An Epitome of the History of Medicine

by Roswell Park

AN EPITOME OF THE HISTORY OF DENTISTRY.

Rude Dentistry of Prehistoric Times. Early Instruments for Extraction Made of Lead. Dentistry on the Same Low Plane as Medicine during the First Half of the Christian Era. Dentistry Taught at the School of Salernum. Progress of the Art on the Continent. Prosthesis and Substitutes for Human Teeth. Introduction of Porcelain for Artificial Teeth; of Metal and of Vulcanized Rubber for Plates; of Plaster for Impressions. From being a Trade, Dentistry is now a Profession, in which Americans lead the World. Statistics.

The following is a synopsis of an address delivered at the opening of the session of the Dental Department of the University of Buffalo, in October, 1895. It is appended here because it is certainly apropos of the topics herein considered, the colloquial form being retained.

Called upon at short notice to welcome you here, and to offer remarks of general professional interest, it occurs to me to be retrospective for awhile and to consider the steps by which that which was once an exceedingly crude art has been developed until now it is an exact science. In other words, I would invite your attention, for a time, to the history of dentistry. At a time even before our combined art and science had a definite history we find that gold was used among the Egyptians for the purpose both of filling teeth and of supporting and directing them. In the bodies of many Egyptian mummies, especially of the higher class, there have been found teeth filled with gold or with wood which was covered with gold. It is known, also, that the Hindoos and Egyptians inserted artificial teeth and that some of these were made of wood, often covered with gold, and held in place by gold or silver bands and wires. Herodotus, who traveled so extensively in Egypt and wrote most entertainingly of his travels, has noted the division of medicine among the Egyptians into special branches and the existence of physicians, each of whom applied himself to one disease and not to more. "Some," said he, "are for the eyes, others for the head, others for the teeth, and others for internal disorders."

It is known, also, that about 300 B.C. Erasistratus deposited in the temple of the Delphian Apollo an odontogogue, or tooth-forceps, made of lead, intimating thereby that only those teeth should be drawn which were loose enough to be extracted with such an instrument.

Celsus, who was a contemporary of Christ and of Cæsar, was the first to recommend the use of a file within the mouth for the purpose of removing irritating edges and points of teeth. He also recommended bursting hollow teeth by putting into them pepper-corns, which should absorb moisture, swell, and thus break the teeth in pieces. He also recommended to take particular pains to try to shake or manipulate teeth loose before extracting them.

Galen, about 150 A.D., taught that teeth were true bones and that the canine teeth should be called "eye" teeth, because they were supplied by a branch of the optic nerve. Aëtius, 300 A.D., apparently discovered the foramina at the roots of the teeth through which the nerves enter.

In Rome false teeth and sets of teeth constructed of ivory and fastened with gold wire existed as early as the Laws of the XII Tables, and before the days of Roman civilization it is known that the Etruscans were skilled in manipulation of gold within the mouth, while your dean has described and has, I believe, in his possession beautiful examples of Etruscan work of this kind.

Among the Arabs, after the Arabian domination of the then civilized world, attention was paid to the teeth, although this was considered a very inferior part of the physician's work. Among these Arabians much later, and in spite of their study of Greek writers and their translations from the Greek, there may still be met such passages as this from Garriopontus, 1045 A.D.: "On the island of Delphi a painful molar tooth, which was extracted by an inexperienced physician, occasioned the death of a philosopher, for the marrow of the tooth, which originates from the brain, ran down into the lungs and killed that philosopher." For all that I know, this is the first record of a death after extraction of a tooth. Albucassis, 1100 A.D., gave directions for replacing lost teeth by natural or ivory substitutes. For centuries extraction of teeth had been and was considered a critical and dangerous operation, although itinerant quacks drew them without hesitation.

The Roman poets and satirists made many allusions, in their day, to the teeth and to operations performed upon them.

During the Middle Ages the most celebrated medical school that the world ever saw was founded at Saleraum, and was for several centuries the headquarters to which resorted men who desired to study medicine and patients from all parts of the world who desired to be cured of various diseases. It was a favorite stopping-place for crusaders on their way to and from the Orient, and history relates many interesting episodes pertaining to such visits. Under the influence of this school dentistry was more or less cultivated by those who practiced surgery. Bruno, of Langoburo (about 1250), mentions various operations upon the teeth and the antrum, although that was nearly four hundred years before Highmore carefully described this cavity. Johannes Arculanus (Giovanni d'Arcoli), in the fifteenth century, filled teeth with gold. I must digress for a moment to speak of another suggestion of Arculanus's. You know that quite recently the use of the magnet has once more come into vogue among oculists for the removal of foreign particles of iron or steel from the anterior chamber or the globe of the eye. It was Arculanus who, some five hundred years ago, suggested extraction of iron splinters from the eye by means of the attraction of amber electrified by friction. (For School of Salernum see page 72.)

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the French surgeons, especially Dionis and Verduc, made many practical contributions to dentistry. In 1728 Fauchard wrote in Paris the first complete work on dentistry,—Le Chirurgien Dentiste, ou Traité des Dents. Auzebi, of Lyons, wrote another. Le Cluse first mentioned the English turnkey for extraction. Jourdain introduced a number of new and appropriate instruments and new forms of artificial teeth. Bourdet, dentist to the king, made artificial palates. Porcelain teeth were first introduced in France in 1774.

Among the Germans cosmetic dentistry, though still the favorite field of charlatans, was greatly cultivated. Serré wrote a treatise on Toothache in the Fair Sex During Pregnancy, but the first public dental clinic in Germany was not established until 1855, by Professor Albrecht, and in Vienna. It has been in Vienna, among the Germans, that dentistry has been in time past most honored, and was taught when it was scarcely recognized in the other German universities. Private dental institutions were also first established in Vienna.

Of all the tooth-extracting instruments, the dental forceps in crude form is the earliest, the first on record, perhaps, being that deposited by Erasistratus in the Delphian temple, as already mentioned. For hundreds of years these instruments scarcely changed in shape. It was Garengeot who invented the key, early during the last century. Before that, and for awhile, dentists who had abandoned the forceps used an instrument known as the pelican,—said to much resemble the skid used by lumbermen.

Before artificial (porcelain) teeth came into use the following substitutes were employed, their estimated value being in accordance with the order in which I name them:

Human teeth, animal teeth, hippopotamus tusk and teeth, elephant-ivory, and bone.

Human Teeth.—Transplantation of teeth was at one time very common. After being inserted, they were held in place by pivots and ligatures, springs, and upon bases. The pivot method also included the use of screws. Ligatures for fastening teeth were made of silk-worm gut,—which, now so common in surgery, was used for this purpose, perhaps, two hundred years ago,—of gold wire, etc. The method by ligatures is the earliest of all. Human teeth have always been more or less expensive if fresh, few people being willing to part with sound teeth except for a money consideration. In 1784 a Philadelphia dentist offered, in an advertisement, two guineas each for sound front teeth.

Animal Teeth.—These were largely used, being held in place the same way as above, the principal objection being that it was difficult, often impossible, to match human with animal teeth. It was found, also, that the latter decayed very much more easily.

Hippopotamus-ivory.—This was at one time very extensively used. It was carved into the shape of the missing teeth, and was held upon a base; or it was carved into shape as a base upon which to rest human teeth. Most often it was used as a base for pivoting. Not infrequently a block was carved out which represented gum, teeth, and all, and partial dentures of this complex type were often so deftly fashioned as to be very realistic, the part representing the gum being colored. Unfortunately no dye nor color in the mouth could be made permanent.

Elephant-ivory.—This was used for the cheaper grades of work, being less durable.

Bone.—Bone was still more objectionable, and was used for only the cheapest work.

Artificial porcelain teeth were first introduced in France in 1774 and in America in 1817. Those which were first made were so large, awkward, rough, and ill-fashioned, without attempt to represent the gum, as to bear no comparison to the artistic products of to-day. They were intended for the most part for attachment to ivory bases. The artificial dentures made for George Washington were of this general character, and, although they called forth his encomiums in a letter to his dentist expressing his gratitude, they would pass for very shabby productions today. One of the greatest advances in dentistry was the introduction of gold bases as a substitute for the baseplates previously made of ivory or bone. This is distinctly an American invention, and is to be credited to Gardette, of Philadelphia, who produced the first bases of this kind in 1787. Since then other metals have been used only because cheaper, none having the valuable properties of gold.

Gutta-percha was introduced for this and various dental purposes in England, in 1851, by Trueman. In 1851, too, came Goodyear's process of vulcanizing, which the dental profession were at first slow to avail themselves of, but which led, as its value was recognized later, to expensive and almost endless litigation.

Another most valuable American invention was that of taking impressions by the use of plaster. This was introduced about 1844-'45. This method permitted the making of socket-plates, which, of itself, was a long step in advance.

So much for a very brief epitome of some of the most interesting facts in the history of dentistry. Did time permit, the matter would warrant treatment at much greater length. But what now is to be said of the condition of dentistry to-day? First of all, that it is no longer relegated to charlatans and itinerants, but is studied, practiced, and honored by men of the ablest minds and of the highest type. There is to-day scarcely any branch of applied science which calls for greater qualifications or for greater combination of mental endowment and manual dexterity than does dentistry. We, in New York, find ourselves now in position where the State has assumed not only to regulate the practice of dentistry, but even to pass upon the qualifications of those who propose to study it. In the assumption of this task by the State there is paid, perhaps, the greatest possible compliment to its dignity and to its importance.

The great field of medicine is now altogether too vast, and the various branches which pertain to it are too complex, to permit a mastery of all its details by any one mind. The man does not live who to-day can be considered facile princeps in more than a few departments of medicine. Life is too short to permit of it, and the study is altogether too extensive. There is also a growing public demand for specialization of work, and there is probably more excuse for the perpetuation of dentistry as a specialty than for almost any other branch. Nevertheless, it is necessary constantly to repress a tendency toward a failure to comprehend the general principles underlying all medical specialties, and it has been hard, at least until recently, to impress upon the men of the dental profession that they were really only practicing a branch of medicine, and that, in disregarding a general and comprehensive knowledge of the fundamental branches, they were but poorly preparing themselves for the practice of a dignified specialty. Certainly dentistry makes as many demands for mechanical training, digital dexterity, familiarity with the properties of materials, etc., as does. surgery, and in some respects even more. Of course, to a certain extent in these respects it is like a mechanical trade. The great trouble with the dental profession, until very recent times, is that they have regarded their work too much as a trade and not enough as a profession. By taking the latter view of it the work is ennobled and their interest for it cultivated. By taking the trade view of it they have lost those finer features which lift mechanical work out of the mere level of a trade. Moreover, men in time past have been guilty of altogether too much trades-union tactics, which are vehemently opposed to professional ethics, and this has been another feature to degrade rather than elevate dentistry.

This has been indeed a great misfortune, for men have been misled by the need for cultivation of their hands, or their manual powers, and have been persuaded away from a finer study of fundamental principles upon which the whole practice of dentistry should be based. And so it has happened that men have been so ambitious to become perfect operators that they have neglected anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and pathology, have even neglected odontology, sacrificing everything else to their work as mere artificers.

If one scrutinizes the subject properly, there is no reason why there should not grow up a class of men fitted to attend to any lesion of the mouth or of the parts adjoining. In other words, there is no reason why there is not more excuse for true oral surgeons than there is for any other class of specialists, save possibly those who treat the eye. Aural surgery, nasal surgery, pelvic surgery, rectal surgery, etc., are simply voluntary limitations and applications of general surgery to special parts; but he who attends to the teeth has to do so much work of a character which the surgeon is not called upon to perform in any other area, that I have always claimed the oral surgeon deserved a place, as he had a field, by himself. Nevertheless, the knowledge which shall fit a man for such work is not to be obtained in the ordinary dental course, nor in three years of study, even under the best of auspices. The man who would be an ideal oral surgeon must be not only generally familiar with anatomy and physiology, but must thoroughly know the embryology of the face and teeth, the physiology not alone of the organs of the mouth, but of all the secreting glands and the chemistry of all their secretions; not only the anatomy of the cranium, but general anatomy as well, and even comparative anatomy. He must be well informed in the explanations of all the congenital defects met about the face and mouth; he must be familiar not only with the ordinary principles of pathology and bacteriology, but he will find in the fluids about the mouth such a fertile opportunity for bacteriological study that, be he ever so expert or erudite, he has still much left to investigate in this direction. There is no disease-germ with which he can afford to be unfamiliar, and, as any form of tumor may be found in or about the mouth, he should be familiar with the entire subject of tumors and their surgical treatment.

Then, again, he must be familiar not only with the physical properties of metals and the various materials used in plastic dentistry, nor expert alone in the operations about the teeth, but, inasmuch as he has to cope with various wounds, injuries, and operations about the soft parts, he must be thoroughly familiar with the principles of wound-healing; with the causes of sepsis and the agents which produce it, and the means of avoiding it; in other words, he must have a general training in operative surgery, and, according to my ideal, which may be high, he should be a man able to do almost any operation in surgery before he limits himself to surgery of the mouth. Unless he have this ability, he will not do such operation as well as a general surgeon can, because the underlying principles are the same, and the latter will have the greater command over them.

When, then, this perhaps ideal man has become thoroughly familiar with the principles of surgical anatomy, operative surgery, surgical pathology, and bacteriology, in addition to the things already mentioned, then, and not until then, may he and should he assume to operate for harelip, cleft palate, cancer of the tongue, and various other lesions in the parts about the mouth.

I wish I could say and demonstrate more to impress upon you the important bearing of modern surgical pathology to dentistry. Perhaps I can give you no better illustrations than you can see in the studies and writings of Prof. W. D. Miller, of Berlin, of whom I am proud to say that he is an American, and that he is the only American occupying a professorship in a German university. In his studies on the causes of dental caries and upon the bacteria of the mouth he has identified and named nearly a hundred species of the bacteria, many of which he has shown to be the active causes of dental decay. He has done, then, for dental pathology in this direction what other eminent observers have done for the processes of suppuration and ulceration in other textures and tissues, and has helped to show that they are all evidences of pernicious germ activity. By his researches, also, upon inflammation in elephant-tusks, and the results of injury, mainly by bullet wounds, he has shown us that the phenomena attending these changes in dental tissues are practically identical with those in bone. His researches have done very much to explain the pathology of that common disease, pyorrhoea alveolaris, which is known to be but one expression of local infection, while the possibility of migration of infectious organisms and of metastatic lesions in other parts of the body, having their origin in infectious disease in or near the teeth, has been brilliantly demonstrated by his interpretation of well-known clinical facts.

That American dentists are most highly regarded abroad is more than a matter of every-day knowledge. It has got to be so now that a foreigner will purchase instruments of American make, and then advertise himself as an American dentist for the purpose of getting business,—a purpose in which, as a rule, he is quite successful. But let me stop here to do honor to another American dentist who is more highly honored abroad than one ever can be at home, and of whom it might be said, perhaps, that he has had more friends among the royalty and nobility of Europe than any other man of his time. This is Dr. Evans, who has lived for years in Paris, who was the personal friend of Napoleon III and the trusted guide and companion of the Empress Eugenie when she fled from Paris. While it may be said of him that the qualities that made him so universally popular were personal qualities, rather than professional knowledge, it must be said in reply that it was his eminent professional attainment which first brought him such influential friends.

But time presses, and I want, before closing, to say a little about dentistry in America. It was about 1835 that Dr. Harris, then residing in Baltimore, though born near Syracuse, conceived the modern idea of the scope and practice of dentistry. He was ambitious to put the dentists of his time upon a higher professional level, and to make of dentistry a specialty in medicine. He applied to various medical schools to found dental chairs, and to teach oral pathology along with dental mechanics, as one of the branches of medicine, the graduating degree to be M.D., as with other medical specialties. But the men of his time were so short-sighted and of such constricted mental calibre, and the dentists were so uneducated, that the Baltimore schools declined. He therefore established a separate school, being forced to take this step. This school was the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, established in 1839,—the first in any country. The dentistry of that day was crude, and its teaching was comparatively inefficient. It was not until six years later that the next, the Cincinnati College of Dental Surgery was organized,—in 1845. Then, in time, followed Philadelphia. But all these colleges were separate institutions, teaching only those branches which it was held necessary that a dentist should know and having very little of medicine in their curriculum. They conferred the degree of D.D.S.

In 1868 Harvard University did what she ought to have done at the outset. She opened a dental department and began the teaching of dentistry as a branch of medicine, establishing therefor a separate degree,—D.M.D.,—Den-tarioe Meclicince Doctor. In 1874 the University of Michigan established a dental department, and a little later the University of Pennsylvania did the same. These university schools gave an immensely widened scope to the study, which was made broader with each succeeding year.

There are now forty-five dental colleges in the United States. Forty of these are members of the National Association of Dental Faculties, organized for the purpose of securing uniformity in teaching and in graduating men. Membership in this association is a certificate of high standing and of comprehensive advantages.

Last year (1894) the number of students in dental colleges was 4979, while the number of graduates was 1208. At present nearly all the States have legislation governing the practice of dentistry, and often more strict than that regulating the practice of medicine. In New York the law places dentistry on precisely the same plane as medicine,—prescribes the same qualifications for matriculation, the same length of study, exactions for graduation, examination, etc. In other words, the law is quite as strict regarding admission to dental colleges as to medical. After 1897 at least a full high-school course will be demanded for matriculation, and from now on we may look forward to having a really educated dental profession.

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INDEX.

INDEX.

Advances in other sciences, [153] Ægidius, [077] Æsclepiadæ, [011] Æsculapius, [007] Ætius, [049] Age of foundation, [012] Age of renovation, [012] Age of transition, [012] Agnew, D. Hayes, [295] Akenside, [213] Albiuus, [164] Albucassis, [063] Alchemists and charlatans, the, [187] Alchemy, [141] Alexander of Tralles, [050] Alexandria, library of, [031] school of, [032] Alkindus, [060] Ambulant physicians, [017] Amendment in medical affairs, [151] American teaching of to-dav, [298] Amphitheatres, dissecting, [111] Amussat, [269] Anæsthesia, history of, [300] Anatomic period, [012], [030] Anatomy and physiology of Galen, [039] Anatomy, chairs of, [111] Andral, [245] Andry, [177] Anel, [215] Animalculists, [183] Animism, [196] Animists, [183] Antiseptics, history of, [317] Antyllus, [051] Arabic period, [012], [057] review of the, [097] Archiaters, [053] Aretæus, [034] Argentier, John, [014]6
Aristotle, [028] Arlt, [253] Arnold de Villeneuve, [088] Asclepiades of Bytlunia, [044] Aselli, [160] Astrology, [141] Astruc, [138], [214] Aubrey, [183] Auscultation, [262] Avenbrugger, Leopold, [210] Avenzoar, [064] Averroës, [064] Avicenna, [061]

Bache, Franklin, [287] Baclitischua, [059] Bacon, Lord, [153] Bacon, Roger, [068] Baglivi, [162], [172] Baillie, [213], [224] Barba, [165] Barthez, [201] Bartholin, [161], [184] Barton, John Rhea, [293] Baseilliac, [214] Bayle, [245] Bell, Benjamin, [219] Bell, John, [219] Bell, Sir Charles, [219], [274] Bellini, [172] Benivieni, [114] Bernard, Claude. 247
Bernard the Provincial, [077] Bhang, [301] Bichat, [160], [162], [164], [208] Bienaise, [177] Bigelow, Henry J., [295] Bilguer, [215] Billroth, Theodor, [264] Blumenbach, [222] Boerhaave, [193] influence of, [168] Boerhaave's, clinics, [167] system of medicine, [194] theory of inflammation, [164] Bonnet, [270] Bordeu, [201] Borelli, [160], [172] Borri, [176] Botal, Leonard, [146] Boucliut, [259] Boyer, [267] Boylston, Dr., [279] Bouillaud, [244] Boulot, [177] Bourgeois, Louise, [166] Braid, Dr. James, [204] Braidism, [204] Brainard, Daniel, [295] Brasdor, [214] Brigham, [290] Brisseau, [178] Brissot, practice of bleeding by, [118] British surgeons, modern, [275] Brodie, Sir Benjamin, [273] Bronssais, [243] Brown, Dr. John, [200] Browne, Sir Thomas, [175] Brunner, [183] Brunonian doctrine, [205] Buck, Gurdon, [293] Bumstead, Freeman J., [289] Burking, [231]

Cabalistic theory, [141] Cæsareau operation, [134] Camper, Peter, [219] Cardan, Jerome, [142] Cardinal powder, [165] Carion, Stellwag von, [253] Casserius, [162] Cataract, [178] Cathedral medical schools, [089] Cell, the term, [153] Cellular pathology, [256] Celsus, Cornelius, [036] Cesalpinus, [155] Chamberlain's obstetric forceps, [166] Chapman, Nathaniel, [286] Charitable institutions, ancient, [055] Chemical system of medicine, [169] Cheselden, [216] Cheyne, John, [248] Chinese, medicine of the, [005] Chiron, [007] Chloroform, discovery of, [303] Simpson's introduction, [313] Chopart, [314] Circulation, capillary, discovery of, [158] discovery of the, [155], [160] lesser, [112] failure to discover the, [113] Civiale, [269] Clark, Alonzo, [288] Classification of the history of medicine, [012] Clinical teaching, earliest systematic, [167] Cloquet, [269] Cnidus, Temple of Æsculapius at, [009] Cocaine, [314] Coction, doctrine of, [024] Colics, Abram, [248] Collot family of lithotomists, [177] Colonial physicians, [276] Columbus, [107], [155] Compass, invention of the, [099] Constantine the African, [074] Contrastimolo, [210] Cooper, Bransby, [273] Samuel, [273] Sir Astley, [271] Cornelius Agrippa, [139] Corpuscles of the blood, [158] Corvisart, [168] Cos, [019] Temple of Æsculapius at, [009] Cosmogony, Greek, [013] Countess's powder, [165] Cowper, [158], [182], [183] Cox, John R., [286] Crisis, doctrine of, [025] Cruveilhier, [245] Cullen, William, [198] Currie, [229] Czermak, [253]

Dalton, John C., [288] Darwin, Charles, [237] Erasmus, [202] Daviel, [215] De Graaf, [183] De Haën, [200] De la Marche, Marguerite, [182] Delafield, Edward, [290] De Launay, [177] Delamotte, [166], [182] Delpech, [268] De Marque, [177] Denis, Jean Baptiste, [176] Denman, Thomas, [220] Dental surgery, the first college of, [341] Dentistry, ancient and mediaeval, [332] as a specialty of medicine, [337] in America, [341] of prehistoric times, [331] relation of, to modern surgical pathology, [340] Desault, P. J., [214], [267] Devanter, [166] Dewees, William P., [288] Diagnosis, exact methods in, [263] Dionis, Pierre, [177] Dissection, ceremonials previous to, [149] difficulties attending, [103] of human bodies, 32
Doctor's mob in New York, [284] Dodart, [172]

Eberle, John, [286] Eclectics, [014], [046] Embalming, [003] Empedocles, [017] Empirics, [014] Engraving, [100] Engravings, first anatomical, [112] Epidanrus, Temple of Æsculapius at, [010] Erasistratus, [034] Erudite period, [013] Esquirol, [228] Ether, sulphuric, as an anæsthetic, [302] Eustachius, [107] Eve, Paul F., [291]

Fabre, [164] Fabricius ab Aquapeiulente, [109] Fabricius Hildanus, [110], [178] Fallopius, [109] Faust, [100] Fermentation, the causes of, [319] Fernel, Jean, [115] Fidelis, on legal medicine, [167] Filkin, [217] First hospitals in United States, [283] First medical schools in the United States, [281] Flint, Austin, [288] Fothergill, John, [212] Francis, John W., [286] Frank, J. P., [212] Frère Come, [214] Frère Jacques, [177] Frick, [290] Fuchs, [253] Functions of the spinal nerves, discovery of the, [248]

Gaddesden, John, [087] Galen, anatomy and physiology of, [039] Galen, Claudius, [036] Galen's, influence, [043] theories, [039] Gardiner, [199] Garengeot, [213] Gaub, [195] Gerard of Cremona, [090] Gerdy, [270] Germicides, internal use of, [329] Germ-theory of disease, [259] what it means, [323] Gibson, William, [263] Gilbert, of England, [087] Gimbernat, [215] Glisson, [163], [183] Goerter, [163] Goode, John Mason, [247] Goodwin, [160] Goursaud, [177] Graves, Robert, [248] Gray, John P., [290] Greece, medicine of, [016] Greek period, [012], [049] Gregory, [199] Griesinger, [254] Gross, Samuel P., [294] Guillemeau, Jacob, [131] Gunn, Moses, [295] Guthrie, [273] Guttenberg, [100] Guy de Chauliac, [093] Gymnasia, the, [018] Gymnasiarch, [018] Gymnast, [018]

Hahn, [229] Hahnemann, [241] Haller, [160], [162], [163], [220] Ilaly-Abbas, [061] Hamilton, Frank H., [293] Harvey, Gideon, [175] J. William, [155] Hasheesh, [301] Hasner, [253] Havers, [183] Heberden, [212] Hebra, [253] Hebrews, medicine of the, [003] Heister, [215] Helvetius, [160] Henle, [254] Henri de Mondeville, [088] Herophilus, [033] Hessenfratz, [160] Heurne, Otto de, bedside instruction by, [167] Hewson, [161] Hiera sacra, [003] Highmore, [183] Hippocrates, [019] Hirudinomania, [244] Hoboken, [183] Hodgen, John T., [294] Hoffmann, Christopher Ludwig, [200] Hoffmann, Friedrich, [197] Hoffmann's dynamic system, [197] Holmes, Oliver Wendell, [290] Home, Sir Everard, [224] Homoeopathy, [241] Horner, W. E., [287] Hospitals and clinics, [231] Howard, John, [212] Hufeland, [240] Humanization of vaccine-virus, [228] Hunter, John, [164], [218] William, [218] Hunters' study of the lymphatic system, the, [161] Huxham, John, [212] Hydrotlierapeutic system, [255] Hydrotherapy, [229]

Iatrocliemical system, [169] Iatroliptes, [018] Iatromechanical school, [171] Infarctus, doctrine of, [201] Influence,
of botany on medicine, [237] of chemistry on medicine, [238] of Darwin and Spencer on medicine, [237] of Harvey's discovery, [159] of physics on medicine, [238] of the art of printing, [100] of the French Revolution, [191] of the Northern invaders, [071] of the occult sciences, [139] of the Salernian school, [081] of zoology on medicine, [238] Inoculation, against small-pox, in America, [279] Inoculation, preventive, against smallpox, [225] with cow-pox, the first, [226] Irritability of tissues, discovery of, [163] Isopathy, [241]

Jackson, Charles T., [310] Jacobus Sylvius, [103] Jager, [253] Jaxtthal, [253] Jenner, Edward, [226] Jesuit powder, [165] Jews, prejudice against the, [233] John Actuarius, [066] John of Procida, [079] Joubert's Popular Errors, [147]

Kampf, [201] Kepler, [162] Keyes, [289] Kirkbride, [290]

Laennec, [262] Lamballe, Joubert de, [270] Lancisi's clinic, [168] Lanfranc, [091] Langenbeck, Bernhard von, [264] Larrey, [267] Lavoisier, [160], [191] Lawrence, Sir William, [274] Le Boe, [167], [169] Le Cat, [214] Le Dran, [213] Léonicenus, Nicholas, [101] Lettsom, [213] Leuwenhoek, [158] Levret's modification of obstetrical forceps, [166] Ligatures, first use of, in amputations, [127] Linacre, Thomas, [101] Linnæus, [191] Lisfrauc, [269] Lister, [261] Lister's, studies and methods, [325] work, benefits of, [327] Liston, Robert, [274] Lithotomy, lateral, inventor of, [177] Lizars, John, [271] Long, Crawford, [301] Lorry, [228] Louis, [216] Lymph, diseovery of the circulation of, [158]

Machaon, [010] McClellan, George. 293
Me Dowell, Ephraim, [267], [292] Magati, [176] Magendie. 216
Magie, [111] Magnetism, animal, [203] Maimonides, [065] Maitre, Jean, [178] Malgaigne, [270] Malpighi, [158] Mandragora, [301] Marcellus Donatus, [115] March, Alden. 295
Marchetti, [158], [176] Mareschal, Georges, [178] Marinus, [042] Marjoliu, [269] Mascagni, [161] Mauriceau, [166], [182] Mauthner, [253] Mayow, [160] Mead, Richard, [213] Meclianico-dynamic system of medicine, [197] Meckel, [162] Medical, journals in the United States,
first, [285] jurisprudence, beginning of, [166] school of the natural sciences, [258] study under preceptors, [277] systems, promulgation of, [152] Medici puri, pretensions of, [189] Medicine, and surgery, approach of, [147] dogmatic school of, [013] Imperial school of, at Pekin, [006] physiological theory of, [243] of priesthood from, [147] Meiboni, [184] Meigs, John Forsyth, [289] Melainpus, [006] Mesmer, Frank, [203] Mesmerism, [203] Mesue, [060] Methodism, [013], [045] Microscope, [100] Midwifery during the seventeenth century, [182] Midwives, [165] Mondino, [092] Monro, Alexander, Sr., [216] Alexander, second and third, [216] Donald, [216] Monroes, the two, [164] Montpellier, the school of, [086] Morarnl, [213] Morel, [176] Morgagni, [224] Morton, Richard, [175] William T. G., [306] Mott, Valentine, [293] Muller, [222] Munich Clinical School, [258] Muralt, [180] Mutter, Thomas D., [293] Mystic period, [012]

Natural history, the school of, [219] Natural philosophy, the school of, [249] Needham, [183] Nélaton, [270] Nepenthe, [301] New Vienna School, [250] Nitrous-oxide gas, [303] Nominalist, [069] Nuck, [183]

Obstetrical forceps, invention of the, [166] Obstetricians and gynaecologists, American, [295] Obstetrics, development of, [166] Oken, [249] Ophthalmoscope, [263] Oppolzer, [253] Oribasins, [048] Orthopaedics, origin of name, [177] Ovariotomy, the first, [267]

Pacchioni, [183] Palfyn's obstetrical forceps, [166] Paracelsus, [143] Paré, Ambroise, [123] Paré and the surgeons of St. Come, [131] Park, Henry, [217] Parker, Willard, [293] Paulas Ægineta, [051] Pecquet, [161]
Percussion, invention of the art of, [210] Pergamos, library of, [030] Periodic physicians, [017] Peruvian bark, discovery of, [164] Petit, J. L., [213] Pen, [166] Peyer, [183] Peyronie, [213] Pfeufer, [254] Pharmacopolists, [054] Philosophic period, [012], [018] Phrenology, [163], [242] Physical examination, methods of, [263] Physick, Philip S., [291] Physiological medicine, [253] Pinel, [163], [196], [206], [228] Piorry, [262] Pitard, John, [092] Plater, Felix, [118] Plato, [027] Pleximeter, [263] Podalirius, [010] Porta, Giovanni Batista, [118] Portal, [223] Paul, [166], [182] Pott, Percival, [217] Pravaz, [269] Praxagoras, [027] Priessnitz, [255] Primitive period, [012] Pringle, Sir John, [212] Ptolemy Soter, [031] Purkinje, [222] Purmann, [180] Pythagoras, [015]

Quesnay, [173], [214] Quintus, [042]

Radcliffe, [213] Rademacher, [254] Rapid multiplication of scientific literature, [239] Rasori, [240] Rau, [180] Ray, Isaac, [290] Raymond Lulli, [087] Realism, [206] Realist, [069] Receptaculum chyli, discovery of, [161] Reflex action, discovery of, [248] Reform period, [013] Regulation of practice in colonial times, [285] Reil, [202] Religious orders and the sick, [095] Rembert Dodoens, [115] Reuss, [253] Rhazes, [060] Rhinoplasty, [176] Rhodes, Temple of Æsculapius at, [008] Richerand, [267] Richter, August Gottlieb, [216] Riolan, [128] Rivinius, [183] Rodger, J. K., [293] Roeschlaub, [240] Roger of Parma, [078] Roland of Parma, [078] Rolfink, [188] Rome during the Greek period, [053] Rokitansky, [250] Roser, [253] Rousset and the Cæsarean operation, [134] Roux, [269] Rufus of Ephesus, [042] Rush, Benjamin, [206], [283] Ruysch, [158]

Sabatier, [214] Sacred period, [012] Salernum, school of, [072] Sandifort, [219] Sands, Henry B., [293] Sanson, [269] Santoro, [171] Santoro's thermometer, [171] Sauvage, [196] Saviard, [177] Scalpel, first use of, in dissecting, [112] Scarpa, [162], [215] Schaf hausen, [183] Schneider, [162], [184] School of rational medicine, [254] Scientific societies and journals, origin of, [151] Scultetus, [180] Seminalism, [259] Serapion, [060] Servetus, Michael, [112], [155] Severino, [119], [176] Shoeffer, [100] Shot wounds, the new teaching of Paré concerning, [132] Siegemundin, Justine, [182] Sigmund, [253] Simpson, Sir James Y., [274] Sims, J. Marion, [296] Skoda, [251] Smellie, William, [220] Smellie's modification of the obstetrical forceps, [166] Smith, Nathan R., [292] Societies and academies, foundation of, [235] Soemmering, [162], [222] Sol id ism, [198] Spontaneous generation of life disproven, [321] St. Come, College of, 92, [122] Stahl, [195] Stahl's pietistic system, [195] Steno, Nicholas, [159] Steno's duct, [159] Stethoscope, [262] Stimolo and contrastimolo, [240] Stoerck, [200] Stokes, William, [248] Stoll, [200] Student-life during the 15th and 16th centuries, [148] Surgery, achievements of, [263] reasons for neglect of, [120] Swammerdam, [153], [183] Sydenham, [152], [165], [173] Sylvius, [167] Syme, James, [274] Syphilis, wide-spread outbreak of, [136]
Teeth, substitutes for human, [335] Telescope, invention of the, [099] Tenon, [215] Thaer, [199] Themison, [011] Theory of excitement, [210] Theosophy, [111] Thermometer, discovery of the, [171] Thoth, [002] Tourniquet, invention of, [176] Tourniquet, screw, invention of, [213] Transfusion of blood in man, the first, [176] Travers, Benjamin, [248], [273] Treatment of the insane, improvement in, [228] Troja, [228] Trotula, [079] Trousseau, [247] Türck, [253] Tyrrel, [273]

Universities and royal scientific societies, [192] Vaccination,
compulsory, [228] in the United States, the first, [279] the first, [227] Vagadasastir, [004] Valsalva, [176] Van Buren, William H., [289] Van Helmont, [168] Van Helmont's svstem of medicine, [168] Van Siebold, [216] Van Swieten, [168] Van Swieten and the Old Vienna School, [199] Velpeau, [270] Venesection, first account of, [010] revival of, [118] Verulam, Lord, [153] Vesalius, Andreas, [104] Vicq d'Azvr, [162], [164], [223] Vidal, [269] Vieussens, [162], [186] Virchow, Rudolph, [255] Vitalism, [201] modern, [255]

Wainman, [217] Warren, John Collins, [291] Waterhouse, Dr., [279] Wells, Horace, [305] Werlhof, [211] Wharton, [183] White, Anthony, [216] Charles, [216] Wiehman, [211] William of Salicet, [091] Willis, Thomas, [163], [170] Winslow, [164], [223] Winternitz, [255] Wirsnng, [183] Wiseman, Richard, [180] Wistar. Caspar, [286] Wolf, [222] Wood, George R, [287] Wren, Sir Christopher. 182
Wunderlich, [250], [254]

Zeissel, [253]