Petersbourg s’amuse, Vol. XXXII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

The recreational activities of the Russian capital. (III, 4; V, 1; IX, 2.)

Herschmann, Otto. Wiener Sport, Vol. XII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Describes the recreational activities of the dominant population groups in Vienna. (IX, 4.)

Ostwald, H. O. A. Berliner Kaffeehäuser, Vol. VII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Human behavior in the coffee houses of Berlin. (IX, 1, 4.)

——. Berliner Tanzlokale, Vol. IV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Intimate glimpses of the diverse types of dance halls and their habitués. (V, 2, 3; VII, 5; IX, 1, 4.)

Phelan, John J. Pool, Billiards, and Bowling Alleys as a Phase of Commercialized Amusement in Toledo (Toledo, 1919). (VII, 5)

Rhodes, H. “City Summers,” Harper’s, CXXXI (June, 1915), 2–15.

The seasonal aspects of city recreation.

7. The city government shows, perhaps more clearly than many other phases of city life, the extent to which the city has revolutionized social life and has changed the habits and attitudes of the people. In the city government we can see the various local, national, cultural, and interest groups attempting to exert their influence. In the city we see the political boss as a typical product of an anomalous situation. Here we find such phenomena as non-voting, the clash between local and occupational groups, and many other disharmonies between the needs of the people and the institutions that are present to satisfy them.

Bruere, Henry. The New City Government (New York, 1913).

A study of the commission form of government in cities.

Capes, William Parr. The Modern City and Its Government (New York, 1922).

Clerk (pseudonym). Berliner Beamte, Vol. XLIII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A study of the types of civil servants developed by modern city government. (IX, 1, 2, 4.)

Cleveland, Frederick A. Chapters on Municipal Administration and Accounting (New York, 1909 and 1915).

Cummin, G. C. “Will the City-Manager Form of Government Fit All Cities—Large Cities—Machine-Controlled Cities?” National Municipal Rev., VII (May, 1918), 276–81.

Ely, Richard T. The Coming City (New York, 1902).

An address taking up some of the problems connected with the government, public interest in administration, and corruption in the modern American city. (VII, 5.)

Gilbert, Arthur Benson. American Cities: Their Methods of Business (New York, 1918).

Goodnow, Frank J. City Government in the United States (New York, 1904 and 1909).

Hill, Howard C. Community Life and Civic Problems (New York, 1922).

An elementary textbook for community civics classes. (V, 3; VI.)

McKenzie, R. D. “Community Forces: A Study of the Non-Partisan Municipal Elections in Seattle,” Journal of Social Forces (January, March, May, 1924).

A study of the relation between local groupings and political attitudes. (IV, 3; V, 1, 2, 3; VII, 5; IX, 3.)

Munro, W. B. Municipal Government and Administration (New York, 1923). (II, 3; IV, 3; VII, 1.)

——. The Government of American Cities (3d ed.; New York, 1921).

A standard textbook on city government in the United States. By the same author, a companion volume, The Government of European Cities. (VI, 7; IV, 3.)

Odum, Howard W. Community and Government: A Manual of Discussion and Study of the Newer Ideals of Citizenship (Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1921).

Steffens, Lincoln. The Shame of the Cities (New York, 1907).

An exposure of corruption in city governments. (VII, 5.)

Toulmin, Harry A. The City Manager: A New Profession (New York, 1915). (IX, 1.)

Weber, G. A. Organized Efforts for the Improvement of Methods of Administration in the United States (New York and London, 1919).

Weyl, Walter E. “The Brand of the City,” Harper’s, CXXX (April, 1915), 769–75.

Wilcox, Delos F. Great Cities in America: Their Problems and Their Government (New York, 1910). (IV, 3; VI; VII, 1, 5.)

Zueblin, Charles. A Decade of Civic Development (Chicago, 1905).

A discussion of the state of American city civilization at the beginning of the twentieth century. (V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1; VIII, 1.)

8. The complexity, specialization, and dependence of the city are seen clearly in the methods by which the city gets its food supply and other vital necessities for the existence of the population. The food trains, milk trains, cattle trains, the miles of refrigerator cars and coal cars that daily enter the large city, the warehouses and the stores, the countless delivery wagons that line the streets—all these are evidence of what a tremendously complex and efficient organization has grown up to meet the urgent wants, the desires for subsistence and for luxury of our millions of city-dwellers. Here too we sometimes see examples of what anxiety and what calamity might result from the slightest interruption or dislocation in the methods of supplying the city with these varied specialties. The department store and the chain store are characteristic city institutions, corresponding to the grouping of the city population.

Colze, Leo. Berliner Warenhäuser, Vol. XLVII in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Berlin stores. (III, 4; IV, 1; V, 1; IX, 1.)

Loeb, Moritz. Berliner Konfektionen, Vol. XV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

Ready-made clothing establishments. (V, 1, 4; IX, 1.)

Parker, Horatio Newton. City Milk Supply (New York, 1917). (IV, 1.)

Shideler, E. H. “The Business Center as an Institution,” Jour. Appl. Sociol., IX (March, April, 1925), 269–75.

An outline of the local trade center in the urban community and its significance in city life. (IV, 1; V, 1, 2, 3; VII, 1, 2.)

9. One of the latest phases of city development is the direct result of the invention of a new technique of building. Steel construction has made possible the skyscraper, the elevated railroad, and the subway, and thus introduced a new dimension into city growth. This new technique has made possible a density, per unit of ground surface, which has given the city an entirely new complexion. The full effects of this new invention are still not fully known.

Holborn, I. B. S. “The City: The Outer Expression of an Inner Self,” Art World, III (December, 1917), 217–21. (III, 1; IX, 2.)

Mumford, Lewis. Sticks and Stones: A Study of American Civilization (New York, 1925).

An evaluation and critique of the architectural aspects of American cities and their cultural significance. (V, 5; VI, 9; X, 2.)

Nichols, C. M. (editor). Studies on Building-Height Limitations in Large Cities (Chicago, 1923).

Written from the point of view of the real-estate profession.

Schumacher, Fritz. “Architektonische Aufgaben der Städte,” in Wuttke, Die Deutschen Städte, pp. 47–66.

Discussion of the changing needs and methods in urban construction.

The literature on the significance of the steel-construction technique is still very small. The professional engineers and architects have contributed some to their journals, but the interpretation of their contributions is still to be made.

10. Land values are the chief determining influence in the segregation of local areas and in the determination of the uses to which an area is to be put. Land values also determine more specifically the type of building that is to be erected in a given area—whether it shall be a tenement house, an office building, a factory, or a single dwelling—what buildings shall be razed, and what buildings are to be repaired. The technique of determining city land values has developed into a highly specialized and well-paid profession. Land values are so potent a selective factor that the human ecologist will find in them a very accurate index to many phases of city life.

Aronovici, Carol. Housing and the Housing Problem (Chicago, 1921).

A study of the relation between rent, income, and housing.

Arner, G. B. L. “Urban Land Economics,” in volume, Urban Land Economics, Institute for Research in Land Economics (Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1922).

Gives a summary of land values in New York City and an outline of the subject. (VII, 1, 2.)

George, W. L. Labor and Housing at Port Sunlight (London, 1909). (III, 4, 6; V, 4, 5; IX, 1.)

“Housing and Town Planning,” Ann. Amer. Acad., LI (January, 1914), 1–264.

An excellent collection of authoritative articles on housing, city planning, city land values, transportation, and government. (III, 6; IV, 1, 2, 3; V; VII; VIII.)

Hull House Maps and Papers (New York, 1895).

A presentation of nationalities and wages in a congested district of Chicago together with comments and essays on problems growing out of the social conditions. (VII, 2, 3, 4, 5; IX, 3.)

Hunter, Robert. Tenement Conditions in Chicago: Report by the Investigating Committee of the City Homes Association (Chicago, 1901). (VII, 5.)

Hurd, Richard M. Principles of City Land Values (New York, 1924).

Land valuation on the basis of city growth. Shows that the coming of the automobile, making available large tracts for residential purposes, the radio, and other devices for intercommunication have not materially changed the general principles of city growth. Contains maps and photographs showing foot-front values for various cities and land utilization. (VII, 1, 4; VI, 2.)

Morehouse, E. W., and Ely, R. T. Elements of Land Economics (New York, 1924).

An introduction to land valuation. Chapter vi, on urban land utilization. (VII, 1, 2; X, 2.)

McMichael, Stanley L., and Bingham, Robert F. City Growth and Values (Cleveland, 1923).

An authoritative statement. (VII, 1.)

Olcott, George C. Olcott’s Land Value Maps (annually, Chicago, 1909–25).

Valuations of Chicago real estate.

Pratt, Edward Ewing. Industrial Causes of Congestion of Population in New York City (New York, 1911).

Contains an excellent bibliography. (III, 4; V, 1, 2, 4, 5; VI, 2, 3; VII, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.)

Reeve, Sidney A. “Congestion in Cities,” Geog. Rev., III (1917), 278–93.

Regards congestion as a growing menace to public health and social stability, and analyzes the causes and suggests remedies. (V, 4, 5; VI; VII, 1, 2, 5; VIII 1.)

Riis, Jacob A. How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York (New York, 1890 and 1914).

This together with his other book, The Battle with the Slum (New York, 1892), has done much to call public attention to the tenement problem of the large American city and to invite remedial legislation. (V, 1, 2, 4, 5; VII, 1, 2, 5.)

Schumacher, F. “Probleme der Grossstadt,” Deutsche Rundschau für Geog., CXXC (July 5, 1919), 66–81, 262–85, 416–29. (V; VI; VII; VIII.)

Smythe, William Ellsworth. City Homes on Country Lanes: Philosophy and Practice of the Home-in-a-Garden (New York, 1921). (V, 5.)

Stella, A. “The Effects of Urban Congestion on Italian Women and Children,” Medical Record, LXXIII (New York, 1908), 722–32. (V, 1, 3; VIII, 1.)

Südekum, Albert. Grossstädtisches Wohnungselend, Vol. XLV in “Grossstadt Dokumente” (Berlin, 1905).

A description of a typical tenement area in the European city and its effects on human behavior. (VII, 5; IX, 3.)

Veiller, Lawrence. “The Housing Problem in America,” Ann. Amer. Academy, XXV (1905), 248–75.

In this article, as well as in his later works (for instance, Housing Reform (New York, 1910)), the writer, who has been regarded as one of the foremost housing students in America, outlines some of the social consequences of bad housing in the modern city and questions the adequacy of democratic form of government in the slum areas. (V; IX, 3.)