Anthropological Notes.

By W. L. H. Duckworth, M.D., SC.D., M.A.

The following notes deal in the briefest possible manner with the more important observations to be made on human bones; and it is conceivable that some such records might be obtained under circumstances precluding the observer from securing or removing the actual specimens, and even in instances where only a very brief period is available for inspecting them. It is convenient to arrange the observations under the following separate headings:—

1. The circumstances attending the death of the individual should be first investigated, and observations concerning the mode and locality of interment should be recorded (cf. Professor Tylor’s Schedule, under ‘Funeral Rites’).

2. The general condition of the specimen next demands attention. This is to some extent dependent upon circumstances referred to in the preceding section. From the texture and preservation of the actual bony substance, a rough estimate may be formed as to the lapse of time since the death of the individual. The occurrence of the skull alone, or at a distance from the remainder of the skeleton, should be noted.

3. The greater weight and size, as well as the greater prominence of the brow-ridges and ridges at the back of the skull, serve to distinguish the male sex, but in many cases the determination of sex is almost impossible.

As regards age, skulls are conveniently described as immature, adult or senile. Immature skulls lack the full complement of teeth or of sockets for these, and a deep cleft is seen to cross the base of the skull about an inch in front of the large hole (foramen magnum) for the spinal cord. Upon the attainment of maturity this cleft is obliterated, by the fusion of its margins. In senile crania, the sutural lines on the surface are almost entirely obliterated, and the jaws are toothless and much reduced in size and prominence.

4. The skull may be deformed. It is important to attempt to distinguish deformation produced during life (either artificially or otherwise) from that determined by the weight of superincumbent soil after interment. Artificial deformation is manifested in most cases by flattening of the forehead, or of the back of the skull, or of both. But posthumous deformation is quite irregular, the face is often involved as well as the brain-case, there is often extreme flattening from side to side, and the bones are usually fragile and tend to fall apart.

5. Trephine-holes, indicative of enterprise in operative surgery, should be noted. The regularity of contour and the size of the hole often gives the clue to its real nature. It must be remembered that, in the process of exhumation, injuries closely resembling the foregoing operative wounds may be received by skulls, and therefore the circumstances of exhumation demand enquiry in this connection. Some skulls are found to have been incised or engraved with decorative patterns after death.

6. Craniological descriptions deal with the appearances presented by skulls in each of the five normal positions or aspects depicted in Fig. 1.

In the first view or aspect (Fig. 1, B) the general form of the skull is shewn, and in proportions the cranial case may be either elongated or rotund; or again, if elongated, it may be elliptical (with no great difference in form between front and back), ovoid (when the hinder end is the broader), or rhomboid (lozenge or diamond-shaped).

In Fig. 1, C, the profile line, and its modification by prominent brow-ridges or jaws, claims attention. In Fig. 1, D, the general form of the eye (orbital aperture) and nose (nasal aperture), as well as the relative breadth of the face, are considered. Fig. 1, E, shows the palate, and the number and forms of the teeth are studied from this point of view. In Fig. 1, A, the form of the transverse cranial arc, and any irregularities, such as flattening or the production of a keeled (scaphoid) appearance, should be noted.

Fig. 1.

The five normæ, or aspects of the human skull, viz.:—(B) Norma verticalis, the vertex view; (C) Norma lateralis; (D) Norma facialis; (E) Norma basilaris; (A) Norma occipitalis.

7. The lower jaw is studied independently. The prominence of the chin, the squareness of the angle, the stoutness of the whole bone, and the number and characters of the teeth are the chief points to which attention is directed.

Fig. 2.—Measurement of the length of the skull with callipers (Flower’s Craniometer as modified by Dr. Duckworth).

Fig. 3.—Measurement of the length of the skull with another form of callipers.

8. Cranial measurements are made with callipers and a flexible steel or tape measure. These objects, as well as a graduated two-meter rod used for measuring stature or long bones, are supplied in a travelling case by Messrs. Hermann of Zürich, who have made them to Professor Martin’s designs. The whole outfit costs about £4, but the instruments can be obtained separately. Messrs. Hermann also make a modified form of the callipers, known as Flower’s Craniometer (cf. Fig. 2). Measurements are recorded in millimeters, in which the various callipers, etc., are graduated. The latter instruments may have the forms represented in Fig. 2 (Flower’s Craniometer) or Fig. 3, in which are shown the exact positions of the instruments in measuring the length of the skull.

The chief measurements may be now enumerated in order of importance:—

i. The extreme length of the brain-case, measured as shown in Figs. 2 and 3.

ii. The maximum breadth of the skull is measured on the brain-case.

iii. The circumference of the brain-case (as distinct from the face) is measured with the flexible tape passed round the brow-ridges and the back of the skull. The measurement is that of the greatest circumference of the brain-case obtainable in this way.

iv. Measurements illustrative of the degree of prominence of the upper jaw are two in number, and are made with the callipers. The two measurements start from the same point behind; this point is the middle of the front edge, or margin, of the hole for the spinal cord (foramen magnum), shown in Fig. 1, E. From this common point, the upper or basi-nasal measurement passes to the upper border of the nasal bones in the middle line of the face, and the lower or basi-alveolar measurement passes to the extreme front edge of the upper jaw in the middle line, just above and between the upper incisor teeth.

9. Measurements of the long bones of the limbs. These are best made by means of a graduated rod with fixed and movable limbs, resembling a large pair of callipers. Such a rod is supplied (as indicated above) by Messrs. Hermann. The bones to be measured are six in number for each side of the body, viz.:—those of the upper arm and thigh (humerus and femur); then two for the forearm (called radius and ulna, the former being the shorter); and two for the leg (called tibia and fibula, the former, or shin-bone, being the larger). The extreme or maximum length is measured in each case, excepting those of the femur and tibia.

i. The femur is measured obliquely, that is, from its ball-like head to a line touching both prominences at the lower end, as shown at B in Fig. 4. This represents the position of the bone in a person standing erect.

ii. The spiny processes on the upper end of the tibia are not included in the measurement of its length.

Immature limb-bones are recognised by the line which demarcates the extreme ends, or epiphyses, from the shaft (or diaphysis). Sexual differences are chiefly indicated by greater length, stoutness, and also by the development of osseous ridges in male bones.

Fig. 4.—Position of the thigh-bone for measurement of its length.

10. The measurements of the long bones are used in estimating the stature. Special notice is to be paid to individuals of giant or of dwarf stature. In this connection particular mention should be made in the following instances:—

(a) Where the thigh bone measures more than 52 cm., or less than 36 cm.

(b) Where the shin bone measures more than 42 cm., or less than 28 cm.

(d) Where the upper arm bone measures more than 37 cm., or less than 26 cm.

(e) Where the ulna measures more than 29 cm., or less than 20 cm.

(f) Where the radius measures more than 27 cm., or less than 19 cm. (only adult bones being considered, and the sex, where known, recorded).

11. Adult skulls will also excite attention when the horizontal circumference (measured in accordance with the directions provided above) is greater than 56 cm., or less than 47 cm.

VI.
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE.[16]

By Sir John Scott Keltie, LL.D., formerly Secretary, R.G.S.

The kind of information desired under this heading may be summed up in the three following questions, so far as uncivilised or semi-civilised countries are concerned:—

(1.) What are the available resources of the country that may be turned to industrial or commercial account?

(2.) What commercial products can find an available market in the country?

(3.) What are the facilities for or hindrances to intercourse between the country and the rest of the world?

Or, briefly, (1) Resources; (2) Wants; (3) Accessibility.

These include the questions of suitability for immigration and colonisation.

What is known as commercial geography is one of several special applications of geographical knowledge. From this practical point of view, therefore, the observations collected under other heads in this book will be of service, especially if the requirements of commerce are kept in view at the same time as the desiderata of science. From this standpoint, the sections on Meteorology, Geology, Natural History, and Anthropology should be consulted. Even general geographical and topographical observations will be of practical service—the general lie of the country, its altitudes, and its character at certain altitudes, its mountains, hills, valleys, plains, rivers—if regarded from the special standpoint of habitability and possibilities of development.

The suggestions contained in this, as in the other sections of this manual, are meant both for the ordinary explorer or traveller who may have to pass rapidly through a country and for those who may have more opportunity for making leisurely observations. To the former the following brief hints may prove serviceable:—

Observe and note—

1. As regards Resources:—

The extent or quantity, quality, facilities for raising or collecting, for transport and shipment, etc., of

(a) The natural products, such as minerals and metals, especially gold, silver, coal, iron, copper, tin, nitre, guano, phosphates, etc.; timber useful for various purposes; vegetable products, useful for food, fibres, dye-stuffs, or medicine—gums, resins, etc.; animal products useful for food, skins, fur, feathers; riverine or lacustrine products, useful for food, oil, or other purposes.

(b) Substances cultivated for food or for manufacturing purposes.

(d) Native methods of developing resources, of carrying on manufactures, and of transport.

(e) Practicability of developing the resources of the country by European methods.

2. As to Wants:—

(a) What particular things used by the natives could be profitably supplied from the outside?

(b) What do the natives lack that might be introduced and supplied from the outside?

(c) In all cases be particular to note favourite materials, shapes, colours, or other peculiarities, as of cloths, implements, ornaments, such as beads, anklets, etc.

3. As to Accessibility:—

Note the nearest ports and railways; the character and connections of native roads, if any; the navigability of rivers, inlets and lakes for various kinds of craft at various seasons of the year; heights of passes, whether suitable for animals or only for porters, whether blocked at any season of year; routes likely to be suitable for railways.

In all cases where practicable, specimens of products should be obtained, in order that specialists at home may judge of their industrial or commercial value.

For those who may have more leisure for observation, some or all of the following detailed hints may be useful:—

Minerals and Metals.—It is not necessary to add much here to what has been said under Geology. If the traveller is not himself competent, or has no opportunity to test the value of these products, he should bring home specimens; this, if possible, should be done in any case. Under this section a look-out should be kept for any indication of naphtha, asphalt, or mineral oils. From the commercial point of view the important points are—

Quality.—To what extent are minerals or metals, as gold, copper, iron, phosphates, mixed up with other matter? What is the yield per ton of ore? In the case of coal, how does it burn, and what is the percentage of ash? Next—

Quantity.—Does the substance occur in sufficient quantity to make it worth expenditure of capital and labour? The information must be obtained by personal inspection. Finally—

Locality.—Is the situation of the deposits easily accessible? How are they situated with reference to routes, existing or practicable? and how with reference to ports of embarkation? Could they be worked with the resources available in the country, or would labour and machinery require to be introduced? If worked in the country, is there any neighbouring market for the manufactured products? What are the native processes (if any) of obtaining and working minerals?

We must again refer to the section on Geology for further details, and the intending traveller would do well to take a few lessons before he leaves, so as to be able to recognise the most common and useful minerals and the conditions under which they usually occur; he will thus save much time and trouble.

Vegetable Products.—The directions for observation and collection given under the Botanical section should be attended to; and it is important that the traveller should be able to recognise the chief classes of plants, so that specialists may be able to pronounce generally on their utility.

Character of Surface.—The general character of the surface of a country, so far as its vegetation is concerned, should be clearly grasped. What proportion, or, if possible, what area is under forest? what under grass? what desert, or mountain, or marsh, or uncultivable? what under cultivation?

Forests.—If of a generally forest or thickly-wooded character, are the forests extensive and dense, with much undergrowth, as in tropical South America? or easily penetrable, as the forests of Europe and North America? Or are the trees scattered, either in clumps, or singly, as in a great part of Central Africa? Do they prevail over the country generally, or are the river-banks only lined with dense tree vegetation? Are the forests only found in the low country, or do they cover the hills and extend up the mountains?

Timber.—Ascertain the leading characteristics of the trees of the forests. What are the prevailing families, and, if possible, genera and species? What uses, if any, do the natives make of the woods? Which do they use for their houses, their furniture, their canoes, their weapons, their ornaments? How do the woods seem to stand tear and wear, the climate, the attack of destructive insects, immersion in water? Are there any woods that would do for such purposes as railway-sleepers or telegraph-poles in the conditions which prevail in the country? Any ornamental woods suitable for cabinet purposes?

Fibres, Fruits, Chemicals, etc.—Are there any plants the fibres of which could be turned to account? Any fruits adapted to human consumption, and are they found in any quantity, or could they be cultivated?

Are there any trees or other plants suitable for drugs or chemicals—bark, leaves, juices, roots? What medicines, narcotics, or stimulants are used by the natives? how are they obtained and how prepared?

Are there any species of useful plants growing wild—coffee, sugar, cotton, vanilla, spices, etc.? Any trees producing gums that might be of commercial value, like gum arabic, gutta-percha, or caoutchouc? Or any whose fruits yield oil, like the cocoa-nut and the olive? Do the natives make use of these juices? What are the processes of extraction and preparation?

Other Vegetation.—When there is an undergrowth, its character should be noticed, and the diseases, if any, to which trees are subject.

Note what other vegetation exists besides that of trees. Are there any plants like the turnip, the potato, the batata, which are useful as foods, or for other purposes? Specimens of any herbs likely to be useful should be obtained, especially if they are used by the natives for medicine, for dyeing, for poison, or other useful purposes.

Sometimes, as in Central and Western Australia, what arboraceous vegetation exists consists mainly of shrubs, the character of which should be noted. Do they hinder locomotion? Are their shoots useful for forage? Are they injurious to horses and cattle?

When there is herbaceous vegetation of any extent, what is its character? Is it tall and coarse and reedy, like much of the African grass? Or such as is found on the prairies and pampas? Or of a troublesome spinifex character, as in Australia? Or of a turf-like character, like the grasses of Europe? What are the components of this kind of vegetation, and how far is it likely to prove useful as fodder? What uses do the natives put it to, either for their animals or for manufactures? Do they use it for making mats or cloth? Are there any plants mixed with it injurious to animals? What is the condition of the grass at different seasons of the year? When is it at its best, its strongest, its densest? Is it liable to be parched up at any season? To what extent is its condition affected by the climate, by rainfall, by irrigation, natural or artificial? Is it easily removed, in order to make way for other cultures? Does it spread into the forest region, and has it any special characteristics there? How does it, as well as other useful vegetation, vary with altitude or other local conditions? Do the products change under different agricultural conditions? e.g., some are poisonous under certain conditions, not others?

Marshes, Deserts, Irrigation.—Note if marshes or peat-bogs, or other special features of the surface exist to any extent, and whether the drainage of marshes is practicable.

Where deserts exist, note their character. Are they sandy, gravelly, rocky, salt? What is the prevailing rock? If the desert character of the land (as is generally the case) seems due to want of water, is there any artificial means likely to be available for supplying that want? Is there any storage of water and irrigation among the natives? and, if so, how is it accomplished? and what are the results? Are there any sources within reach, either above or underground, from whence a supply of water for irrigation purposes could be obtained? Indicate any exceptional defects of quality in the supply of water.

Note if any part of the country is liable to periodical inundations. At what periods of the year do they occur? Are these inundations destructive, or are they utilised for agricultural purposes? Would it be possible to regulate these inundations?

Agriculture.—The general outcome of all these observations is the suitability of a country for agricultural development. What articles do the natives cultivate, if any? Has the cultivated land any special character, or is it simply the ordinary land cleared of trees or grass, or other wild growth? Note the methods and implements of culture used by the natives; the seasons of sowing and reaping, and preparing the crops for use. Do they depend for water on rainfall or irrigation? To what altitudes is cultivation carried, and what are the crops that prosper at these altitudes?

From the point of view of colonisation and agriculture, precise information as to the nature of the soil is desirable. The proportion or extent of a country suitable for agriculture might be noted. Observe, as precisely as practicable, the nature and depth of the upper layer of soil. The depth—it may be a few inches, or it may be two or three feet—can easily be ascertained. A general idea may also be given of its nature. Is it mostly vegetable mould, as it is likely to be in old forest or grass countries? or peaty? or marshy? If possible, also, ascertain the depth of the subsoil down to the rock or clay, or other permanent basis on which it rests. In a general way it might be observed whether the soil is sandy, gravelly, stony, calcareous, marly, clayey. Also is it compact, tenacious, or loose, and, above all, is it permeable or impermeable to water? Is the soil very dry or very moist? or what is its intermediate stage?

If the natives carry on cultivation, ascertain, if possible, the yield per acre of what they cultivate. Do they cultivate only for their own wants? If not, where and what is the nature of the market to which they send the surplus?

Does the country seem suitable for other cultures besides those carried on by the natives?

Animal Products.—If there are wild animals in the country, observe whether the natives hunt them for what they yield in the way of food or other useful products. Are there any ivory-yielding animals, or animals whose skins can be turned to profitable account? Could a sufficient supply for mercantile purposes be obtained by means of native hunters, if properly encouraged; or how would it be best to work such resources? Are there any laws or customs enforced by the natives in hunting wild animals? Are there any noxious wild animals, and to what extent do they affect human comfort and human life?

Domestic Animals.—It is important to know what domestic animals the natives possess, how they are reared and fed, and what uses they are put to. Also whether the country is good for horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry, and approximately what is the extent, situation, and accessibility of the grazing-lands. Are the pastures perennial? To what extent do they depend on rainfall, or irrigation, or on intermittent streams? During what months of the year are they available? Are there any plants among the pastures injurious to animals? Are there any insects (like the tsetse) or other animals injurious to cattle or horses? Do horses or asses exist among the natives, and what uses are they put to? If not, would they be likely to flourish, if introduced?

Fisheries.—Information concerning fish and fisheries is desirable; and among fish, from the practical standpoint, are included shell-fish (especially pearl shells), sponges, corals, and animals of the whale and seal kind. If the natives practise fishing, either in lakes, rivers, or the sea, ascertain the kinds of fish they capture, their methods and implements, and the particular seasons at which fishing is practised. Are the fisheries, whether worked by the natives or not, likely to be of commercial value?

Trade.—Much of the information suggested above will be of service from the special commercial point of view, especially with reference to export. Information should be obtained concerning any manufactures carried on by the natives besides what has been suggested above—manufactures in metal, in wood, in clay, or stone; in materials derived from the vegetable and animal kingdoms, what they are, what uses they are put to, what processes are used, and to what extent, if any, they form articles of trade. With regard to the import market, what generally are the wants of the natives and what new wants might be created. If possible, some approximate estimate of the value of the leading classes of imports, if there are any, should be obtained.

Ascertain if any goods are brought into the country from the outside; if so, what they are, where they come from, and as accurate an estimate as possible of quantity, or value, or both. In the case of imports from civilised countries, are those of any particular country preferred, and, if so, why? Is it owing to anything special in quality, or pattern, or cost, means of communication, or in quantity available? Is there any special tribe of middlemen who prevent the inland people from coming into direct relation with traders? Probably a market could be created for outside manufactures which have not as yet been introduced into the country; or such manufactures might easily obtain a market in preference to those of native make. Note especially the patterns of articles of native make, as these are probably adapted to the conditions of the country, and should therefore be imitated or improved upon in the case of imported goods, the quality of the latter being better, and the cost, if possible, lower. British traders, especially, often incur serious losses by not ascertaining in advance what particular articles and what special patterns are in demand among natives. Note also whether European methods might not be introduced with advantage for the manufacture of native goods. Native usages as to credit ought to be ascertained, what safeguards are binding, what is the medium of exchange, etc. It would be useful to discover beforehand whether the importation of machinery and explosives is likely to be unimpeded.

Climate.—This is an essential item, so far as the exploitation of tropical and semi-tropical countries by Europeans is concerned. Its main elements are determined by temperature, latitude, altitude, and rainfall; the character of the surface should also be taken into account. Under Meteorology, the main directions on the subject are given. The temperature at different seasons and at different times of the day (say 9 A.M., 3 P.M., and 9 P.M.) should be ascertained, and that at various altitudes. Rainfall observations are not of much service unless they can be obtained over a continuous series of years. Ascertain the distribution of rainfall over the year, and the limits of the rainy period of the year, when such period exists, and, if possible, the quantity which falls in the different months of the period; how does the rainfall differ with altitude and other topographical variations? If a country is subject to droughts, it is important to ascertain if there is any periodicity in these droughts, and how they affect the resources and prospects of the country, and the condition of the rivers. Would it be possible, by storage of water or other means, to counteract to any extent the bad effects of drought?

What effect has the rainy period and the drought period on the native inhabitants, and especially on Europeans? As far as possible, ascertain the birth and death rate per annum.

Facilities and Hindrances to Commercial Development.—Under this head the first consideration is Accessibility or Means of Communication. Generally, the quickest, cheapest, and safest routes to a satisfactory market should be ascertained.

Water Communication.—Observe what natural means of communication exist, what is the nature of communication between the country and the outside world. If communication by sea is of importance, how is the interior to be reached from the sea? Are there any deep inlets? Is there practicable river communication? For what sort of vessels is it adapted? Are there any obstructions in the river, and, if so, what is their nature, and how could they be surmounted? What is the width of the river, the depth of the water, and the force of the current, at various distances from the mouth, and at the periods of the year when the river is at its lowest and highest? Are there any lakes that could be utilised for communication?

Roads.—If there are native roads, state precisely what is their nature under various conditions of weather; their width; what sort of vehicles, if any, they are suited for, and where they lead to. If the country is mountainous, ascertain the principal passes, what places they connect, their exact heights at the highest point (not the heights of the mountains), for what animals or vehicles they are practicable, or if only for porters, and what is their condition at various seasons of the year. If the natives have any vehicles, or vessels, or other means of transport, describe them.

Railway Routes.—Observe, as far as possible, suitable routes for railway or canal communication, as well as for good roads, and whether any materials for railway construction are obtainable in the country. Possibly the country, if an inland one, could be connected by road or rail with some existing railway system. What are the nearest telegraph stations?

Labour.—Another important consideration under this head is that of labour—labour for the varied enterprises connected with the development of a country’s resources. Is labour obtainable within the country itself? If so, to what extent, and on what terms? Are the natives industrious, and are they likely to labour under foreign superintendence? Does slavery or forced labour in any form exist? If not obtainable in the country, how may labour be most easily and cheaply obtained? Is the country suited to manual labour by whites? If there are only certain kinds of labour in which whites may engage, state what they are.

To what extent could machinery be used with advantage? Is there any water power available? or any animal power?

Currency, Tariffs, etc.—Under this head also questions relating to currency should be included, or whatever other medium of exchange exists.

Another important consideration here is the question of tariffs, which, in one shape or another, exist in nearly all uncivilised and semi-civilised countries, from the hongo of Central Africa to the Customs duties of Eastern countries. Precise information concerning these, both as to exports and imports, is important.

Note, also, as precisely as practicable, the cost of living for Europeans settling down for a time, and the expenses involved in travelling through a country.

Inhabitants.—Is there anything in the character of the natives—physical, mental, or moral—likely to affect commercial intercourse or the industrial development of the country? Any prejudices or superstitions that should be attended to? Anything in the attitude of natives to traders and settlers deserving consideration? Is the population nomadic or settled? What material, if any, do they use for smoking, and what is the nature of their intoxicating drinks, if they have any? Estimate, as nearly as possible, the population, the density per square mile, both for the country as a whole and for the chief centres of population. Ascertain the nature of any political or social organisation which exists. What are the terms on which land can be acquired? What are the prevalent crimes? Under the Anthropological section directions are given for ascertaining the leading racial characteristics of the people.

VII.
ARCHÆOLOGY.

By D. G. Hogarth, C.M.G., M.A., D.LITT.

This section is intended, not for experts, but for those travellers without special interest or experience in archæological work, who, finding themselves in districts where unpublished antiquities exist, feel it incumbent to record or rescue them. General hints, therefore, are subjoined on methods of recording, cleaning, temporarily conserving, and conveying monuments and objects of antiquity.