SENTENCES.
A Sentence is an assemblage of words, expressed in proper form, and ranged in proper order, and concurring to make a complete sense.
Concord, or agreement of words, is when one word is required to be in like case, number, gender, or person, with another.
Regimen, or government, is when a word causeth a following word to be in some case, or mode.
Sentences are Simple, or Compounded.
A Simple Sentence hath in it but one Subject, and one Finite Verb; that is, a Verb in the Indicative, Imperative, or Subjunctive Mode.
A Phrase is two or more words rightly put together in order to make a part of a Sentence; and sometimes making a whole Sentence.
The most common Phrases used in simple Sentences are as follows:
1st Phrase: The Substantive before a Verb Active, Passive, or Neuter; when it is said what thing is, does, or is done: as, “I am;” “Thou writest;” “Thomas is loved:” where I, Thou, Thomas, are the Nominative[42] Cases; and answer to the question who, or what? as, “Who is loved? Thomas.” And the Verb agrees with the Nominative Case in number and person[43]; as, Thou being the Second Person Singular, the Verb writest is so too.
2d Phrase: The Substantive after a Verb Neuter or Passive; when it is said, that such a thing is, or is made, or thought, or called, such another thing; or, when the Substantive after the Verb is spoken of the same thing or person with the Substantive before the Verb: as, “a calf becomes an ox;” “Plautus is accounted a Poet;” “I am He.” Here the latter Substantive is in the Nominative Case as well as the former; and the Verb is said to govern the Nominative Case: or, the latter Substantive may be said to agree in Case with the former.
3d Phrase: The Adjective after a Verb Neuter or Passive, in like manner: as, “Life is short, and Art is long.” “Exercise is esteemed wholesome.”
4th Phrase: The Substantive after a Verb Active, or Transitive: as when one thing is said to act upon, or do something to another: as, “to open a door;” “to build a house;” “Alexander conquered the Persians.” Here the thing acted upon is in the Objective[44] Case; as it appears plainly when it is expressed by the Pronoun, which has a proper termination for that Case; “Alexander conquered them;” and the Verb is said to govern the Objective Case.
5th Phrase: A Verb following another Verb; as, “boys love to play:” where the latter Verb is in the Infinitive Mode.
6th Phrase: When one thing is said to belong to another; as, “Milton’s poems:” where the thing to which the other belongs is placed first, and is in the Possessive Case; or else last with the Preposition of before it; as, “the poems of Milton.”
7th Phrase: When another Substantive is added to express and explain the former more fully; as, “Paul the Apostle;” “King George:” where they are both in the same case; and the latter is said to be put in Apposition to the former.
8th Phrase: When the quality of the Substantive is expressed by adding an Adjective to it: as, “a wise man;” “a black horse.” Participles have the nature of Adjectives; as, “a learned man;” “a loving father.”
9th Phrase: An Adjective with a Verb in the Infinitive Mode following it: as, “worthy to die;” “fit to be trusted.”
10th Phrase: When a circumstance is added to a Verb, or to an Adjective, by an Adverb: as, “you read well;” “he is very prudent.”
11th Phrase: When a circumstance is added to a Verb or an Adjective by a Substantive with a Preposition before it: as, “I write for you;” “he reads with care;” “studious of praise;” “ready for mischief.”
12th Phrase: When the same Quality in different Subjects is compared; the Adjective in the Positive having after it the Conjunction as, in the Comparative the Conjunction than, and in the Superlative the Preposition of: as, “white as snow;” “wiser than I;” “greatest of all.”
The Principal parts of a Simple Sentence are the Agent, the Attribute, and the Object. The Agent is the thing chiefly spoken of; the Attribute is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it; and the Object is the thing affected by such action.
In English the Nominative Case denoting the Agent, usually goes before the Verb, or Attribution, and the Objective Case, denoting the Object, follows the Verb; and it is the order that determines the cases in Nouns: as, “Alexander conquered the Persians.” But the Pronoun, having a proper form for each of those cases, sometimes when it is in the Objective Case is placed before the Verb, and when it is in the Nominative Case follows the Object and Verb: as, “Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you.” And the Nominative Case is sometimes placed after a Verb Neuter: as, “Upon thy right hand did stand the Queen:” “On a sudden appeared the King.” And frequently with the Adverbs there and then: as, “There was a man:” “Then came unto him the Pharisees.” The reason of it is plain: the Neuter Verb not admitting of an Objective Case after it, no ambiguity of case can arise from such a position of the Noun.
Who, which, what, and the Relative that, though in the Objective Case, are always placed before the Verb; as are also their Compounds, whoever, whosoever, &c: as, “He whom you seek.” “This is what, or the thing which, or that, you want.” “Whomsoever you please to appoint.”
When the Verb is a Passive, the Agent and Object change places in the Sentence; and the thing acted upon is in the Nominative Case, and the Agent is accompanied with a Preposition: as, “The Persians were conquered by Alexander.”
A Noun of Multitude[45], or signifying many; and two Nouns in the Singular Number, joined together by a Conjunction Copulative; have Verbs, Nouns, and Pronouns, agreeing with them in the Plural Number: as, “When the King’s trump, the mob are for the King.” Dryden. “Socrates and Plato were wise; they were the most eminent Philosophers of Greece.”
If the Singulars so joined together are of several Persons, in making the Plural Pronoun agree with them in Person, the second Person takes place of the third, and the first of both: “He and You and I won it at the hazard of our lives: You and He shared it between you.”
The Verb to Be has always a Nominative Case after it; as, “it was I, and not He, that did it:” unless it be in the Infinitive Mode; “though you took it to be Him[46].”
The Adverbs when, while, after, &c. being left out, the Phrase is formed with the Participle independently of the rest of the Sentence: as, “The doors being shut, Jesus stood in the midst.” This is called the Case Absolute. And the Case is in English always the Nominative: as,
“God from the mount of Sinai, whose gray top
Shall tremble, He descending[47], will himself,
In thunder, lightning, and loud trumpet’s sound,
Ordain them laws.”
Milton, P. L. xii. 227.
To before a Verb is the sign of the Infinitive Mode: but there are some few Verbs, which have other Verbs following them in the Infinitive Mode without the sign to: as, bid, dare, need, make, see, hear; and, let, have, not used as Auxiliaries: as, “I bade him do it; you dare not do it; I saw him[48] do it; I heard him say it.”
The Infinitive Mode has much of the nature of a Substantive, expressing the Action itself which the Verb signifies; as the Participle has the nature of an Adjective. Thus the Infinitive Mode does the office of a Substantive in different cases; in the Nominative; as, “to play is pleasant:” in the Objective; as, “boys love to play.” In Greek it admits of the Article through all its cases, with the Preposition in the Oblique cases: in English the Article is not wanted, but the Preposition may be used: “For to will is present with me; but to perform that which is good I find not[49].” “All their works they do for to be seen of men[50].”
“For not to have been dip’d in Lethe’s lake
Could save the Son of Thetis from to die.”
Spenser.
Perhaps therefore the Infinitive and the Participle might be more properly called the Substantive Mode and the Adjective Mode[51].
The Participle with a Preposition before it, and still retaining its Government, answers to what is called in Latin the Gerund: as, “Happiness is to be attained, by avoiding evil, and by doing good; by seeking peace, and by pursuing it.”
The Participle, with an Article before it, and the Preposition of after it, becomes a Substantive, expressing the action itself which the Verb signifies[52]: as, “These are the Rules of Grammar, by the observing of which you may avoid mistakes.” Or it may be expressed by the Participle, or Gerund; “by observing which:” not, “by observing of which;” nor, “by the observing which:” for either of those two Phrases would be a confounding of two distinct forms.
I will add another example, and that of the best authority: “The middle station of life seems to be the most advantageously situated for the gaining of wisdom. Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of our wants, and riches upon enjoying our superfluities.” Addison, Spect. Nᵒ 464.
The Participle frequently becomes altogether an Adjective; when it is joined to a Substantive merely to denote its quality; without any respect to time; expressing, not an Action, but a Habit; and as such it admits of the degrees of Comparison: as, “a learned, a more learned, a most learned, man; a loving, more loving, most loving, father.”
Simple Sentences are 1. Explicative, or explaining: 2. Interrogative, or asking: 3. Imperative, or commanding[53].
1. An Explicative Sentence is when a thing is said to be, or not to be; to do, or not to do; to suffer, or not to suffer; in a direct manner; as in the foregoing examples. If the Sentence be Negative, the Adverb not is placed after the Auxiliary, or after the Verb itself when it has no Auxiliary: as, “it did not touch him;” or, “it touched him not[54].”
2. In an Interrogative Sentence, or when a Question is asked, the Nominative Case follows the Principal Verb, or the Auxiliary: as, “was it he?” “did Alexander conquer the Persians?” So that the Question depends intirely on the order of the words[55].
3. In an Imperative Sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, to do, to suffer, or not, the Nominative Case follows the Verb or the Auxiliary: as, “Go, thou traytor;” or, “do thou go:” or the Auxiliary let with the Objective[56] Case after it is used: as, “Let us be gone[57].”
The Adjective in English, having no variation of Gender or Number, cannot but agree with the Substantive in those respects; some of the Pronominal Adjectives only excepted, which have the Plural Number: as, these, those, and they; which must agree in Number[58] with their Substantives.
The Adjective generally goes before the Noun: as, “a wise man; a good horse;” unless something depend on the Adjective; as, “food convenient for me:” or the Adjective be emphatical; as, “Alexander the great.” And the Article goes before the Adjective: except the Adjectives such and many, and others subjoined to the Adverbs so, as, and how: as, “such a man;” “many a man;” “so good a man;” “as good a man as ever lived;” “how beautiful a prospect is here!” And sometimes when there are two or more Adjectives joined to the Noun: as, “a man learned and religious.”
Every Verb, except in the Infinitive or the Participle, hath its Nominative Case, either expressed or implied[59]; as,
“Awake, arise, or be for ever fall’n:”
that is, “Awake ye, &c.”
Every Nominative Case, except the Case Absolute, and when an address is made to a Person, belongs to some Verb, either expressed or implied[60]: as in the answer to a Question; “Who wrote this book; Cicero:” that is, “Cicero wrote it.” Or when the Verb is understood; as, “To whom thus Adam:” that is, spake.
Every Possessive Case supposes some Noun to which it belongs: as when we say, “St. Paul’s, or St. James’s,” we mean St. Paul’s Church, or St. James’s Palace.
Every Adjective has relation to some Substantive, either expressed or implied: as, “The Twelve,” that is, Apostles; “the wife, the elect,” that is, persons.
In some instances the Adjective becomes a Substantive, and has an Adjective joined to it: as, “the chief Good;” “Evil, be Thou my Good!”[61]
Adverbs have no Government.[62]
Prepositions have a Government of Cases; and in English they always require the Objective Case after them: as, “with him; from her; to me.”[63]
The Preposition is often separated from the Relative which it governs, and joined to the Verb at the end of the Sentence, or of some member of it: as, “Horace is an author, whom I am much delighted with.” “The[64] world is too well bred to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the first that inform them of.” This is an Idiom which our language is strongly inclined to; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very well with the familiar style in writing; but the placing of the Preposition before the Relative is more graceful, as well as more perspicuous; and agrees much better with the solemn and elevated Style.
Verbs are often compounded of a Verb and a Preposition; as, to uphold, to outweigh, to overlook: and this composition sometimes gives a new sense to the Verb; as, to understand, to withdraw, to forgive[65]. But in English the Preposition is more frequently placed after the Verb, and separate from it, like an Adverb; in which situation it is no less apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it a new meaning; and may still be considered as belonging to the Verb, and a part of it. As, to cast is to throw; but to cast up, or to compute, an account, is quite a different thing: thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give over; &c. So that the meaning of the Verb, and the propriety of the phrase, depend on the Preposition subjoined[66].
As the Preposition subjoined to the Verb hath the construction and nature of an Adverb, so the Adverbs here, there, where, with a Preposition subjoined, as hereof, therewith, whereupon[67], have the construction and nature of Pronouns.
The Prepositions to and for are often understood; as, “give me the book; get me some paper;” that is, to me, for me[68].
Two or more Simple Sentences, joined together by one or more Connective Words, become a Compounded Sentence.
There are two sorts of words which connect Sentences: 1. Relatives; 2. Conjunctions.
Examples: 1. “Blessed is the man, who feareth the Lord.” 2. “Life is short, and art is long.” 1. and 2. “Blessed is the Man, who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his commandments.”
The Relatives who, which, that, having no variation of gender or number, cannot but agree with their Antecedents. Who is appropriated to persons; and so may be accounted Masculine and Feminine only: which is used of things only; and so may be accounted Neuter. But formerly they were both indifferently used of persons: “Our Father, which art in heaven.” That is used indifferently both of persons and things: but perhaps would be more properly confined to the latter. What includes both the Antecedent and the Relative: as, “This was what he wanted;” that is, “the thing which he wanted[69].”
The Relative is the Nominative Case to the Verb, when no other Nominative comes between it and the Verb: but when another Nominative comes between it and the Verb, the Relative is governed by some word in its own member of the Sentence: as, “The God who preserveth me; whose I am, and whom I serve[70].”
Every Relative must have an Antecedent to which it refers, either expressed, or understood: as, “Who steals my purse, steals trash:” that is, the man, who ⸺.
The Relative is of the same person with the Antecedent; and the Verb agrees with it accordingly: as, “Who is this, that cometh from Edom; this that is glorious in his apparel?⸺I that speak in righteousness.” Isaiah lxiii. 1. “O Shepherd of Israel, Thou that leadest Joseph like a flock; Thou that dwellest between the Cherubims.” Ps. lxxx. 1.[71]
The Relative is often understood, or omitted: as, “The man I love;” that is, “whom I love[72].”
The accuracy and clearness of the Sentence depend very much upon the proper and determinate use of the Relative, so that it may readily present its Antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader without any obscurity or ambiguity. The same may be observed of the Pronoun and the Noun, which by some are called also the Relative and the Antecedent[73].
Conjunctions have sometimes a Government of Modes. Some Conjunctions require the Indicative, some the Subjunctive Mode after them: others have no influence at all on the Mode.
Hypothetical, Conditional, Concessive, and Exceptive Conjunctions seem to require properly the Subjunctive Mode after them: as, if, tho’, unless, except, whether—or, &c. but by use they often admit of the Indicative. Examples: “If thou be the Son of God.” Matt. iv. 3. “Tho’ he slay me, yet will I put my trust in him.” Job xiii. 15. “Unless he wash his flesh.” Lev. xxii. 6. “No power, except it were given from above.” John xix. 11. “Whether it were I or they, so we preach.” 1 Cor. xv. 11. The Subjunctive in these instances implies something contingent or doubtful; the Indicative would express a more absolute and determinate sense.
That expressing the motive or end has the Subjunctive Mode, with may, might, should, after it.
Lest; and that with a Negative following it; and if with but following it; necessarily require the Subjunctive Mode: Examples; “Let him that standeth, take heed, lest he fall.” 1 Cor. x. 12. “Take heed, that thou speak not to Jacob.” Gen. xxxi. 24. “If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke.” Ps. civ. 32.[74]
Other Conjunctions, expressing a Continuation, an Addition, an Inference, &c. being of a positive and absolute nature, require the Indicative Mode; or rather leave the Mode to be determined by the other circumstances and conditions of the Sentence.
When the Qualities of different things are compared, the latter Noun is governed, not by the Conjunction than, or as, (for a Conjunction has no Government of Cases,) but by the Verb or the Preposition, expressed, or understood. As, “Thou art wiser than I [am.]” “You are not so tall as I [am.]” “You think him handsomer than [you think] me; and you love him more than [you love] me.” In all other instances, if you complete the Sentence in like manner, by supplying the part which is understood, the Case of the latter Noun will be determined. Thus, “Plato observes, that God geometrizes; and the same thing was observed before by a wiser man than he:” that is, than he was. “It was well expressed by Plato; but more elegantly by Solomon than him:” that is, than by him[75].
The Conjunction that is often omitted and understood: as, “I beg you would come to me:” “See, thou do it not:” that is, “that you would;” “that thou do[76].”
The Nominative Case following the Auxiliary, or the Verb itself, sometimes supplies the place of the Conjunctions if and tho’: as, “Had he done this, he had escaped:” “Charm he never so[77] wisely:” that is, “if he had done this;” “tho’ he charm.”
Some Conjunctions have their Correspondent Conjunctions belonging to them; so that in the subsequent Member of the Sentence the latter answers to the former: as, although ⸺, yet, or nevertheless; whether ⸺, or; either ⸺, or; neither ⸺, nor; as ⸺, as; expressing a Comparison of equality; “as white as snow:” as ⸺, so; expressing a Comparison sometimes of equality; “as the stars, so shall thy seed be;” that is, equal in number: but most commonly a Comparison in respect of quality; “and it shall be, as with the people, so with the priest; as with the servant, so with his master:” “as is the good, so is the sinner; as the one dieth, so dieth the other:” that is, in like manner: so ⸺, as; with a Verb expressing a Comparison of quality; “To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the sanctuary:” but with a Negative and an Adjective, a Comparison in respect of quantity; as, “Pompey had eminent abilities: but he was not either so eloquent and politic a statesman, or so brave and skilful a general; nor was he upon the whole so great a man, as Cæsar:” so ⸺, that; expressing a Consequence: &c.[78]
Interjections in English have no Government.
Though they are usually attended with Nouns in the Nominative Case[79], and Verbs in the Indicative Mode, yet the Case and Mode is not influenced by them, but determined by the nature of the sentence.