OF INTENSITY.

Pai rawa, tino tika, tino pai rawa, kino whakaharahara, tika pu, he noa iho, tini whakarere, tika tonu; all these adverbs stand for very or some modification of it; e. g.,

Maori, as might be expected in the language of a rude people, abounds in adverbs of intensity. We shall have to mention some of these hereafter, (vid. adjective, comparative degree, Syntax.) They sometimes elegantly supply the place of verbal particles, as we shall have occasion to show when we treat on the Syntax of the verbs.

From the preceding table the student will see that Maori has the power of increasing its adverbs to any extent, and that the chief process by which a word may be converted into an adverb, is by placing it in immediate connexion with the verb or adjective.

It should, perhaps, be here noticed, 1st, that Maori inclines to this mode of construction. Thus, where we should say, the women and the children must all roll the log; a native would most probably employ the adverb; e. g., Huri tane huri wahine. Such a mode of construction, though loose, is, however, concise and emphatic.

2ndly. That the adverb, in this case, admits of the same variations as the verb—admits of number, voice, and the form of the verbal noun. For this, however, vid. Syntax.

3rdly. That another process for the creation of adverbs is by prefixing whaka, or a to the preposition, noun, or adverb.

4thly. That the compound prepositions, especially when time and place are denoted, will very often take the adverbial form.[27]

5thly and lastly. It would be a very useful exercise for the student to examine those sentences, the place of which would be supplied by an adverb in English, and notice the nature of their construction. Some, for example, he will find rendered by the verb, some by the verbal noun, some by the substantive in the possessive case, some by the pronoun, &c.

We have dwelt so long upon this subject, that we are unwilling to occupy his attention any further with it.

[18]  These adverbs of time are arranged according to their times, past present, and future. For the time of those adverbs which are compounded with prepositions, vid. the simple prepositions, chapter 8. The principal compound adverbs are hea, ahea, mua, muri, amata, apopo, reira, ko. They are chiefly adverbs of time and place. As they are of very common use, we shall give examples of their various combinations. Some of these combinations ought, perhaps, more properly to be considered as belonging to the class of substantives:

Reira, ko and konei, &c., will take the same combination as muri. It will be observed that some of the above adverbs take n between them and the preposition.

[19]  Ka mutu, and ka mea generally denote future time, and imply a short interval between the time of speaking and the act. Though the former expresses an ending of something else, it does not always intend it; for it is often used when the person addressed is not engaged at any thing. As there is nothing in Maori corresponding exactly to the Hebraic mode of phrase which is translated "it came to pass," "it shall come to pass," some have adapted ka mea as a substitute, and in some cases, perhaps, it must stand for want of better. There are, however, cases in which we think a more correct and idiomatic form might be adopted; viz.:—a simple a, or nawai a or tenei ake, &c. We, for example, should have no scruple in translating the following sentences "so it came to pass when all the men of war were consumed," &c., nawai a, ka poto nga tangata hapai patu katoa te mate, &c., "and it shall come to pass if ye hearken," &c., a tenei ake, ki te whakarongo koutou, &c., "and it came to pass when he heard," &c., a, te rongonga o, &c.

[20]  For the difference between nei, na, and ra, vid. pronouns, page 30.

[21]  The tangata wero, is the person who advances to meet a party, and throws a spear at them. If, in turning to retire, he turns to the side different from that from which the spear was darted, it is a huri koaro, and a bad omen.

[22]  Tahanga is only to be found as adverb.

[23]  Ae, and ina do not always strictly imply affirmation; e. g., Kahore he kete? He kete ano; ae ra, tikina atu. Is there no basket? There is a basket; yes, then, go fetch it. The word answer in Hebrew, and that corresponding to it in the Greek Testament and Septuagint, affords, we think, a parallel to this use of ae. (vid. Parkhurst's Greek Lexicon, by Rose.) It is putting a command, &c., into the form of an assent to some previous sentence.—N.B. Ina is often used to denote energy, certainty, &c.; e. g., ina ka riri au, certainly, in that case, I will be angry.

[24]  Some, we believe, maintain that the adverb besides should be always rendered by haunga. It is true that, wherever exclusion or negation is indicated by that word, haunga will generally answer; e. g., E rua tekau ratou, haunga nga wahine, they were twenty, besides (that is not counting) the women. In the leading sense, however, of besides, viz., that of moreover, addition to, haunga will, we are sure, seldom find an use; as in the following examples: "Besides you know," "nobody thinks so besides yourself," "there is nothing there besides the box," "besides her he had no child."

[25]  Some foreigners, we observe, give this adverb a more extensive meaning than we have allowed it. In such phrases, for example, as the following: "Held by the hand," "built by the hand," &c., they would say "purutia a ringaringatia," "hanga a ringaringa." We are, however, decidedly of opinion that such expressions are very rare in genuine Maori. "Purutia ringaringatia, hanga e te ringa," are, we consider, in every way preferable.

[26]  Koia, when part of an interrogative sentence, is, as far as we have observed, (although we are aware that some respectable speakers of Maori have not followed the rule,) almost always used in rejoinder; e. g., I pehea koia ahau? what then did I say? The speaker here supposes that the hearer had disputed his statement, and uses koia. Oti is used in a somewhat similar construction with the meaning of else, e. g., He aha oti? what else then is it?

[27]  It has been objected by a learned friend that the compound prepositions are more properly adverbs, and that in such a sentence as "kei roto i te whare," i is the governing preposition, and roto is an adverb. With all deference, however, to his very superior critical abilities, we submit, that if a preposition be "a particle denoting the relation of one substantive to another" then roto is a preposition; for it clearly indicates a local relation between roto (or i roto, if you please,) and the thing spoken of. Those who feel sceptical on this point, we would beg to examine the composite prepositions of Hebrew. For example, the Hebrew preposition under (tahath) is recognised as a preposition by grammarians, even though it may require the prepositions from and to in combination with it to exhibit its meaning. So also, in English, such prepositions as according to, out at, out of, &c., are not considered as disfranchised by the supplementary preposition annexed to them. At the same time it is to be noted, that where there is a break between the compound preposition and its supplement, then the former must be considered as an adverb; thus, in the sentence, "Kei raro, kei te whare," it is below, it is in the house; raro is here, as it is in English, an adverb joined to is; the line of connection being broken by a comma. In such a construction as this, the same preposition that precedes the compound preposition, (or rather, in this case, the adverb,) must also follow it.

CHAPTER X.
OF THE PARTICLES.

We have thought it better to devote a separate chapter to the consideration of the following particles of Maori; first, because those words, though they strongly partake of the nature of adverbs, are yet sometimes used as conjunctions; secondly, because we are of opinion that a distinct consideration of them will be the best way to impart clear and comprehensive views of their nature.

An accurate acquaintance with these epea pteroenta "winged words" of discourse, is in most languages of very difficult attainment: but in Maori, particularly, do they require our study; that language not conceding to the verb the same prominent place that it occupies in other languages, and rather, (as we have already observed,) transacting the business of predication by pronouns, particles, &c.

They are mainly used for embellishing, defining, and impressing a sentence, and may, with the prepositions, be justly denominated the hinges of Maori.

To enumerate them all would be an endless task, and perhaps a useless one: for, in no part of Maori is there so great a discrepancy in the various districts. The following, we think, are the most general in use, and most deserving of notice: atu, mai, ake, iho, ai, ano, ra, koa, u, hoki, kau.

Atu and mai are, in most respects, exactly opposite; atu indicates an emanation forth of action from—the latter an approach or direction towards—the speaker.

E kore ahau e rongo atu, I do not hear forth.E kore e rongo mai, will not hear towards (me or us).
E rangona mai ranei tatou? shall we be heard towards (us)?
Tu atu, stand out of my way.Kati mai i kona, stand towards me there.
Tikina atu, go there and bring here, i. e., fetch thence.Tikina mai, fetch hence.
E tatari atu ana matou ki a koe, we are waiting forth to you.
E kore ahau e kaha atu, I shall not be strong forth, i. e., shall not be able to take it there.Mau mai ano, for you truly hither, i. e., it is for you to strike the first blow, &c.

N.B.—Atu will sometimes lose its peculiar meaning after a verb, (vid. verbs, S.) It will also occasionally stand for other: Tera atu ano, that is another; i. e., there are other besides.

Ake and Iho. The general uses of ake and iho are, of the former up, and of the latter down, to the speaker:

Sometimes they will stand, the one for up, the other for down, to the object of the action; e. g.,

Ake and iho will sometimes denote propriety, peculiarity, self-existence, &c.; e. g.,

Ake will sometimes signify the other side of the speaker, whether it be before, behind, to one side of, above, below, &c.; e. g., haere ake to a hearer in front will mean come behind me: to a person behind, it will signify come to my front.

N.B.—Iho does not seem to have any corresponding opposite to this meaning of ake.

Sometimes, also, ake is employed to designate a motion by another towards some place with which the speaker is in connexion; e. g.,

Under these two last rules should, perhaps, be mentioned the following examples:

Note 1.—There are other subordinate meanings of ake and iho, of which examples have been given under the adverbs, and which do not, we think, require any further notice.

Note 2.—Ake and iho are often used after verbs, in a manner somewhat corresponding to that of the verbal particles. (vid. verbs. S.)

Ai is a particle of great use. It is chiefly employed as a substitute for the relatives who, which, what, and has reference to the time, place, manner, cause, means, intention, &c., of an action; as in the following examples:

Occasionally, however, it is heard as a simple expletive; e. g.,

2ndly. It is employed with the verbs to denote a sequence and, occasionally, an opposition of action, and might be translated by "and then," "to," and sometimes "but."

Sometimes, especially at Taupo, and, we understand, at the East Cape, ai is often used where the sequence or opposition of action is but faintly, if at all, expressed. The following is correct in Waikato: E pa, kei hea tetahi wahi mo matou? kokoa kotoatia ai e koe te whenua nei, friend where is there a portion for us? why you have monopolized the whole of the land.

Note 1.—The place of ai may be often supplied by nei, na, or ra; e. g., koia ahau i haere mai nei.

Note 2.—Ai is often erroneously omitted and erroneously introduced by foreigners, and those who wish to propound a statement accurately will do well to observe its use.

For ai, as used in connexion with the verbal particles, and the verbs. (See Syntax.)

Ano. This is a particle much used in assertions and replies. Its meaning will vary with that of the word to which it is postfixed.

It is used in combination with other particles, as follows:

Ano, in the beginning of sentences, seems with Ngapuhi to admit of a wider application than what is generally heard in Waikato; e. g., Ano ka tae ki te whare, and when he came to the house.

N.B.—No, also, with the same people, seems to admit of a somewhat similar application.

Ra is a particle corresponding in its use with nei and ra, and is frequently used to supply the place of the relative which; e. g.,

It is sometimes used in commands and energetic sentences, for Then.

Often in replies; E pai ana? Ae ra.

Koa is a particle used mostly in correcting, &c., another speaker or oneself:

It is difficult to define its meaning in the following phrases:

Tena}
&koa, shew it here, or give it to me.
Na

U is often used as a mere expletive. Sometimes it has force in exculpatory sentences; e. g.,

Note.—Though often used as an expletive, u will not, however, admit of being thrust into every sentence. Some foreigners seem peculiarly fond of using it. The following use of it is, at least in Waikato, erroneous: "A he tangata nui hoki a Hone, he rangatira hoki u a ratou." We are unable, we confess, to state the meaning of this last clause. The speaker, perhaps, intended the preposition no by u a, "a chief of their party."

Hoki; Some of the uses of hoki have been inserted under the adverbs. We shall give a brief view of the principal of them here. Its more general uses are, also, for, because:

This form we approve much of for expressing the following: "for the death of the Lord Jesus Christ," kua mate nei hoki, &c., i. e., inasmuch as, &c.

Kau; Riri kau, angry without cause.

CHAPTER XI.
OF THE CONJUNCTIONS.

Me, while; Me te hongi, me te tangi, and saluting, and crying; i. e., while saluting he is crying.

With; [28] E mahi ana me te whakaaro ano ki te utu, he is working, and is at the same time mindful of payment.

As; Me koutou hoki i wakarere i to koutou kainga, as ye also left your country.

{o}
Me&mua, as formerly.
to
Me mua,[29] idem.

As far as; Me konei, me Waitemata, as far as from here to Waitemata.

If; Me he mea e pai ana, if he is willing. Me i kahore koe, if it had not been for you.

Ma, and, (a numeral conjunction.) vid. numerals, page 24.

Mei, (Waikato) inasmuch as, as you may judge from, (vid. hoki. Same as ina hoki of Ngapuhi.)

Koia, therefore; koia i riri ai, therefore was he angry.

Na and a. These particles are of very great use in Maori. They correspond very closely with particle vāhv of Hebrew, and may be recognised in our translations as occupying the place of and, then, therefore, but, &c. Those who have not access to Professor Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon, will, we are sure, read with pleasure his remarks upon its parallel in Hebrew. "It was a part of the simplicity of ancient language to mark merely the connexion of ideas, without expressing those nice distinctions of thought, which are designated by the use of causal, adversative, disjunctive, and other conjunctions. The prefix vahv retains this variety of signification, though other more definite conjunctions are also in use." This is precisely the case with Maori.

Ina, ua, (ana, Waikato) when; Ina korero ahau, when I speak.

If, (occasionally,) chiefly in cases in which contingency is attached to when:

Heoi (Ngapuhi), and heoti (Waikato), is a particle which corresponds sometimes with a, and na, in its uses. It generally, however, implies opposition, and might be translated by but, &c. Sometimes also, it has the meaning of so, then, and sometimes, (particularly in Waikato,) it is, in the end of sentences, redundant.

Ara, and then, &c.; e. g.,

Note.—This particle is very often used as an adverb for videlicet, forsooth, &c.

Mo,}reira.
No,for that cause, therefore.[30]
Na,
Otira,}
Otiraia,
Ia,but, and nevertheless.
Raia,
Atiia, (Waikato)
Huatu,}All these belong to
Kaore, and kahore,the adversative class,
Tena ko tenei,and denote but with
Tena,}(sometimes)some peculiarity
Ko,however of the
E ngari,}(sometimes)meaning and
E rangi,construction which
E ngaro,can only be learned
E ao ia,by practice.

Note.—Ahakoa will almost always precede in the sentence, e. g., The following "though we were sinners he loved us," should thus be rendered ahakoa hara noa tatou arohaina ana tatou e ia.

Following are a few examples of phrases which supply the place of conjunctions:

The particle ai is very useful in supplying the place of conjunctions. (Vid. our remarks on it.)

[28]  This particle will often supply a good substitute for with, when it denotes connexion, &c., a meaning which we believe to be but seldom expressed by ki. (vid. prepositions, page 55.)

[29]  Some foreigners, we observe, use me i mua; this, however, is decidedly erroneous.

[30]  The learned student will, however, notice that these words, as well as keia, are only prefixed to conclusions which are the natural and necessary effect of a preceding proposition. For example, we might use mo reira, &c., in such a sentence as the following: "Men are sinners, therefore men are exposed to the wrath of God:" because the preceding proposition is clearly a cause of the latter.

We could not, however, use any of them in such propositions as the following: "the Tohungas are liars, therefore the New Zealander listens to liars;" "the Sun shines, therefore the sun is a luminous body;" "man is an animal, therefore man has sensation;" because it would not be true to say, that, because the Tohunga is a liar, he is therefore listened to; because the sun shines it is luminous; or, because man is an animal he has sensation.

Wherever, then, the connection with the preceding proposition is either accidental or abstract, we must have recourse to other words, such as na, a, ra, pea, &c., and these are largely used in our translations. (vid. Mat. 5, 37—24—42, and N. T. passim.)

The affirmative particles ina and ae ra will often supply a good substitute, and will perhaps be logically correct. For the conclusion is the proposition that we in principio affirm to be true, and having proved it, we then authoritatively pronounce it to be so. (vid. our remarks on ae, &c., note, under adverbs of affirmation.)

CHAPTER XII.
OF THE INTERJECTIONS.

Maori abounds in interjections. The following are the most common. It will be seen in this part of speech that there is a considerable variation in the different tribes.

INTERJECTIONS.

Exclamations made when it has been found that the speaker was correct, (corresponding to ah, you see! yes, to be sure, &c.) Na ra nei? Arără! haka! (Waikato,) aheiha (Ngapuhi,) ae ra hoki. That expressive of gratification at some misfortune having befallen another; Kaitoa!

Besides these there are phrases which are often used as interjections; e. g.,

Maori delights in interjectional and ironical sentences, and the student who desires to be a good speaker should pay them much attention, and study also to catch the tone of voice, &c.

Some, who have not noticed them, have turned an exclamation into a question, and thus altered the meaning of the sentence. "How many pigs of John have better food than I!" we have heard thus translated, E hia ranei nga poaka a Hone he pai ke ta ratou kai i taku, &c.? The translation here obviously differs from the original. It should have been, Ano te tini, or tini noa iho, or ka tae te tini, or kia tini, na, (or ano) te tini, or he tini nga poaka, &c.

And here we may observe that, in translating from another tongue into Maori, it would be perverting all use of language to render by merely a verbal correspondence, without any regard to the meaning; and that, in these idiomatic phrases, it would be best, unless we wish to establish the maxim of the French statesman,[31] "that language was merely intended to conceal our feelings," to make our author employ those corresponding expressions in Maori which he would most probably have used had he been speaking in that language.

We may observe, in conclusion, that Maori has no good form for such optative interjections as would that, &c. There is, it is true, a kind of substitute; but it cannot be expressed by our present alphabet. It is formed by a sharp smack of the tongue against the palate, and na pronounced after it. The best form, for the present, is, perhaps, me i, with a peculiar tone of voice; e. g., Me i kite ahau ia ia! If I had but seen him! or would that I had, &c.

[31]  The Abbé Talleyrand.

CHAPTER XIII.
OF THE SYNTAX.
PRELIMINARY REMARKS.

Before we proceed to the consideration of the Syntax of Maori, it will be necessary 1st. to explain some terms which we shall be obliged to employ, and 2ndly, to make a few remarks on the general features of Maori sentences. Some further remarks on this subject, we shall reserve till we come to treat on the verbs.

The subject of a proposition is that concerning which anything is affirmed or denied. The predicate is that which is so affirmed or denied of the subject. Thus, in the following sentence, Kua mate a Hone, John has died, Hone is the subject, and mate is the predicate.

Note.—We can scarcely recognize the verbal particles as copulas. We believe that their exclusive use is, to denote time.

Propositions, or sentences, we divided (page 37) into simple and compound. Another division is here necessary; viz., into complex and incomplex. An incomplex proposition is that whose subject and predicate are simple terms; e. g., He hoiho tenei, this is a horse.

A complex proposition is that which contains some qualifying, or otherwise modifying, term in connexion with either subject or predicate; e. g., I mate a Hone ki reira. Ki reira, here, qualifies the predicate mate. He tokomaha nga Pakeha i Akarana, many are the foreigners in Auckland. Nga Pakeha i Akarana is the subject, and tokomaha the predicate.

He aroha no te Atua i ora ai tatou. This placed in due order, is "I ora ai tatou, he aroha no te Atua," we having been saved was a love of God. Here, I ora ai tatou is the subject.

Ko tou utu tena mo to hanganga i te whare? Is that your payment for your having built the house? Here, we conceive, ko tou utu mo to hanganga i te whare is the subject, and tena the predicate.

In examining the nature of Maori propositions, the student will soon notice that they are characterized by a remarkable brevity and abruptness, as well as by the frequent occurrence of ellipses. As a New Zealander is generally unequal to a train of consecutive thought, so also is his language inadequate to exhibit with accuracy the various processes of the civilized intellect, such as comparing, abstracting, &c., or indeed any ideas beyond the simple and monotonous details of his daily life. It is, if we may so speak, an animated sketching, intended for general effect, the more delicate lines being but faintly touched.

The student has already seen that Maori is defective in particles of illation, comparison, and copulation. The want of a verb substantive, which is so useful as a copula in other languages, will often, where accuracy is desired, cause both clumsiness and obscurity of construction.

The process by which a New Zealander constructs his sentences, is very similar to that of a child who is just beginning to speak. For example: if the latter wishes to express, "Is that a horse?" "Give me some bread," he will, most probably, say "a horse that?" "me bread." He has the ideas of himself and bread, and, by pronouncing the one in immediate succession after the other, attempts to convey the idea of their mutual connexion. So also will Maori, when it wishes to express the dependence of two or more ideas on each other, place them in close connexion, as distinct existences, and leave the hearer to deduce their intended relations. From hence it may, a priori, be collected. 1st. That Maori inclines to the substantive form. 2ndly, That it will have a peculiar tendency to the indicative mode of statement. 3rdly. That it delights in short sentences. 4thly. That it will often, in consequence of the frequent occurrence of ellipses, present constructions which will appear strange to the student of only polished languages, and even occasionally seem to defy analysis. 5thly, That the clauses of the sentence, will, like its words, be often thrown together without any connecting particles, and that we shall often notice in their construction a frequent occurrence of epanorthosis.

On some of these heads we shall have to remark hereafter. The last-mentioned feature is, however, of such importance in the investigation of some of the difficult points of Maori, that we must beg the student's leave to bring it here prominently before his notice.

Epanorthosis is a figure of frequent occurrence in all languages, but particularly in those of the East. It is "the qualifying a former clause by the addition of another"[32] e. g., Ka tae te hohoro o ta tatou kai, te pau! what great haste our food has made; (I mean) the being consumed. Here te pau, is a clause qualifying the preceding; e rua tahi enei, he roa kau, there are two here, nothing but long; ringihia mai, kia nohinohi, pour me out some, let it be little, (i. e., pour me out a little); e rite tahi ana ia kia koe, te ahua, he is like you, (I mean,) the countenance; no reira a Ngatihau i tino mau ai, te karakia ai, that was the cause why Ngatihau were quite established, (I mean,) the not adopting Christianity. I riri au kia ia, kihai nei i whakaaro, I was angry with him, (I mean,) he did not exercise thought in that matter. Ko te tangata tenei, nana nga kakano, this is the man, his are the seeds; (i. e., this is the person whose are, &c.) He aha tau e mea, what is yours (actively) (I mean,) are doing? i. e., what are you doing? Haere ana Hone, me tana hoiho. Ka puta pea tena ki raro, e tihore ana. So John started and his horse. He has perhaps reached to the northward, (I mean,) is peeling, (i. e., going along at a peeling, or rapid rate).

6thly. The student may be prepared to find the defect of the verb substantive supplied in various ways in Maori—by the article, the pronoun, the preposition, the adverb, and the verbal particles. Instances of ellipsis he will find in almost every page—ellipsis of the verb, of the noun, of the pronoun, &c., and, particularly, in our illustration of the preposition ki.

As distinctions between gender, number, case, and person, are very rare in Maori, and as, moreover, a main business of syntax consists in the adjusting of their several claims, we may hope that our work here will be neither complicated, nor extended.

[32]  "Est sui ipsius quasi revocatio, qua id, quod dictum est, e vestigio corrigitur."—Glass. edit Dathe, page 1350.

CHAPTER XIV.
SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE.

1. Ko is never used before appellatives without either te, te tahi, and its plural e tahi, or one of the possessive pronouns intervening, and it is almost always found to occupy the first place in the sentence; e. g.,

2. In this position a very common use of it is, to imply the verb substantive.

3. The article he, it will be seen, does not require its help for such a purpose; e. g., he rakau tenei, this is a tree; he mate toku, a sickness is mine, i. e., I am sick.

4. All the functions of a (vid. page 13) are performed by ko, when the noun, &c., to which it is prefixed, precede in the sentence; e. g.,

5. Sometimes it will be found in other parts of the sentence, (a) when the terms, of which the sentence is composed, are convertible,[33] or are intended, at least, to be represented as similar; e. g., ko te timunga atu o konei ko te pakeketanga o waho, the ebbing of the tide from here is low water outside.

(b) Sometimes, also, when there are two subjects of which the same thing is affirmed, ko will be prefixed to both; e. g.,

6. It will be seen in the above example that ko will sometimes represent and; e. g., e takoto nei ko te pihi ko te poro, it lies here, both the piece, and the end (of the bar of soap.)

7. Very frequently, also, ko may be denominated "the article of specification and emphasis;" e. g., Noku tena paraikete, that blanket is mine; ko taku paraikete tena, that is my blanket. The former of these two sentences implies that the blanket is his property; the latter denotes the same thing, with some further specification; as being, for example, one that had been previously described, worn, &c.

Again, ko Hone i haere, John went.

Here also, there is, we think, a difference. The latter sentence merely says that John went; the former that John, as contradistinguished from some one else, was the person who went; literally, it was John (who) went.

8. Sometimes also, in animated description, ko will follow the verb; e. g., na ka hinga ko Haupokia, na ka hinga ko Ngapaka, then fell Haupokia, then fell Ngapaka.

9. Ko will generally be prefixed to the subject,[34] e. g., ko ta te tangata kai he poaka, he riwai, he aha, he aha, the food for man is pork, potatoes, et cætera, et cætera; ko Oropi te whenua taonga, Europe is the land of property.

N.B.—There are some exceptions to this rule, especially when tenei, &c., are employed. (vid. etiam rule 5.)

10. Ko is always prefixed to every title or name of men or things which stands alone without the verb; e. g.,

Note.—Occasionally we meet with an exception to this rule, in emphatic, elliptical, and complementary clauses; e. g., in taunting; tou ngene, your ngene[35]; taku tirohanga, my looking, i. e., when I looked. Ka whati tera, te pa, that was discomfitted, the pa. Vid. our illustrations of Epanorthosis in preliminary remarks, page 104.

11. It is sometimes used in elliptical sentences like the following: E pai ana ano; ko te maeke ra, we are willing; but the cold, i. e., we should be glad to go only for the cold; Haere ana ia, ko tona ko tahi, he went by himself alone.

Note.—It may be seen in the above example that ko is sometimes used for but; so also in the following: Me he mea ko te Paki, e rongo ratou; ko tenei e kore e rongo, if it had been Paki they would have listened, but as for this, they will not listen.

12. In connexion with the two preceding rules, we may observe, that ko is almost always prefixed to the nominative absolute; e. g., ko taua kupu au, e kore e rangona, as for that word of yours, it will not be listened to.

N.B.—In some districts the ko is omitted under this rule.

13. Nga we have designated as the plural of the definite article page 12. The student will therefore remember that it does not recognize the rules a, b, c, d, e, mentioned under te—pages 10 and 11.

14. The omission of the article.

There are some cases in which no article is prefixed to the noun, (a) when the noun follows immediately after the verb; e. g., Whakamate tangata, murderous; (vid. compound words page 17.) Haere po, go by night.

(b) Nouns preceded by the adverbial particles a and tua; e. g., tatau a tangata, count man by man.

(c) When a possessive pronoun is associated with the noun; ho mai toku kakahu, give me my garment.

Note.—It is, however, highly probable that the singular possessive pronouns, (vid. page 29.) are compounded of the article te, and the plural form oku, &c., and that oku, aku, ona, &c., are compounded of o and a, and the personal pronouns ahau, koe, ia: these pronouns assuming the forms of oku, ou, ona, &c., when in connection with o, and a; in the same way as they adopt the form of mona, nona, &c., when in combination with the prepositions mo, no, &c., &c. (vid. our remarks on noku and maku page 22, and tenei, &c., page 31.) Sometimes, indeed, we find the singular possessive pronouns thus resolved; e. g., kei tenei taha oku, on this side of me. If it had not been for nei the speaker would have said toku taha. The nei however attracts the te, and thus resolves toku into its component parts.

15. He differs in its uses from te tahi and e tahi.

(a) He, of itself, often implies the verb substantive. (Vid. rule 3).

(b) He is very seldom found after a preposition. It is almost always found in the nominative case after the substantive verb; e. g., he tangata tenei; he kino kau koutou.

Thus it would not be correct to say, I kainga, e he kuri, it was eaten by a dog; hei tiki i he rakau, to fetch a stick. It should be e te kuri, i te tahi rakau.

Note.—He is sometimes found after ma and na, e. g., nana i homai he paraikete i mahana ai au. We believe, however, that this exception to rule (b) is only apparent, and that he waka, here, is the nominative case. (Vid. Verbs.)

16. A. A strange use of a is sometimes met with in Waikato. When two nouns follow each other in apposition, a is sometimes prefixed to the latter; e. g., Ka noho atu tera i te kai mana a te kahawai, he indeed will remain away from the food for him!—the kahawai!

E hoe ana ki Akarana, ki te kai mana a te paraoa, he is paddling to Auckland for food for himself—flour.

Sometimes it occurs in sentences like the following, Na wai tenei haere a te po? Whose going is this, (I mean,) in the night? i. e., who ever goes by night?

(b) A personal pronoun following the verb in the nominative will very seldom take a before it; e. g., Whakangaromia iho ratou. It would not be correct to say a ratou.

To this rule there are a few exceptions, e. g., tu ana ratou, a ia tangata a ia tangata, they stood each man.

(c) Proper names are not subject to the above rule; e. g., it would not be correct to say, Whakangaromia iho Ngatipaoa. It should be a Ngatipaoa.

(d) When a question is asked in reference to a preceding remark, a will precede the pronoun, e. g., E ki na koe. A wai? A koe ra, You assert—who? You, forsooth.

17. The articles, definite and indefinite, are always repeated in Maori, as in French, before every substantive in the sentence; e. g., Ko te whakapono te take o te aroha, raua ko te pai, faith is the root of love, and good works.

18. Adjectives used substantively require the article; e. g., He tika rawa te he ki a ia, the wrong is perfectly right in his opinion.

19. Frequently, also, the article is prefixed to what would be a participle in English; e. g., Kei te noho, he is at the sitting, i. e., he is sitting; ka tata te maoa, the being cooked is near.

Note.—It is, however, probable that all such words as noho, &c., should, in constructions like the above, be regarded as substantives. We shall have to treat on this hereafter. (Vid. Verbs.)

Note 2.—Further remarks on the articles we shall reserve to the next chapter.

[33]  Convertible terms, we need not remind the learned reader, are those, the meaning of which is so similar, that they may be substituted one for the other.

[34]  The learned student will here see that Maori has, in this respect, the advantage over Hebrew; confusion often occurring in that language from the want of some means for determining which is the subject and which the predicate.

[35]  Ngene is a scrofulous tumour.

CHAPTER XV.
SYNTAX OF THE NOUN.

§ 1.—Nouns in Apposition.—These were partly considered in the last chapter, and we now proceed to offer further remarks respecting them:—

When one or more nouns follow another in apposition, and are equally definite in meaning, the same article that is prefixed to the first will be prefixed to all the rest; e. g., He tangata kino koe, he tangata kohuru, you are a bad man, a murderer; ko au tenei, ko tou matua, this is I, your father; mau mai taku pu, tera i roto i te whare, bring here my gun, that in the house.

The following sentences are erroneous:—Tenei ahau, ko to koutou hoa, te mea nei, this is I your friend, who says, &c.; Tiakina to tatou kainga, ko Waikato, take care of our settlement, Waikato; the ko should have been omitted in the former sentence: instead of the ko in the latter, we should have had a. Proper names, and pronouns, will only take their proper articles; e. g., Nohea tenei Kingi a Parao? whence was this King Pharoah?

N.B.—There are exceptions to these rules. Some of them will be mentioned under the next head.

§ 2.—The preposition, which is prefixed to the first of two or more nouns in apposition, will be prefixed to all the rest; e. g., Naku tenei pukapuka, na tou hoa, na Tarapipipi, this letter is mine, (i. e., was written by me,) your friend's, Tarapipipi's: kei nga Pakeha ta matou whakaaro, ta nga tangata Maori, with the Europeans are the sentiments of us, of the New Zealanders.

The same usage holds in the vocative case, E hoa, E Hone, Friend John.

The following examples will shew that this rule, which seems as yet to have escaped the notice of foreigners, is worthy of attention; a ka kite i a Hone te tamaiti a Hemi, and he saw John, the son of James. The meaning of this, as it stands, is, the son of James saw John. Kei a koutou, nga tangata Maori, in the opinion of you the New Zealanders. This literally means, the New Zealanders are with you. In the first of these two sentences it should be, i te tamaiti, &c., in the second, kei nga tangata Maori. Again; kua kainga e koutou, te kura, it was eaten by you, the school. The literal meaning of this is, the school have been eaten by you. Kua kainga e koutou ko te kura, it has been eaten by you the school. As it stands, it means, it has been eaten by you and the school. Again, if we were to say, "Na Ihowa to tatou Atua, nana hoki tatou i whakaora," we should imply that our God was made by Jehovah, and that it was he who saved us. It should be, Na to tatou Atua.

There are however occasional exceptions to this rule, which it will often be useful to remember; (a) when brevity of diction is desired both preposition and article will be sometimes omitted before the second substantive; e. g., i rokohanga atu e ahau ki Mangere, kainga o te Tawa, (he) was overtaken by me at Mangere, (the) settlement of Tawa; i rongo ahau ki a Koiunuunu, hungawai o Panaia, I heard it from Koiunuunu (the) father-in-law of Panaia; na te Riutoto, whaea o Paratene, it belongs to Riutoto (the) mother of Broughton. When a pause, also, is made between the two substantives, the preposition will be sometimes omitted before the second; e. g., kei te kainga o te Wherowhero, te rangatira o Waikato, at the Settlement of Wherowhoro, the Chief of Waikato. E pa, kua kite ahau i a koe—to mamingatanga hoki ki a au! Friend, I have found you out, your bamboozling of me forsooth.

N.B.—This distinction is very similar to that which obtains in English for the regulating of the sign of the possessive case. In such sentences, for example, as the following, "for David, my servant's sake," we should always have the sign of the possessive annexed to the latter noun; because it follows the preceding one in close and unbroken succession. In the following however—"This is Paul's advice, the Christian Hero, and great Apostle of the Gentiles," the sign of the possessive is omitted; because the connexion between Paul and hero, is not so immediate as in the preceding example. So, also, in Maori; when the latter noun follows in a complementary clause, as descriptive, or explanatory of the former, and has thus a pause, or comma, intervening, it may occasionally dispense with the preposition by which the former noun is preceded.

§ 3. And we may here state, that clauses in epanorthosis will frequently reject those rules of government which they, under other circumstances, would have recognised; and that they will often rather partake of the nature of an exclamation, (vid. chapter 14, § 10, note.) Thus in the example just adduced, to mamingatanga is not in the objective case, as is koe in the clause preceding. It would appear that after the speaker had said, Kua kite ahau i a koe, he recollected himself, and exclaimed, in explanation,—to mamingatanga hoki. In a leisurely constructed sentence he would most probably have said, "Kua kite ahau i a koe, i to," &c. Again, in the first example of epanorthosis (page 104), Ka tae te hohoro o ta tatou kai, te pau! a native would not say, o te pau, as strict grammar requires; but rather puts te pau in the form of an exclamation.

§ 4. The answer to a question will always, in its construction, correspond to the question; e. g., Na wai i tango? Na Hone, Who took it? John. I a wai taku pu? I a Hone, With whom was my gun? with John.

§ 5. There is no form in Maori corresponding to that contained in the following expressions, "Land of Egypt," "River Euphrates." To translate these by "Whenua o Ihipa," &c., would be to represent Egypt, and Euphrates, as individuals possessing that land, and that river. To render them by apposition would we fear not much improve our Maori diction; (though it would certainly be more in accordance with Maori analogy.) Here, therefore, necessity must make a law for herself, and recognize the former mode of construction as legitimate. At the same time, it is desirable that it should be adopted as seldom as possible. Thus, in the following: "Mount Horeb," "Mount Sinai," &c., we should approve of "Mount" being rendered as a proper name, to which it closely approximates in English, and for which we think we may claim the permission of the original. We therefore approve of those phrases being rendered, "Maunga Horepa," "Maunga Oriwa," &c. Lastly; such forms as "the book of Genesis," &c., should never we think, be rendered by te pukapuka o Kenehi, &c.; for a native will, thereby, be led to believe that Genesis wrote the book. The difficulty, however, may be here easily obviated: for book may be altogether omitted, and "ko Kenehi" simply employed—a form, by the way, which is adopted by the Septuagint.

§ 6. The possessive case.—This case is much used in Maori. It is employed often to denote intensity; e. g., Ko to Ngatimaniapoto tangata nui ha ia! Oh, he is Ngatimaniapoto's great man; i. e., he is a very great man in that tribe.

It will, also, in some instances supersede the nominative or objective of the person; e. g., the following sentence is erroneous: kihai ahau i pai kia whakakahoretia ia, I was not willing to refuse him; this as it stands, means to despise or make a cipher of. It should have been, kia whakakahoretia tana; negative his. (request sub.)

§ 7. It is sometimes useful for denoting the time from which an action has commenced; e. g., kahore i kai, o to matou uranga mai ano, we have not eaten since we landed; Moe rawa atu ki Waitoke. Te haerenga atu o hea? We slept at Waitoke. From what place did you start? Te taenga mai o Hone, kihai i rongo. Te tononga iho o te ata, when John came here we would not listen to him; (though) he continued to ask from the break of day.

The possessive form is often used in predication; vid. syntax of verbs.

§ 8. Often the possessive preposition is used where, in English, a different one would be employed; e. g., no Otahuhu tenei ara, this path (leads) to Otahuhu; kahore he wai o roto, there is no water in it. Ka kainga e to matua tane te roi o te tuatanga[36] ki te kainga tapu. Apopo ake ka kainga e te Ariki te roi o tana tamaiti, the fern root of the tuatanga is eaten by the father. Next day the fern of his child is eaten by the Ariki (head chief).

§ 9. A word in the possessive case occurring with another twice repeated, will generally follow after the first of such words; e. g., ki te tahi taha ona, ki te tahi taha, at either side of him; lit. at one side of him, at one side. Sometimes other words will be found to intervene between the possessive case and the word that governs it: e. g., ko nga tangata katoa tenei o Waimate,—here are all the men of Waimate.

§ 10. The word by which a possessive case is governed, is often not expressed in Maori; e. g., ka tokowha o matou ka mate, four of us have died; e wha nga rau o te kupenga a Hone, there were four hundred (fishes sub.) of the net of John; kei hea to Hone?—where is John's? (garment sub.)

§ 11. In the northern part of this island when a noun is placed in immediate connexion with such pronouns as noku, moku, &c., it will sometimes omit the article before it; e. g., no ratou Atua a Ihowa, whose God is the Lord; ka meinga mona wahi, appoint him a portion.

Note.—This form is rare in Waikato.

§ 12. When two substantives meet together, one of which denotes the material of which the other consists, or some quality belonging to it, the word denoting the material, quality, &c., will simply follow the other as part of a compound word; e. g., he whare papa, a board house; ika moana, a sea fish; he repo hurakeke, a flax swamp; he oranga patunga, the survivors from a slaughter; he tangata kupu rau, a man of a hundred words; i. e., a deceitful person.

§ 13. Not unfrequently, when some circumstance or quality, is attributed to a person, it will be simply affirmed to be him; e. g., He uaua kiore koe, you are a rat's strength; he taringa whiti rua (or tua,) koe, you are an erring ear; i. e., one who does not hear correctly; he kaone tenei, this (heap of potatoes) is a gown; i. e., to purchase a gown; he aha koe? what are you? (i. e., what are you come for?) Ko au ra ko ia, I am he; i. e., he and I are of the same mind, &c.; ko taku iwituaroa tena, that is my backbone; (a form for making a thing sacred.)

Note.—This mode of predication seems to have been much in use amongst the Hebrews; vid. Gen. 41, 26. The seven good kine (are) seven years, and chap. 46, 34, "Every shepherd is an abomination;" "That rock was Christ;" "This is my body;" "Ye were once darkness," &c.

§ 14. Another particular, also, in which Maori will be found to resemble Hebrew is, the frequent substitution of the substantive for the adjective. Thus, we frequently hear, he kakakore koe, you are weakness; he kino te rangi nei, the sky is badness, &c., neither must the student imagine as have some in the interpretation of the Scriptures, that this mode of construction is always emphatic.

§ 15. The objective case almost always follows the verb; e. g., ka ngau i a au, he will bite me; except sometimes in sentences in which na, ma, &c. are used; e. g., nana ahau i tiki ake, he fetched me; noku ka mate.

Note.—This form will be considered hereafter, (vid. Verbs).

Sometimes a noun, which is plural in meaning, will take the form of the singular; e. g., ko nga tamariki a Kaihau hei tamaiti ki a te Katipa, the children of Kaihau are a child to Katipa; i. e., stand in the relation of children.

§ 16. Compound Words.—A word in connection with a compound word will often be governed by one of the simples of which the latter consists; e. g. Kai atawhai i a koe; one to take care of you; koe here is governed by atawhai; ki te whenua kai mau, to the land of food for you; mau, here is influenced by kai.

§ 17. A verb can always be changed into a personal agent by prefixing kai; e. g., tiaki ia, to guard; kai tiaki ia, a guard.

§ 18. On the prefixing and omitting of the article te to proper names;

To lay down any exact rules respecting this subject is, we fear, impossible: neither, indeed, is it very necessary; as genuine Maori names are being fast exchanged for those of foreigners. There are, however, a few particulars which deserve notice. (a) A simple substantive, adopted as a proper name, may, or may not have te prefixed; chiefly as caprice regulates; (b) If, however, the noun be in the plural number te is never prefixed; e. g. Ngakainga; (c) A verb and words compounded of verbs, will generally omit it. e. g. Tangi: (d) Numerals, as far as ten, will generally take it: (e) The proper names which omit te will be found perhaps to be nearly double in number those which take it.

Note.—The prefixes rangi and ngati belong chiefly, the former to the names of females, the latter to the names of tribes.

On the distinction between o and a;

§ 19. This very useful feature of Maori does not seem to be clearly recognized in some parts of New Zealand. It obtains, however, in the other islands of these seas, and may be satisfactorily shewn, even now to exist in those parts of this island in which it would be least expected: for example; all will admit that naku i patu, mine was the having struck; i. e., I struck (him), is different from noku i patu; because I struck him; and that ma te aha? will signify, by what means? and mo te aha? for what reason?

The words in which distinction obtains are mo and ma, no and na, o and a, and their compounds, mona and mana, nona and nana, toku and taku: the first and leading distinction between these two forms is (a) that o implies a passive meaning, a an active. Thus, he patu moku is, a striking for me, i. e., for me to suffer; he patu maku is an instrument for me to strike with, (b) o also implies the inherency, and propriety of a quality or thing, as well as the time and moral cause of an action.

Hence it will, almost always, be prefixed to the members of the body, to land enjoyed by inheritance, to sickness, the productions of nature, such as fruits, &c., &c. Thus, we seldom hear, āku ringaringa; nāku tena oneone; he mate nāku; o is almost always employed. Again, we always hear, noku i haere mai nei, since I came here; mou i tutu, because you were disobedient; nona te he, his was the error.

(c.) O is always employed in talking of garments and houses, which are in wear, use, &c. Thus, naku tena whare means, I built that house, Noku, &c., I dwell in it.

§ 20. A is prefixed to the agent, and implies that the noun, which is connected with that agent, is either an act of it, or an instrument with which, or sometimes a thing upon which the action is performed, such as tools, cultivations, food, words, &c., (as kupu, korero; because they are fashioned by the tongue); e. g., taku toki; naku tena mara, maku te kupu ki mua; kai mau.

§ 21. When the action is intransitive, o is generally employed; e. g. te toronga atu o te ringa o Hone; toku haerenga. To this rule, however, there are many exceptions.

Note.—Visitors, slaves, or servants, children; (i. e. own children; or children of whom the individual has the management), husband, (tane), wife, (wahine), will take the a; when, however, hoa, ariki, rangatira, matua, whanaunga, are used, o will be prefixed. Reo also will take o; (the voice, being a part of the man). Oranga, also though it applies to food, will take o after it; e. g. kai hei oranga mo matou, food to support us. In the following passage "nona te whiunga i mau ai to tatou rongo," the chastisement of our peace was upon him, the o in the nona has, we think, supplied a more concise and clear rendering than could have been attained without it.—If it had been, "Nana te whiunga, &c.," we should have understood that it was he who inflicted, instead of suffered the chastisement. It should be remembered that there are two pronunciations of taku, and tana; viz., tăku, and tāku, tăna, and tāna; the short a corresponds to the o; the long a to the a of ma and na. Of tou, yours, there are also two pronunciations; viz., tou, and to, the former corresponds to the o of mona; the latter sometimes to the a of mana.

Note.—The to is very frequently used instead of the tou—chiefly in those parts of the sentence in which euphony requires that the sound should not be prolonged.

The importance of attending to these distinctions between the o and the a may be shewn by a few examples; he hangi mau, is an oven with which you may cook food; he hangi mou, is an oven in which you are to be cooked, and would be a most offensive curse; he taua maku is a party with which I may attack another; he taua moku, is a party come to attack me; te ngutu o Hone, is John's lip; te ngutu a Hone is his word, or report, &c.

[36]  The tua is the religious ceremony performed by the father, or the Ariki of the tribe, when the child was born, to remove the tapu from the mother and the settlement.

CHAPTER XVI.
SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVES.

§ 1. Adjectives generally follow substantives; e. g., he tangata kohuru, a murderer. Sometimes, however, they will take the form of an adverb, and precede; e. g., homai katoa mai nga mea, give (me) all the things. Sometimes, also, they will take the form of a verb and precede; e. g., nui rawa taku riri, very great is my anger—or of a substantive; e. g., he nui taku riri, idem.

§ 2. The pronominal adjectives, tenei, &c., and taua will always precede; e. g., tena mea.

§ 3. Adjectives will generally take the form of the noun with which they are connected; i. e., if the noun be of the verbal form, so also will be the adjective; e. g., oranga tonutanga, eternal life; rerenga pukutanga, sailing hungry.

Note.—To this rule there are many exceptions. Thus, we have kainga kotahi, one eating; i. e., one meal; matenga nui, patunga tapu, whakamutunga pai, tikinga hangarau, korerotanga tuatahi. In many cases observation can alone determine when such forms are admissible. As a general rule, it would perhaps be correct to say that when the verbal noun is of very familiar use, so as almost to have its verbal character forgotten, or when some thing or single act, is spoken of, it will sometimes admit after it an adjective of the simple form. It will, we think, also be found that such common adjectives as nui, pai, katoa, and also the numerals most frequently follow in the simple form.

§ 4. Under other circumstances, the adjective will follow in the verbal form, especially when diversity or a number of acts of the same kind, is intended. Thus, oku nohoanga katoa will mean all my settlements; aku nohoanga katoatanga, all the times in which I sit down. The following expressions are objectionable: korerotanga whakamutu, tirohanga atawhai, whakinga puku.

§ 5. It should be noticed, perhaps, here, that we sometimes find the verbal noun used as an adjective or participle, and with a passive meaning: e. g., he toki tua, is an axe to fell with; he toki tuakanga, an axe which has been used in felling; he mea whakakakuranga mai no tawahi, (clothes) worn abroad and sent here. Whakakahu would in this construction be seldom used. On the other hand we meet with pu whakamoe; gun taken to bed with you; poaka whangai, fed pig.

§ 6. Many adjectives to one substantive.—It is contrary to the genius of Maori to allow many adjectives to follow one substantive. When, therefore, it is desired to affirm many qualities of the same word, the word itself will be repeated before each adjective; e. g., a great and good man, would be thus rendered: he tangata nui, he tangata pai; or the adjectives will be converted into substantives, by taking the article he before them. Thus, the above sentence might be rendered: he nui, he pai tena tangata, he was a great, &c.; a large red blanket might be thus rendered: he paraikete nui, he mea whero. Sometimes the adjective will be resolved into the verb; "a great and terrible God," would be thus rendered; he Atua nui, e wehingia ana.

§. 7. The following are instances in which an adjective is made to qualify two substantives: ko te poaka raua ko te paraoa, he reka kau, pork and flour (they are both) sweet, or (a sweetness); he mea reka te poaka, he me reka te paraoa, idem. Tena koa etahi hate, etahi tarau hoki, kei nga mea pai: Shew some shirts and some trousers; let them be good ones: i. e., shew some good shirts, &c.

§ 8. Sometimes the adjective will unexpectedly assume the form of a verb or substantive, e. g., kei ona kainga, e (or he,) maha, he is at his many settlements. The following form is heard at Taranaki: kia toru he ra, it will take three days. Sometimes adverbs are used as adjectives; e. g., he tohunga rawa, a great artist, &c., te tino tangata, the very individual. The following form in which the verb supplies the place of the adjective, is, we believe, in general use: a pouri ana o matou ngakau mo tenei patunga o matou ka rua; our hearts are dark at this second murder of our friends, lit., this murder of our friends, it is two.

Comparison of adjectives.—The comparative degree is denoted in various ways in Maori. (a) The first, and most common, is similar to that adopted in Hebrew; viz. by putting the preposition i (from) after the adjective; e. g., e kaha ana a Hone i a Pita, John is stronger than Peter. (b) Sometimes there is joined to the adjective some adverb of intensity; e. g., e kaha rawa ana a Hone i a Pita, John is much stronger, &c. (c) Sometimes it is denoted by the adjectives ngari, and rangi, the verb following in epanorthosis; e. g., e ngari a Hone i a Pita, e kaha ana.

(d.) Sometimes the comparative is denoted by some approbatory, and the positive by some disapprobatory term; e. g., e pai ana tenei paraikete, e kino ana tera, this blanket is good, that is bad. (e.) Sometimes the positive is put into the negative form, and the comparative into the affirmative; e. g., e ngari ano te patu i a au; aua e tangohia oratia taku kainga, it is better to kill me, do not take away my settlement while I live; i. e., I should rather die than have my possessions taken from me. E nui ana taku hara, e kore e taea te muru, my sin is greater than that it can be pardoned; lit. my sin is great, it cannot be pardoned. He hira te hunga i a koe nei; e kore e ho atu e ahau nga Miriani ki a ratou, the people that are with thee are too many for me to give the Midianites into their power.

(f.) Sometimes the positive is made antecedent, and the comparative consequent; e. g., me patu ano au ka riro ai toku kainga, you must kill me, and then take my possessions.

(g.) Following, are two modes of comparison which are sometimes met with: poka ke atu te pai o te ra tahi i ou whare i nga ra ko tahi mano, one day in thy courts is better than a thousand. Ma tenei e whakakoakoa ai a Ihowa tera atu i te koakoatanga ki te okiha, this shall please the Lord better than an ox.

Note.—These two forms are not much used in Waikato. The following is sometimes heard, but it is a weak mode of comparison: rere ke ana te pai o tenei i tera, the goodness of this is different from that.

(h.) A very common process for denoting an inferiority of degree, is to associate two contrary qualities: e. g., pai kino, indifferently good; roa poto, (long short,) of moderate length; mangu ma nei, (black white,) blackish.

(i.) The adverb tua prefixed to the adjective denotes a similar kind of comparison: e. g., tua riri, somewhat angry; tua pouri, rather dark. (k.) Sometimes comparison is implied by reduplication of one or more syllables: e. g., pouriuri, darkish (as in twilight). All adjectives which, in English, are preceded by some qualifying adverb: as somewhat, not very, moderately, as it were, &c., can be rendered into Maori by one, or other, of these three last methods.

The Superlative degree. Maori has no direct form to mark the superlative, but expresses it by various circumlocutions: (a.) by the definite article prefixed, with, or without some word of intensity: e. g., Ko au te kaumatua, I am the eldest son; ko te tino nohinohi rawa tena, that is the least; ko te nui tenei o nga rakau katoa, this is the largest (lit. the large one) of all the trees. (b.) The form for the comparative sometimes necessarily implies the sense of the superlative: e. g., he tino mohio ia i nga tangata katoa, he is the most wise of all men.

(c.) Following are two other forms for denoting the superlative: e. g., e ngari a Hone e mohio ana; a, waiho ano i a Wiremu te tino mohio, John is better, he understands; but leave the great knowledge with William; or, whakarerea rawatia i a Wiremu, &c.

Sometimes a great degree of intensity is denoted by a repetition of the adjective, with a peculiarly prolonged sound of the first syllable; e. g., nūi, nui whakaharahara.

CHAPTER XVII.
SYNTAX OF THE NUMERALS.

The particles prefixed to numbers.

Ko. § 1. This word will often, without te, precede tahi; e. g., toku ko tahi, myself alone; kia ko tahi, be one; i. e., pull together. When tahi is used as a substantive, it will generally take te; e. g., ko te tahi tenei, this is one (of them).

§ 2. The numerals between one and a hundred will seldom take any article; but rau and mano will take either te or he; e. g., he rau pea, it is perhaps a hundred; ko tahi te rau, or te mano. Sometimes the numerals lower than a 100 will take the article te, when the substantive is not expressed but understood; e. g., e taea e te tekau te whakanehenehe ki te hokorima? can the ten contend with the fifty?

§ 3. The simple numeral is mostly used in counting; e. g., tahi, rua, toru, one, two, three, &c. Often, however, the verbal particle ka is used in the same sense; ka tahi, ka rua, &c., it is one, there are two, &c.

§ 4. Ka, prefixed to the numeral, generally denotes the completion of a number; e. g., ka toru enei matenga oku i a koe, this is the third time I have been ill treated by you, i. e., this makes up the third, &c.

§ 5. E is a very frequent prefix of the numbers between one and ten. It differs from ka in that it does not so distinctly imply the completion of, or the arriving at, a number, and that whereas ka will generally answer to the question, "How many have you counted, made, &c., e will be used in reply to "How many are there"? e. g., e hia ena kete? How many baskets are those? It would not however be generally correct to say, E hia ena kete ka oti? It should be ka hia. Again, ahea koe hoki mai ai? Ka rua aku wiki. When will you return? in two weeks' time. It should be kia rua nga wiki.

Note.—This distinction, however, does not hold invariably, &c.

§ 6. Kia.—For its uses vide verbal particles.

§ 7. Note.—The particles i and kua are occasionally found prefixed to the numerals. (Vide those particles, verbs.)

§ 8. The case and number following the numeral. In most instances, up to one hundred, the numeral will require no possessive case after it; e. g., a, ho mai ana e ratou, e ono nga kete, and they gave six baskets; lit. they were given by them, they were, (or are), six baskets.

§ 9. Beyond one hundred, however, a possessive case is very frequently employed; e. g., ko tahi mano o nga tau, one thousand years.

§ 10. When the noun is in the oblique case, the numeral will generally follow it; e. g., hei tapiri mo enei kete e wha, as an addition to these four baskets. When it is in the nominative the numeral will most frequently precede; e. g., e wha nga kete, there were four baskets.

§ 11. It will be noticed that tahi is sometimes postfixed to other numerals, and adjectives, without any variation of meaning; e. g., e rima tahi, five, turituri tahi, what a noise (you are making). Tahi will sometimes take a plural after it; ko tahi ona hoa, one were his companions; i. e., he had one companion.

§ 12. Sometimes, when it is desired emphatically to denote all the individuals, or items contained in a certain number, the number will be repeated; e. g., hokorima hokorima iho, fifty fifty down; i. e., the whole fifty were killed; e wha, wha mai ano, four four to me; bring the whole four. In one instance, (viz., that of rua,) we have the first syllable reduplicated to denote both; e. g., e tika rurua ana ano, they are both right.

§ 13. Sometimes, in Waikato, we meet with an ironical use of numerals, corresponding to that in English, "six of one, and half a dozen of the other"; e. g., e whitu waru atu! they are seven eight other; e ngari a Hone, e pai ana—e wha atu i a Pita! he is four besides Peter; i. e., he is not better than Peter.

§ 14. On the Ordinals.—The student has seen (page 26) the three ways in which these may be formed.

§ 15. There are, however, some distinctions between tua and whaka, as prefixes, which deserve to be noticed. (1.) Tua is not frequently found prefixed to numerals beyond ten. (2.) Occasionally, also, a critical inquirer will, we think, detect a difference in the meaning of the two particles. Tua seems to denote the place, a thing, &c., occupies in a series or gradation; whaka, a fraction which, being added, makes the integer. Thus, in announcing a text, we might say "Kei te ono o nga upoko, kei te tuawha o nga rarangi," it is in the sixth chapter and fourth verse. We could not however, say Kei te whakawha o, &c. Again, a Native will say, Ko te tuahia tenei o nga whakatupuranga ka tae iho ki a koe? Ko te tekau, What number of generations is this that reaches down to you? answer, the tenth. Here the generations are represented as following in a regular succession to the tenth. If the reply were "Ko te whakatekau tenei," we should understand that it is one, which added to the other nine, will make it ten—a mode of expression which is sometimes substituted for the following, "ko te whakakapi tenei o te tekau," this is one which fills up the place of the tenth. The word whakapu is often also used either to denote a tally, (or surplus one), or the one which completes the number; hei whakapu tenei mo aku riwai, this is a tally for; (or this completes the full number of) my potatoes.

Note.—In speaking of a tenth, or tithe, of property, we should prefer whakatekau to tuatekau; the former being a fractional tenth, the latter an ordinal.

CHAPTER XVIII.
SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUNS.

§ 1. The personal pronouns follow the verb; e. g., e mea ana ahau.

§ 2. They are often also omitted after it; e. g., Ka tukua atu te purahorua, ka tae ki te pa, korerotia atu, Kia mohio i te taua e haere mai nei——na ka te whai e te pa. Na wai i haere, a; ka tae ki nga whakatakoto; ka pau te huaki, ka tangi te patu, ka whati tera, te pa; the messenger is sent (he) arrives at the pa (it) is told (them,) be on (your) guard against the hostile party (which) is approaching, so the pa then pursued. On then (they) proceeded, till (they) came to the ambush, the assault is made, the blow resounds, that flies, the pa. Sometimes, in Waikato, they are redundant; e. g., kei te kai taro mana, he is eating bread for himself. Examples however of this construction are not varied or frequent.

In Waikato the personal and possessive pronouns will frequently take the particle nge before them, but without any variation of meaning.

§ 3. It was observed (page 29) that there is no word in Maori to denote the pronoun it. Occasionally, however, that word will be designated by ia and its branches; e. g., waiho mana e rapu atu te tahi huarahi mona, let it (the axe,) search out a path for itself. This perhaps should be explained by prosopopœia. Sometimes also we hear the following: te paraoa raua ko te poaka, flour and pork; nga toki ki a ratou whakatoki, nga kakahu ki a ratou whakakakahu, axes by themselves, garments by themselves.

§ 4. Often the singular and dual of the personal pronouns will be employed to denote a whole tribe, or company; e. g., naku tena, na te Urioteoro, that is mine, the Urioteoro's; i. e., the property of my tribe. Keihea taua? where are we two? i. e., where is our party, ko ta maua ki tena, ta te tangata Maori, that is a phrase of us (two) of the New Zealander, i. e., of the New Zealanders.

Note.—This form is often also used when the speaker wishes to propound some remark which would appear harsh if too personal; e. g., he aha kei a maua ko Hone, what is with me and John; i. e., oh, never mind John: of what importance is he?

Connected with this is a mode of phrase which we have been surprised to hear questioned by some who claim a high character as Maori scholars.

§ 5. A pronoun in the singular will often be made to refer to a noun in the plural; ko nga tangata tenei, nana nga tikaokao, this are persons, his are the fowls; nga tangata nona te kainga, the men his is the settlement, i. e., whose is, &c.; nga tangata nana i patu, the men his was the having struck; i. e., who struck. Tenei matou te noho atu nei, this is we, who am sitting towards you.

§ 6. It is a very common thing in Maori to put into the third person a pronoun which has reference to either the first or second; e. g., hei rama aha? tana koke noa atu,—nana tana rakau, a light for what purpose?—his stumbling away—his is his own stick, i. e., "What do I want of light?—I can stumble out my way—I am accustomed to that kind of work;" ko te rangi mahi kai tenei ma tona tinana, this is the day for procuring food for his body; i. e., for ourselves; kei tena tangata pea, it rests perhaps with that individual; i. e., with you; tona tangata kaha ko koe, you are his strong man; i. e., what a very strong man you are! (ironically); haere korua, e Hone, raua ko Hemi, go you (two) John, they two and James; i. e., go you and James.

This last form is, perhaps, peculiar to the Waikato District.

§ 7. When two or more individuals are connected in English by the conjunction and, they will very frequently be denoted by the dual or plural, of the personal pronoun of the more worthy person. For example, he and I are denoted by maua, John and James by Hone raua ko Hemi, John, James, and Luke, by Hone, ratou ko Hemi, ko Ruka.

In this construction the latter noun will be in the nominative, even though the preceding be in an oblique case; e. g., te atawhai o te Atua, raua ko tana tamaiti, ko Ihu Karaiti, the mercy of God and His Son Jesus Christ. Here, though Atua is in the possessive case, raua and tamaiti, and Ihu Karaiti are in the nominative.

This strange, though in Maori very common, mode of construction cannot, we believe, be explained in any other way than by an epanorthosis. (Vide page 114, § 3.)

§ 8. The noun belonging to the pronoun is often omitted, especially in talking of garments; e. g., keihea toku? Where is mine; i. e., my garment. Tikina atu te tahi ki a koe, fetch some for you; i. e., fetch some garment. Ko wai toku?—Who is mine?—i. e., my helper.

§ 9. The relative pronouns.—Following are some of the ways in which the defect of the relative pronoun is supplied in Maori:—(1) Te tangata nana nga kakano the man whose are the seeds; (2) te tangata i nga kakano, idem; (3) te tangata i patu nei i a Hone, the man (who) struck John; or (4) te tangata i patua ai (by whom, on account of whom), he was beaten; (5) Keihea, he poraka hei to i te rakau? Where is there a block (with which) to drag the log? (6) Keihea he haerenga? where is there a place on which (they, the cows) may run? (7) Ko tenei taku i mate nui ai, this is mine desired, i. e., this is what I wished for; (8) te poaka i patua e koe, the pig (which) was killed by you; (9) kei reira te pakaru, kei reira te paru, you must coat (with raupo) all parts of the house that are broken.

It will be seen in the preceding examples that the most common means by which the want of the relative is supplied are by the preposition, as in example 2; (2) by the particles nei, &c., and ai, as in examples 3 and 4; (3) by the verbal noun, as in examples 5 and 6; (4) by the possessive case with ai, as in example 7; (5) by the passive voice, as in example 8. Occasionally, also, the personal pronouns, as in example 1, or the adverb reira, as in example 9, &c., are used for the same purpose.

§ 10. Demonstrative Pronouns.—(1) These, like the primitive pronouns of Hebrew, are often used for the verb of existence; (2) and the time will frequently be denoted by the pronoun used; i. e., Tenei will mostly be used for the present tense; tena, (and most frequently) tera, for the future, or past, and sometimes for the imperative mood; e. g., e haere ana tenei ahau, this I am going; i. e., I am going; tenei au, here I am; tera e mate, that will die, i. e., he will die; tena taku pu maua mai, that my gun bring here; i. e., bring my gun.

The leading distinctions between tenei, tena, and tera, and also the distinction between them and their resolved forms te—nei, &c., have been mentioned, page 30. Instances, however, are not rare, in which those distinctions seem to be disregarded; and others will occur which it will require some experience and ingenuity to classify; e. g., I te po nei implies that it has been already dark for some time; i tenei po may mean The night of this day. In the following, Kei hea te awa nei? (where is the channel that we are seeking for?) it is clear tenei could not be employed.

(2.) Sometimes only nei will be admitted into connexion with the first person; (i. e., when the speaker is denoted as the person looking at the object spoken of;) and na into connexion with the second. Ra has for the most part a vague or general application.[37] Thus a person, calling to a settlement, will say, Kahore he tangata i te kainga nei? Is there no one at that settlement? (at which I am looking.) If addressing another who belongs to, or has seen, the settlement, he will say, i te kainga na, (or ra) at the settlement which you see there, or to which you belong, &c. Again. Keihea nga kau? where are the cows? Kei kona ano, They are there near you. If he had said, Kei ko, we should have understood him to mean, "They are off, away, in that direction;" na kona mai, come by that direct path, in which you are; na ko mai, come by that circuitous one away there.

(3.) Nei, &c., in composition will frequently supply the place of the relative; e. g., te taua i muru nei i a Hone.

(4.) Sometimes they will imply a conjunction, or will otherwise limit the sentence in which they occur, by implying a connection with a previous sentence or thing. Thus, kahore au i pai, means I am not willing; kahore nei ahau i pai will mean, the reason was because I was not willing; or, you know I was not, &c., &c. Again, I a koutou e tatari ana will denote a mere general remark, while you are waiting, I a koutou e tatari nei denotes while you are thus continuing to wait; te wahine i whakarerea, the woman who was divorced; te wahine i whakarerea nei, (or ra), the woman who was divorced under these (or those) particular circumstances, or, on that particular occasion, &c., &c.

The Interrogative Pronouns.—Wai and aha are often used to add intensity; ma wai e noho, e au?that I should remain is for whom? i. e., I won't remain. Ko wai hoki ka kite i te hoenga o tenei taua, maua nei? who saw the departure of this hostile party, we two? i. e., we did not at all see this party's departure to fight with you; hei aha ma wai? For what purpose is it, for whom? i. e., what good at all is that for? kahore i rongo, kahore i aha, he did not attend, he did not what; i. e., he did not at all listen; kahore aku kupu, me he aha, me he aha, I did not utter a word, if a what, if a what; i. e., I did not at all speak; ka hua ahau he aha, I thought it was a what; i. e., I imagined it was something very important you were going to talk about. Sometimes a personal pronoun will be associated with an interrogative; e. g., ko wai hoki taua ka kite atu? Who, we two, can see it? i. e., who knows?

[37]  For ra as an adverbial particle, vide page 92.

CHAPTER XIX.
SYNTAX OF THE VERB.

Of the Verbal Particles.—The consideration of the verbal particles, and of the other means by which a verb is modified in Maori, has been reserved for the Syntax; chiefly because the investigation of those subjects will involve also that of compound propositions, and of other constructions which belong to this part of Grammar.

E (a) is sometimes used for the present, e. g., e noho mai, he is sitting there close at hand. (b) Most frequently it is joined with nei, &c.; e. g., e riri nei, who is angry with me, &c. (c) It is sometimes used to denote the future; e. g., ko wai ma e haere? who will go? He tokomaha e mate, many will die. (d) It is chiefly employed to denote contingency, or some future act on which something else depends; e. g., E riri ia, if he be angry; E tae mai a Hone tonoa ake, If John comes here send him after me; E hau, if there be a wind.

Note.—(1.) In such constructions as the last, it will be found that the latter verb will generally, except when it is in the imperative mood, be in the second person. In the following sentence, for example, E muri ka puta mai nga kuri ka puhia, henceforward if dogs come here they will be shot, e is wrongly used; puhia being in the third person. To this rule, however, there are exceptions.

(2.) There is a difference between e and ka, as particles of the future; ka being of much more extensive use; i. e., being used with all persons, and in all senses, whether absolute or contingent; vid. ka.

(3.) There are, however, some constructions in which e is always preferred; chiefly, we believe, when the verb is preceded by some word with which it is in connexion; i. e., when it is preceded by the negative adverb kore, and sometimes kahore; e. g., ka kore e pai, if he is not willing; kahore e tangi she did not at all cry,—by the preposition ma; e. g., ma wai e hanga? who is to build it?—and by no (sometimes), nohea e wera? Whence, i. e., why should it take fire?—by the pronouns tera and ehea; e. g., tera e mate, he will die perhaps, ko ehea e patua, which are to be killed?—by the noun or pronoun in the possessive case (sometimes); e. g., taku e pai ai that which I like, he aha tau e tohe? what are you importuning about?—by taihoa and taria; e. g., taihoa e haere wait going; i. e., don't go for a while.

N.B.—For the distinction between e and ka, when prefixed to numerals; vid., numerals, chap. 17, sec. 5.

(e.) For e as prefixed to the imperative mood, vid. page 40 (c). It is generally omitted in that mood, when the verb is followed by atu, mai, ake, iho, &c.

Ana is a particle corresponding, in many particulars, with ka. It is most frequently employed, however, in the continuation of a narrative, and does not often except in abrupt and animated discourse, occupy a place in the leading clause of the sentence.

The following examples illustrate this last remark. Ki te kahore e homai, ina haere ana ahau, ka riro. If it is not given, certainly going I will depart; ko nga tangata o Taranaki, aia ana e matou ki te maunga, the men of Taranaki, driven were they by us to the mountain. It will be seen that the verb preceding in the above clauses gives a larger measure of emphasis than if another word had gone before it. In such animated sentences, as the above, the speaker will generally prefer ana to any other verbal particle. But another leading use of ana is to denote a continuance of action. The following extract from a translation of the first eight chapters of Genesis, made some years since by the Church Missionaries, will serve as an illustration of this, and our other remarks on this particle. We may add that, though we suggest a few trifling alterations in the part quoted, yet, considering the time in which it was made, it is very creditable to the Maori knowledge of the translators.

Ch. 1, v. i. I te orokomeatanga i hanga e te Atua te rangi me te whenua.

2. A kihai whai ahua te whenua, i takoto kau; a ngaro ana i te pouri te mata o te hohonu. Haerere ana te Wairua o te Atua ki runga ki te mata o nga wai.

3. Mea ana te Atua, Kia marama; a kua marama.

4. A kite ana te Atua i te marama, pai ana; wehea ana e te Atua te marama i te pouri.

5. A huaina ana e te Atua te marama, hei ao.

In the first verse ana can have no place, it would give an unpleasant jerk, as well as the appearance of levity, to a commencement so methodical and dignified. Our translators, therefore, with good taste, employed i; I te timatanga i hanga, &c. In the second verse, however, in the clause commencing a ngaro ana, &c., it is very correctly used; because there is a close connection between that clause and the one preceding. In the third verse it is, we think, injudiciously used, because a new subject is now commenced. We should, therefore, have preferred na ka mea te Atua. So also in the commencement of the fourth verse, A kite ana te Atua i te marama, pai ana. We should prefer, a ka kite, &c. Pai ana is, we think, objectionable. It is too abrupt, and unconnected, and makes the pai refer to the atua, rather than to marama. E pai ana, perhaps, or he mea pai, would be preferable. E—ana is strictly the sign of the present tense; e. g., e kai ana, he is eating. Sometimes when it follows a past time its meaning will also be past; as may be seen in our remarks on ana (vid. also page 38, and our remarks on compound times).

Ka is a particle of very extensive use. It is sometimes employed to denote the present tense; e. g., ka pai, it is good. It is the particle most frequently used in historic presents (vid. John iv., 1, 3, and N. T. passim). It is very frequently used to denote future events, and is often employed in hypothetic, or contingent propositions; e. g., ka mate koe i a au; you will be killed by me, ka haere ahau ka riri a Hone, if I go, John will be angry.

Note.—Ka, as a particle of the present, will often differ in meaning from e—ana. For example, ka tere te waka may signify the canoe will drift, or that it drifts; e tere ana, that it is drifting.

For the distinctions between ka and e vid. e. Occasionally ka is followed by te. Vid. two examples page 57.

I, a particle of the past time; vid. kua.

(a.) Sometimes, however, it is employed to denote the present; e. g., koia i riri ai, for that cause is he angry? na te aha koe i tohe ai kia haere, why do you persist in going? Ka tahi ano to hanganga i pai, this house (which I am now roofing) is now, for the first time, properly done.

(b.) Sometimes i is employed where contingency is designed; e. g., he aha koa i pono he titaha, he titaha; i pono he hate, he hate well, it won't signify. If an axe happens to be (my payment) let it so happen (lit. let it be an axe). If a shirt, &c.

Ka whiua to tahi wahi ki tahaki, hei whakahere i tona Atua. I whiua ranei ki te wahi tapu ranei; i whiua ranei ki te wahi noa ranei, he throws a portion to one side as an offering to his God. It may have been thrown (i. e., it matters not whether it is thrown) upon a sacred spot, or upon a spot not sacred.

Kua, the sign of the past tense; e. g., kua korero atu ahau ki a ia, I have spoken to him.

(a.) The leading distinction between kua and i is, we believe, that kua is unlimited (i. e., will not admit of limitation), and i limited in construction; and that the former, when it precedes in the sentence, will be often found to correspond to the perfect, the latter to the imperfect of English; e. g., kua kitea te mea i kimihia e koe? has the thing been found that was sought for by you? Kua ora koe? Kahore, I ora ano au; a, hoki mai ana te mate; have you recovered? No, I did recover, but the sickness has returned.

N.B.—It would, however, be very incorrect to affirm, as have some good Maori scholars, that kua always corresponds to the perfect, and i to the imperfect.

In accordance with the preceding remarks, it may be observed, 1st, that kua is seldom used when the verb is preceded by the cause, time, or other qualifying circumstance of the action; i. e., when the verb is followed by ai. For example, we might say kua patua, he was killed; but we could not say, te take kua patua ai, the cause for which he was killed; neither would it be correct to say, koia kua riri ai ia, for that cause was he angry. 2dly. It will also, we believe, be found that, in secondary clauses, in which the relative is understood, i obtains a much more general use than kua. For example, in the following sentence,—"enei mea kua korerotia e koutou," we should prefer i korerotia. 3dly. Kua will seldom, when denoting the perfect or imperfect tenses, be found associated with the particle ko; e. g., we very seldom hear ko Hone kua haere, it was John who went. In the following sentence, we disapprove of the use of both of these particles:—e pai ana matou ki a ia, no te mea ko ia kua atawhai mai ki a matou, we love him, because he was kind to us. We should have preferred mona i atawhai, &c.[38] (4.) When a preposition immediately precedes, kua will seldom be employed to denote the tenses; e. g., nonahea i mate ai; Since what time, or, at what time did he die? Nana ano i haere noa mai, he came of himself.

(5.) Kua is never used after the negative adverbs kahore, kihai, and kiano; e. g., kahore ahau i rongo, I have not heard; kiano i mate noa, he has not yet died.

(6.) The following, also, are constructions in which kua will be found to give place to i: Me koutou hoki i whakarere i to koutou kainga, as ye also left your country; me i kahore koe, if it had not been for you, &c.

In the following constructions, however, kua is prefixed: penei kua ora, in that case he would have lived; ano kua mate, as if he were dead; me te mea kua waruhia, as if it had been planed; Me i kahore koe kua mate au, if it had not been for you, I should have died. In the following, however, i is preferred: me i kahore koe i ora ai ahau, If it had not been for you, (the cause) why I was saved; i. e., I should have been lost, but for you.

(b.) Kua is sometimes employed where a present would be used in English; e. g., kua mate, he is dead; kua po, it is dark, or, is past sunset; kua riro, he is gone.

(c.) In animated narrations of past events, kua is sometimes employed to give variety; e. g., te taenga atu o Hone, kua mau ki te hamanu, e tatua ana, te tino haerenga, so John goes, he has taken (his) cartouch box, (he) is girding it on; the instant marching.

(d.) Sometimes, also, when the speaker wishes to convey the idea of a certain, and speedy accomplishment, he will (as did the Hebrews) employ the past tense; e. g., E pa, he aha i kaiponuhia ai to waru? kua whakahokia mai apopo, Father why do you withhold your plane? It will surely be returned to you to-morrow; E hoa, reia atu; kua hoki mai koe, Friend, run (and tell them) you will be back (in quite time enough); e noho ana tenei; kua pata iho te ua, e rere ana ki rote ki te whare, we are sitting here, but, immediately as soon as it rains, we run into the house.

(e.) Kua is often prefixed to denote an action which is to take place, or has taken place previous to something else—in which latter use it will sometimes correspond to the pluperfect of English; e. g., I a koe kua riro, after you had gone. Mo te ara rawa ake kua maoa, that, exactly as he awakes, it may have been cooked; i. e., it may be cooked against he awakes. Me i noho kua wha na rakau e toia, if I had remained, four logs would have been dragged. Akuanei mau nga riwai kua kainga, presently, the potatoes that have been first eaten will be yours; i. e., your crop will be the soonest ripe. Huatu ko tena kua ngakia, no, but let that be first dug.

Vid. our remarks on ko, when associated with kua (note to a) (3).

Note.—The student will see, in the above examples, that kua, when employed in this sense, will often enter into combinations which would not be admitted under other tenses.

KIA.—This particle has been already considered, as far as it is connected with the imperative mood (vid. page 40). There are, however, other uses of it, which are both varied and important.

(a.) It may, in asking a question, be used for the future; e. g., Kia haere ahau? Ne? Shall I go? shall I?

(b.) It may, also, be found where an hypothetic statement is made, or an expectation, or other reference to some future event, is implied—a use in which it will sometimes be found to correspond to the second future indicative and perfect potential of English; e. g., E noho ki konei; kia hoki mai ra ano ahau, stop here until I shall have returned; Kia titiro atu matou, ka patua to matou hoa, hei reira ka whakatika atu matou, let us have seen (i. e., if we had but seen) him strike our friend, we should then have risen; me noho kia ora, ka haere, you had better remain, and when you are well, depart; e hoe katoa ana ratou, kia oti te waka o Nini, they are all going when Nini's canoe is finished; I raro ahau e whakarongo mai ana, kia mate, kia mate; a ka ora noa ano, I was at the northward waiting for news from here of his death; but he has recovered.

(c.) Often, when intensity of negation, doubt, &c., is intended, it will be used instead of the proper particles of the present, past, and future; e. g., hore rawa kia tika, by no means is it correct; kahore kia kotahi, not even one; Ko au kia mate, ko ia kia ora? must I (by feeding this pig) starve, while he has food? Kahore ano kia haere noa! not yet gone!

(2.) It is often found, also, in exclamations of wonder; e. g., Kia nui! How large!

(3.) In the same sense, also, it is used where an infinitive would be employed in the learned languages; particularly where contempt, disregard, &c., are denoted; e. g., Kia whakarongo atu ahau ki o korero hei aha? why should I listen to your talk? lit. that I should listen to your talk is for what? Kia ho atu taku poaka mo tena! that I should give my pig for that! i. e., I will not give it.

(d.) Kia is frequently employed to denote the infinitive; e. g., haere kia kite, go to see.

(e.) It will also be employed when the latter verb is an amplification of the meaning of a preceding one; e. g., ahea hanga ai tou whare, kia oti? When will your house be built, that it may be finished? Te tangata e whiuwhiu ana i ana tikaokao, kia wawe te mate! The man who is pelting his fowls that they may be soon dead! Tanutanu rawa kia ngaro, bury, bury deep, that it may be concealed; (a song.) Whiua, kia mamae, beat it that it may be pained; na koutou i aki mai kia tata, it was you who pressed forward so as to be near.

Note.—There is a distinction between kia and ki te, when prefixed to a verb in the infinitive, which should be noticed. Kia is very seldom prefixed to a verb in the active voice,—ki te almost always; e. g., Haere ki te to i te waka. We could not say kia to.

(2.) Kia is almost always prefixed to the passive verb; ki te very seldom; e. g., Tikina atu kia tirohia is fetch it to be seen. Tikina atu ki te titiro is fetch him to look at it. The following sentence is erroneous:—arahina ki te patu, led to be killed. It should be kia patua, or e arahina e patua ana.

Sometimes, before neuter verbs, either kia or ki te will be employed; e. g., I mea ahau kia, (or ki te) haere.

Kia will most frequently be used when the former of the two verbs is in the passive voice. Verbs following adjectives, by which ability, habit, &c., are denoted, will take ki te; e. g., uaua ki te mahi, strong to work; e kino ki te tahae, is displeased at thieving.

Between the uses of kia and ki te there may be often a very material difference; e. g., e riri ana ki teata noho means that he is angry at the stopping quiet,—i. e., that he wishes for war; e riri ana kia ata noho, means that he is repressing (them) that they may stop quiet; ka tohe ki a maua kia waru i te kai i te ra tapu, they pressed us to scrape food on the Sunday. If it had been, Ka tohe ki te waru, &c., the speaker would have implied that they (the persons toheing) persisted in scraping, &c.

Some foreigners seem remarkably careless in the use of this particle. We subjoin a few instances in which it has been omitted, or introduced erroneously. Ko tana hanga kia korero, his custom was to speak, &c.; it should be, he korero. E kore ahau e ahei kia mea atu; it should be, ahei te mea atu. Ko te aroha e whakahauhau ana i te tangata hei mahi; it should be, ki te mahi. Whakatika hei patu; it should be, whakatika ki te patu, or whakatika atu, patua.

It may be here observed that (1) some verbs have a partiality for certain particles; e. g., hua noa ahau, or, ka hua ahau, I thought; e kore e ahei te patu. (2.) Some verbs very rarely take any verbal particle into connexion with them. Of this sort are heoi, or heoti, kati, taihoa, penei (in that case), and, sometimes, rokohanga, or rokohina.

(3.) Many constructions will be met with in which the verbal particle is omitted. (a.) A common adverb of quantity or quality following the verb will often cause the verbal particle to be dispensed with. (b.) It is also omitted in constructions like the following:—meake haere; whano mate; kei te ata haere ai; taihoa maua haere atu; &c. (c.) In animated discourse, the common verb will sometimes be used without any kind of auxiliary; e. g., kaiponu noa ia, kaiponu noa, tangohia e au. Withhold it, withhold it as he might, yet I took it away.

AI.—The Aborigines sometimes appear to vary in their use of this particle; some introducing it into sentences in which others would omit it. These instances, however, may, we believe, be reduced to one class:—viz., to that in which ai is used in connexion with kia.

When kia is prefixed to a verb which is merely an explanation, or some other enlargement of the meaning of a preceding one, it will seldom take ai after it; as may be seen in our examples of kia, (rules d and e). But when the intention, cause, &c., are to be specifically denoted, then ai will be used. Thus, in the following sentence, haere kia kite, go to see, kite is a plainly natural effect of haere, and ai, therefore, is omitted. If, however, some unusual act is to be done that he might see, then ai, most probably, would be employed; thus, e piki ki runga ki te rakau kia kite ai koe, climb up the tree that you may see. The distinction is the same as that between the two following in English:—go and see; climb that you may see. Again, in the last example of kia (rule e), na koutou i aki mai kia tata, "nearness" is a natural effect of "pressing forward," even though they had no specific intention of being near: ai, therefore, is not used. If, however, the speaker wished to say ye pressed forward that I might be angry, he would employ ai; kia riri ai ahau; because here we have two acts, not necessarily connected, and one specifically performed to produce the other.

The following are a few out of the many instances that might be adduced of the erroneous introduction, and erroneous omission, of this particle:—e kore koe e pohehe me ratou, kia roa ai taku korerotanga, you are not ignorant (as they are), that I should be long explaining it to you; it should be, e roa ai. As it stands it means, you will not make yourself "pohehe," in order that, &c. Aua e whakaara ake i tetahi rakau kia tu ai, erect not any stick that it may stand; it should be rakau, tu ai. Kihai i tonoa kia uia ai matou, he was not sent to question us; it should be, ki te ui i a matou. Ko nga mutunga o ia waiata, o ia waiata, kia whakahuatia ai tenei waiata, at the end of each song let this chant be repeated. As this stands, its meaning is, in order that this chant may be repeated; it should be, kia whakahuatia tenei, &c., or ka whakahua ai. Ka puta te kupu o Hone kia haere atu ai ratou, when John speaks, let them proceed; it should be, me haere, &c., or ka haere. A wrong use of this particle may often seriously misrepresent the meaning of the speaker. For example, if we were to say, e inoi ana ahau kia murua ai oku hara, we should mean, I pray that (in consideration of my prayer) my sins may be forgiven. Prayer, here, is made the immediate and effective means by which this end is obtained. If a Native were to say, "E inoi ana ahau kia homai ai tetahi paraikete," absurd as would be the remark, it would mean that the blanket is to be given to him, not as a favor, or as due on other grounds, but simply as a reward for his asking. The Bible tells us of another consideration, by which pardon is obtained, and prayer answered; and, therefore, in such passages as the above, we must carefully abstain from ai. Koia nga tamariki a Hone i haere tahi me ratou; it should be, i haere tahi ai. E kore ia e poka ke i tana i mea; it should be, i mea ai; te tangata i he ai, the man who had committed the offence. In Waikato this will mean, the man through whom they had erred; it should have been, te tangata nona te he.

(a.) Whaka.—The leading property of this particle is causative; e. g., tu is to stand, whakatu is to cause to stand (vid. etiam, page 50, under pai, kau, and kakahu, and Syntax of Numbers, under Ordinals).

Note.—In this use of it, adjectives, and neuter verbs, will be converted into active verbs; e. g., toe, to be left; whakatoe, to put by, as a leaving; e. g., whakatoea etahi ma mea ma, put by some for our friends.

In the following example, the adjective is made improperly to retain the form of a neuter verb, he mea whakapirau i te hau, a thing blasted by the wind. Its meaning, as its stands, is, a thing that destroys the wind.

Considerable variety may sometimes be found in the nature of the causation implied by this prefix. Thus, puru, to cork (a bottle, &c.). Whakapurua nga pounamu, to stow, or pack (with straw, &c., between) them. Waha, to carry on the back; whakawaha, to take up the load on the back; e. g., waiho atu e au e whakawaha ana, as I came away they were loading themselves with their burdens.

(b.) Sometimes it will imply the becoming, or the being like to, or the feigning, or exhibiting the root to which it is prefixed. Frequently, also, it will indicate an origin or propriety in the root; e. g., Kei te whakariwai a Hone i roto i te rua, John is making himself potatoes, i. e., (is occupying the place of) in the rua (or potatoe house); ka po, ka whakaahi; ka awatea, ka whakakapua, at night it became a fire, by day it became a cloud; kia whakatangata, to act like a man; ka riro, ka whaka-Hone ki te wai, he will be off, and become like John in the water; i. e., will be drowned as John was; he kupu whaka-te-Kanaua, a speech made by Kanaua; i. e., any promise, &c., made by him; he tangata whaka-Ngapuhi, a person belonging to, or that frequently visits Ngapuhi; he aha kei to tatou hoa? Kahore pea. E whakamatemate noa iho ana, kia kiia e mate ana, What is the matter with our friend? Nothing at all. He is feigning sickness, that he may be regarded as unwell.

(c.) Sometimes it will denote reciprocity; e. g., ko ratou whakaratou hoki, he is one of themselves! (d.) Sometimes it will denote an action either inceptive or gradually declining; e. g., e whakatutuki ana te tai, the tide is beginning to get full; e whakahemohemo ana, he is sinking; i. e., is on the point of death. (e.) Sometimes it will denote towards; vide page 71. (f.) Occasionally it will indicate some action corresponding to the sense of the root; e. g., ka whaka-ahiahi ratou, they act at sunset; i. e., they wait for sunset to make their assault.

The other auxiliaries of the verb.—These, it has been already observed, are adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, and the articles he and te, placed in connection with the verb. We proceed to make a few remarks upon them, and some other forms which the Maori verb occasionally assumes:—

On the adverbs as auxiliaries.—These chiefly are the adverbs of intensity and negation; we may add, also, the particles atu, mai, ake, iho.

The adverbs of intensity, as well as the last mentioned particles, will frequently lose their distinctive force, and either in some way modify the meaning; i. e., denote rapidity and certainty of effect, succession or connection of events, &c., or be redundant. The following examples will, it is hoped, sufficiently illustrate their use:—te whakaarahanga ake o te ra, tahuri tonu iho, the putting up of the sail forthwith was it upset; akuanei, ahiahi noa, ka tata ta maua te oti, presently by sunset ours will be near being finished; mo te ara rawa ake o nga tamariki kua maoa, that exactly as the children awake it may have been cooked; i. e., it may be cooked before they awake; kahore, ha, he kainga; kainga[39] rawa atu ki Waitoke, oh, there is no settlement (in the interval); the nearest settlement is Waitoke; tia rawa ki te raukura, pani rawa ki te kokowai, he braided his hair with feathers, and besmeared himself with red ochre; te tino haerenga, so on they started.

N.B.—Between noa ake and noa atu a distinction will sometimes be found not unlike that which obtains between the perfect and imperfect of English. Noa ake will generally convey an allusion to some date, either present or past; noa atu will most frequently refer to the past, without any such allusion; e. g., kua mate, noa ake, he has been dead this some time; kua mate noa atu, he died a long time ago; kua maoa, noa ake te kai, the food has been this long time cooked; kua maoa noa atu, it was cooked a long time ago; kua mate noa ake i reira, he had been dead then some time; kua mate noa atu i reira, he had been dead a long time previous to that date.

For further illustrations of the adverbs as auxiliaries the student is referred to chapter 9, pages 78, 79, &c. For the negative adverbs, as employed with the verb, vid. next chapter.

Of the Prepositions.—The use of these as auxiliaries is to supply the place of the verb substantive when no verb is expressed in the sentence; e. g., naku tenei, this is mine; kei hea? where is it? I a au i runga, when I was at the Southward. The tenses they denote, and those also which they admit after them, have been mentioned, chapter 8. Other notices respecting them will be found in the next chapter. For the pronouns as auxiliaries, vid. page 35.[40]

Verbs which assume the form of a noun.—It has been already observed that Maori inclines to the substantive form; and that such is only natural will be obvious to anyone who will reflect that it is more easy for an unpolished mind to conceive of things as existences, than to trace them through the various modifications of act denoted in a verb. In many instances, indeed, a New Zealander is compelled to adopt this form, in consequence of the Maori verb not supplying any satisfactory form for the infinitive mood, and the participles. That these two parts of speech strongly partake of the nature of a noun is well known; and we may therefore be prepared to find the forms for denoting them in Maori exhibit a mixed character; i. e., to be a kind of compound of the verb and the noun. It may be added, also, that, as in some Latin authors, the infinitive mood is often used for the finite verb;[41] so also, in Maori, will the verbal noun, especially when a brief and animated mode of diction is desired, be found very frequently to occupy the place of the verb.

The following examples illustrate the various modes in which the Maori verb adopts the substantive form.

The student will observe that even passive verbs will submit to the same operation, and receive the sign of the substantive, (viz. the article) before them; e. g., Tenei au te tu atu nei, here am I the standing towards (you); he kainga hou te rapua nei, a new country is the being sought, i. e., is what we are seeking for; ko koe te korerotia nei, it is you who are the being talked about; he noho aha tau? what are you sitting for? kua oti te keri, it is finished, the being dug; ka tata ahau te patua e koe, I am near, the being beaten by you; he mohio koe? are you a knowing? i. e., do you know anything about it?

The following are examples of the verbal noun as used for the finite verb:—me he mea ko te mahuetanga o to matou waka, if it had been the leaving of our canoe, i. e., if our canoe had been left to us; kei riri mai ia ki te kai; te taunga iho—ko ia, ko tana waka, lest he (the God) be angry at the food (not having been given)—the alighting (upon him, the priest), &c., i. e., and should then alight upon him, &c.; haere atu ana a Rona ki te kawe wai, Ka pouri. Te kanganga ki te marama. Te tino tikinga iho nei, ka tae ki a Rona, Rona (the man in the moon) goes to fetch water. It is dark. The cursing at the moon. The instant coming down to him, &c., i. e., he cursed at the moon, and she in anger came down to him.

Note.—More examples of this very animated mode of narration might be easily adduced. The student will find several others scattered throughout this work. We may observe, also, that the very frequent use of this form by the natives constitutes one remarkable feature by which the language, as spoken by him, differs from that spoken by the foreigner.

As a further illustration of the way in which predication in Maori is sometimes performed by the substantive, the following forms may be mentioned:—he mea whakamaori no te reo pakeha, a thing translated from the foreigner's tongue, i. e., it was translated from, &c. Na Hone tenei, he mea ho atu na Pita,—this is John's, it was presented to him by Pita: lit. it was a thing presented, &c. Akuanei, he noho atu te otinga, presently a remaining away will be the end, i. e., (we shall find that) he will remain away.

It should be also noted that the following verbs always take the substantive form after them, viz., hohoro, oti, hei, and ahei, pau, taea, tau, timata, heoi ano, kati, poto; e. g., timata te mahi, commence to work; kati te tahae, stop thieving, &c.

Note.—These verbs, it would appear, deserve most justly the appellation of "auxiliaries," 1st, as they are real verbs; and 2ndly, as by their help we can approximate to many forms of the verb in other languages. For example, kua oti te tiki, mai, has been fetched hence; e kore e ahei te korero, cannot divulge.

The use of the verbal noun, it would appear, is very prevalent in Oriental languages (vid. Lee Heb. Gram., second edition, p.p. 75 and 76, and Carey's Gram. of the Burman, also Humboldt on the Chinese, as there quoted.) The following form, however, will often be found in Maori to supersede it.

A noun, or pronoun, in the oblique case, will, frequently, in Maori, take the finite verb after it;[42] e. g., e whakapono ana ahau ki a ia i mate i a Ponotio Pirato.

The expression "ki tana hekenga atu ki te reinga" is precisely the same as "ki a ia i heke atu ki, &c." Again, Noku i haere mai nei, since I arrived here: lit., from or of me (I mean) came here; ko te rua tenei o nga wiki o Hone, i hoki ai, this is the second week since John returned: lit., this is the second week of John (I mean) returned; i a ia e ngaro ana, whilst he is hid; mo ratou kahore i rongo, because they would not obey: lit., for them (I mean) their not having obeyed.

Often, also, a noun, which, in English, would be in the nominative, will, in Maori, be converted into the possessive; the verb following as in the preceding rule; e. g., naku i patu, I struck: lit., it was mine (I mean) the having struck it; maku e korero, I will speak: lit., it will be for me (I mean) the speaking.

It was most probably, through ignorance of this, and the preceding rule, that some good Maori speakers adopted the following very unsatisfactory analysis of the two examples first adduced:—"Naku i patu," they would translate, it was struck by me; "maku e korero," it shall be spoken by me; and they thus explain them: Na and ma mean by; and patu and korero, though active in form, are passive in meaning. To this theory, however, there are strong objections. (1.) It cannot be shewn, except by examples derived from this class, that na and ma ever signify by; these words all must admit are the active form of no and mo—the prepositions which denote the possessive case. (2.) It will altogether fail in those instances in which other prepositions, besides na and ma are found. In the following, for example:—"i a au e noho ana i reira," whilst I was sitting there; nona i tango, because he took it, it will be seen that it is as difficult to determine the nominatives of "noho" and "tango" as it was to determine those of patu and korero in the other examples. Those who attend to the genius of the language (vid. preliminary remarks, pages 102 and 103, and Syntax of Nouns, sec. 3, page 114) will, we think, find but little difficulty in the question. They will see that there are no participles, adverbs, or relative pronouns, in Maori, and that, therefore, we must not be surprised at a construction which, though loose, is admirably adapted to supply the defect. That Maori has a peculiar love for the possessive form in predication, especially when a relative pronoun is understood, may be seen in the following examples[43]:—ko Tiaki anake ta matou i kite, Tiaki was the only person that we saw: lit., Tiaki was our only one (actively) (I mean) saw; ka tohe ki tana i pai ai, he holds out for what he desired: lit., he holds out for his (I mean) desired; he mate toku, I am sick: lit., a sickness is mine; ka tika tau, you are right: lit., yours is right; koe would not be here used; ko taku noho tenei, a, po noa, I will sit here till night: lit., this is my sitting until night.

The leading meaning of na, and ma, and their corresponding passives no, and mo, seems to be, of the one class, present, or past, of the other future possession. And most of the examples given in p.p. 63-67, of their various uses might be reduced to those heads. Thus, "no te mane i haere mai ai," means, literally, it was of the Monday, (I mean,) having come. "No reira i riri," it was of that cause (I mean,) the having been angry; mo a mua haere ai, let it be for a future period, (I mean,) the going, &c.

Compound tenses.[44]—A compound tense is one whose time and quality are modified by some other time or circumstance with which it is connected.

Thus in the examples in page 38 me i reira ahau e pai ana, e—ana, which taken absolutely, is present, now represents the pluperfect potential; because it has a reference to i reira, a past time, and to me, a particle denoting contingency. Again, in the example, "akuanei tae rawa atu kua mate; kua, taken absolutely, refers to past time; but, here, it is taken relatively, and refers to a future; i. e. to the time in which I may arrive; the sentence meaning, literally, "presently, exactly as I shall have arrived, he is dead." The expression shall have been dead, in English, all will see, is a compound tense of a similar character, for it is compounded of a future, and a past tense, and thus represents a second future.

We proceed to lay before the student some examples of the most important combinations of time and mood. To exhibit all that are possible would extend our work beyond its prescribed limits. Some remarks on this subject have been already made in treating on the verbal particles.