Hints to Travellers, Scientific and General, Vol. 2 / Tenth edition, revised and corrected

by Royal Geographical Society

MEMORANDUM ON GLACIER OBSERVATIONS.

Revised by Alan G. Ogilvie.

The recent movements of glaciers may be noted by the following signs:—

When the ice is advancing, the glaciers generally have a more convex outline, the icefalls are more broken into towers and spires, and piles of fresh rubbish are found shot over the grass of the lower moraines. Moraines which have been comparatively recently deposited by advancing ice are disturbed, show cracks, and are obviously being pushed forward or aside by the glacier. There is a tendency for the glacier to terminate in a vertical front, or “Chinese wall,” as distinguished from the sloping snout of a stationary or retreating glacier, owing to the more rapid advance of the upper layers. If the advance is rapid the overhanging layers will fall, and an ice talus will collect in front. An inspection of the ice will often disclose horizontal lines of sheering which in a side view are seen to rise towards the terminal wall. Search should be made along these sheer planes for included moraine material, and any proofs of elevation of this material noted.

When the ice is in retreat it terminates in a gently sloping snout. The marks of its further recent extension are seen fringing the glacier both at the end and sides in their lower portions, the glacier fails to fill its former bed, and bare stony tracts, often interspersed with pools or lakelets, lie between the end of the glacier and the mounds of recent terminal moraines.

Where a glacier has retreated to any considerable extent, careful observations of the form of its bed are of value. What is the nature of the rock surfaces exposed—convex or concave; are they rubbed smooth on their leesides; how far have the contours of the cliffs or slopes, or the sides of any gorge, been modified where they have been subjected to ice-friction? Is there any evidence that the ice has flowed over large boulders, or loose soils, such as gravel, without disturbing them? How has it affected rocks of different hardness, for instance, veins of quartz in a less hard rock? Generally, do the appearances indicate that the glacier has excavated, or only abraded and polished its bed; that it has scooped out new rock-basins, or only cleaned out, scratched, and preserved from filling-up by alluvial deposits or earthslips, existing basins? What is the general character of the valley bottom and the slopes above and below the most conspicuous ancient moraines?

With a view to ascertaining the oscillations in length of a glacier, the traveller or surveyor should, if possible, mark on the ground the position of the end of the glacier at the time of his visit, so that the next visitor will be able to measure the movement that has taken place since his predecessor’s visit. Leaving out of question elaborate trigonometrical methods, such, for instance, as have been carried out on the Rhone Glacier in Switzerland, the following means may be adopted for recording the position of the glacier front with considerable accuracy. Paint some signs on large boulders, not too far from the end of the glacier, and measure their distance from it by a tape (Richter’s system), or build a low wall of stones of a few yards in length, and, say 15 to 20 inches in height, some distance from the ice-end, and measure this distance (Gosset’s system). It is to be recommended that the stones of these walls should also be painted. In either case the date and distance should be painted on the stones. If the traveller himself returns after some interval—even after only two or three weeks—he will be able to judge of the movement of the glacier, and he will have laid down a basis for further observations by future travellers. A plane-table sketch on a fairly large scale with contours or form lines of the ice front and its immediate vicinity is of the greatest value, as it records not only the position but also the form of the glacier. The sketch should, of course, show the position of the painted boulders or other fixed points near the ice. To ascertain the recent retreat of a glacier, measure the distance from the ice front to the most advanced terminal moraine, where vegetation first shows itself. The bare ground recently left by glaciers is easily recognisable. The diminution of volume is best measured by ascertaining the height of bare soil left on the sides of the lateral moraines in the portion of the glacier within the zone of vegetation. All photographic representations of the glacier end, and of the ground which has been freed from the glacier ice, are of great value. Those will be of most service that show the position of the glacier-snout with relation to some conspicuous rock or other feature in the local scenery. Each photograph should be dated, and the bearings and distance of the camera with reference to any such feature accurately noted.

Neighbouring glaciers often furnish very different results as regards advance or retreat, owing to the fact that steep glaciers anticipate in their oscillations those the beds of which are less inclined.

One of the results most to be desired is an exact knowledge of the dates:

• I. Of the maximum extension of the ice.
• II. Of the commencement of retreat.
• III. Of the minimum.
• IV. Of the commencement of fresh increase.

and even information giving approximate dates—say, to within a decade, may prove to be of value.

In dealing with a mountain group, therefore, the traveller should note where he can get the information as to the past, the date of the commencement of the actual movement of each glacier, and in all cases whether the ice is in advance, or retreat, or stationary. Of course the rate of forward movement, or velocity of the ice, and the oscillations in the extension of the ice must be kept carefully distinct. Observations should also be made on the presence of blue bands, and their relation to the lines of stratification in the névé noted.

Should time and circumstances permit, a series of observations of the velocity of the ice is of value. These may be made after Tyndall’s method, by planting a line of sticks across the glacier, or by painting marks on boulders, the position of which relatively to ascertained points on the mountain-side has been accurately fixed. The size of the glacier that is, the area of its basin and its length, also the slope of its bed above, as well as at the point measured, should be noted. The rate of movement of the ice appears to be connected both with the volume of the glacier and the inclination of its bed, and is considerably affected by temperature. Thus a rise in temperature may even be accompanied by a temporary advance, but in this case a sagging will take place higher in the névé, producing a concave cross-section, showing that the advance is not due to increased snowfall, but to a decrease in the viscosity of the ice.

The advance or retreat of a glacier are not the only factors to take into account in estimating the decrease or diminution of the volume of ice. The highest level of the transverse convexity of the glacier at various points in its course should also be noted. If the glacier is bounded laterally by rocky walls, marks may conveniently be painted on these, opposite one another. The vertical height of the marks above the ice at the sides should be noted, and the date of the observation recorded.

A society, entitled the Commission Internationale des Glaciers, has been formed to promote the study of glacial movements and other points of interest and importance. Their reports from their inception to 1905 were published in the ‘Archives des Sciences,’ Geneva, the journal of the Swiss Alpine Club, and from 1906 to 1913 in the ‘Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde,’ Berlin. A summary of the reports in English appeared throughout these years in the ‘Journal of Geology,’ Washington. The European War has disorganised this international society, but steps are being taken to establish some organisation to replace it.

IV.
NATURAL HISTORY.[7]

By the late H. W. Bates, F.R.S.

Revised by W. R. Ogilvie-Grant,
British Museum (Natural History).

In the present state of Biological Science, travellers who intend to devote themselves specially to the zoological or botanical investigation of new or little-known countries, require to be trained for the work beforehand, and are consequently well-informed as to methods and appliances. It is not for them that these ‘Hints’ are drawn up, but for general travellers and explorers, who, whilst engaged chiefly in survey, wish to know how best to profit by their opportunities of benefiting science by collecting examples of new or rare species, and how to preserve and safely transmit their specimens. The observations refer only to explorations by land.

Outfit[8]—

A magazine sporting rifle, either Mannlicher ·256, or Lee-Enfield ·303, and ammunition (solid and soft-nosed, split or hollow-point bullets).

Double-barrel 12-bore gun—for choice a Keeper’s hammerless non-ejector gun and ammunition (Nos. 3 and 5 shot).[9]

Double-barrel ·410 hammer-gun and ammunition (Nos. 8, 10 and 12 shot).

Cartridges with a full charge of powder and No. 8 shot will kill larger birds at a considerable distance; those with Nos. 10 and 12 shot are specially loaded for collecting smaller birds at closer quarters, and may be used at distances of from fifteen to twenty-five yards without damaging the specimens. The loads are: ⅜ oz. No. 12 shot, ¾ dr. black powder, or 9 grains Schultz; ½ oz. No. 10 shot, ¾ dr. black powder, or 9 grains Schultz. In damp climates black powder will be found more reliable. If shot larger than No. 8 is used with this gun, the pattern is erratic and the result uncertain. Messrs. Cogswell and Harrison, 226 Strand, W.C., have had considerable experience in loading cartridges for these guns, and their Nos. 10 and 12 shot is even and carefully screened.

No. 1 saloon pistol and ammunition (turned-over caps with dust shot). This pistol will be found of great value for collecting small birds at very close quarters in thick cover, or the more active lizards. It can be easily carried in a holster on a belt, to which is also attached a small pouch for ammunition. Small brass turned-over caps, loaded with a pinch of dust-shot, can be had of Messrs. Cogswell and Harrison.

Telescope.

Binocular field-glasses.

Traps can be procured from Mr. S. J. Beckett, 39 Dresden Road, Highgate, N. (apply, in the first place, by letter). For catching hyænas, etc., large traps are supplied; for smaller mammals, Brailsford live-traps and Cyclone and Schuyler break-back traps are the best, and should be procured in several sizes. Pitfall-traps made by sinking earthenware jars flush with the ground are also useful.

Several air-tight zinc-lined collecting boxes, fitted with light wooden trays. These are made by Messrs. Lovelace and Co., 20 Gloucester Road, S.W., and will be found extremely serviceable for packing, storing, and transmitting skins of smaller mammals and birds. When starting they can be packed full of stores. Uniform cases may be substituted, but, unless protected by wooden travelling-covers, are liable to get damaged and to admit insects.

A set of carpenter’s tools; screws and French nails of various sizes.

A set of soldering irons and soft solder, etc.

For skinning large Mammals[*]—

2 shoemakers’ knives.[†]

3 large scalpels.

1 small saw.[†]

1 pair cutting-pincers.[†]

1 pair pliers.[†]

For skinning small Mammals and Birds[*]—

Taxidermist’s box containing:

6 scalpels.[†]

1 oil-stone.[†]

2 pairs of scissors (one short-bladed, one dissecting).[†]

2 pairs of tow-pliers (like curling-irons, for inserting tow or cotton-wool into the necks of bird-skins).[†]

1 pair of forceps.[†]

1 pair of tweezers.[†]

1 pair cutting-pliers.[†]

1 pair compasses.[†]

1 2-foot rule marked in tenths of an inch.[†]

1 millimetre rule.

3 darning needles.[†]

Needles and thread.

1 tin of mixed pins.

Bundles of galvanized wire (for inserting in tails of small mammals and in necks of bird-skins).

3 hog-hair brushes for applying arsenical soap.

2 egg-drills (two sizes).[†]

2 blow-pipes (two sizes).[†]

2 pencils.

1 small biscuit tin of fine boxwood sawdust.

1 2-lb. tin of candle naphthaline.

1 2-lb. tin crystal.

1 2-lb. tin plaster of Paris.

3 1-lb. tins of arsenical soap (in treacle tins), or the same weight of powdered arsenic.

1 2-lb. tin burnt alum.

1000 labels for bird-skins.

500 labels for small mammals.

2 bundles of wool.

Tow (which can be used as packing).

6 pieces of fine mesh wire-netting (for making cages, etc.).

[*] All the articles mentioned in this list can be best procured from Mr. S. J. Beckett, 39 Dresden Road, Highgate, N. Apply, in first place, by letter.

[†] Those marked with a cross (†) can be obtained from Messrs. Buck, 242 Tottenham Court Road, W.C.

For preserving Reptiles, Batrachians, and Fish—

These should be preserved in spirits whenever practicable.

For larger specimens—

2 or 4 four-sided copper tanks with a round opening of six inches diameter, closed with a screw cover. Each tank is fitted into a strong wooden case with a lid secured by hinges and lock, and furnished on two opposite sides with a rope handle.

For smaller specimens liable to be damaged—

2 or 4 wooden cases divided into four or six compartments, each containing a pickle jar, with glass rubber-edged stopper secured by an adjustable iron fastening.

3 dozen or more corked glass tubes of various sizes.

A supply of sheets of zinc, soldering irons and soft solder (to make extra tanks).

1000 parchment labels bearing numbers.

If the above specially constructed zinc tanks cannot be procured, wide-mouthed earthenware jars, tightly closed with cork or rubber, may be used.

The glass tubes will be found specially useful for collecting Arachnida, Myriopoda, small Mollusca, etc.

For collecting Insects—

Store boxes lined with cork-carpet.

Triangular envelopes of smooth foolscap paper for butterflies and thin-bodied moths.

Card fly-discs.

Entomological pins (boxes of various sizes).

2 zinc oval pocket boxes lined with cork-carpet (two sizes).

6 or more sets (four each) of glass-bottomed pill-boxes covered with jaconet.

2 pairs of entomological forceps.

4 insect killing-bottles (two sizes) in leather cases. (Hinton & Co., 38 Bedford Street, Strand, W.C.)

A small bottle of oxalic acid, with stabbing quill fixed in cork, for killing large insects.

2 flat killing-bottles for beetles, with glass tube passing through the cork and fitted with a cork plug.

2 small entomological lamps.

6 tins of bicycle oil.

1 dozen 1-lb. tins of golden syrup or treacle.

2 sugar brushes.

1 3-oz. bottle of acetate of amyl (“Essence of Pear Drops,” for mixing with treacle) (Hinton & Co.).

3 butterfly-nets (two round, one kite-shaped) with extra bags.[10]

1 water-net (for aquatic insects).

Several pieces of cork-carpet about a foot square (for making extra store boxes).

1 pocket lens.

2 large pickle-jars of carbolized sawdust to be used as packing for beetles after they have been killed.

3 dozen corked glass tubes (three sizes).[11]

For instructions regarding the collecting and preservation of specimens in all branches of natural history, travellers and others are recommended to provide themselves with a ‘Handbook of Instructions for Collectors,’ issued by the British Museum (Natural History). With illustrations. Second edition, 1904. Price 1s. 6d.

In humid tropical countries, where the ubiquitous ants are likely to destroy specimens before they are ready to be packed away, drying-cages, suspended from the roof of a hut or tent, are absolutely necessary. These can be readily made from old packing-cases, but a few square feet of wire gauze must be provided for the back and front of the cages, and the cord by which they are suspended must be threaded through a small calibash containing oil, or, better still, naphthaline, to prevent ants from descending from the roof. The cages may be so arranged as to be taken to pieces and put together again readily; one, for birds, should be about 2 feet 6 inches long by 1 foot 6 inches high and 1 foot broad; the other, for insects and other small specimens, may be about one-third less. They should have folding doors in front, with panels of wire gauze, and the backs wholly of the latter material; the sides fitted with racks to hold six or eight plain shelves, which in the smaller cage should be covered with cork, or any soft wood that can be obtained in tropical countries. A strong ring fixed in the top of the cage, with a cord having a hook attached at the end by which to hang it in an airy place, will keep the contained specimens out of harm’s way until they are quite dry, when they may be stowed away in suitable close-fitting boxes. An even simpler and perfectly effective plan is to take a number of pieces of stout wire each about 18 inches long, bend each end into a loop, and round the middle solder a funnel-shaped piece of tin to contain powdered candle-naphthaline. The upper loop of each wire can be secured with string to a rafter, and between the lower loops flat boards, or a series of boards, can be suspended on which skins may be placed to dry. This method has been proved to be safe, no ants ever venturing to cross the naphthaline.

A few yards of india-rubber waterproof sheeting may be found useful as a temporary covering to collections in wet weather or in crossing rivers.

To those who have had little or no experience in field-collecting it may be useful to give some idea of the impedimenta considered absolutely essential for an ordinary day’s work when it is desired to collect, as far as possible, in all branches of zoology, and the most convenient means of disposing of such. The collector should be accompanied, if possible, by two intelligent natives to act as bearers, who may, with patience, be developed into useful assistant-collectors.

A 12-bore gun or rifle, according to circumstances, with ammunition, to be carried by the first bearer.

A ·410 collecting gun and twenty-five cartridges, including a few cartridges with full loads of 8 shot: the cartridges to be carried by self, the gun, when not in use, to be carried by the second bearer. The 10 shot and 12 shot ·410 cartridges should be carried in the two lower waistcoat pockets, where they are easily accessible, and the few 8 shot cartridges in some other pocket.

Saloon pistol in holster with pouch for carrying ammunition on belt, strapped round the waist, so that it can be easily and quickly made use of.

A butterfly-net carried by self, or by the second bearer if not in use.

Large oval zinc pocket-box lined with cork carpet, containing a stock of pins, both large and small, stuck in one side of the cork carpet ready for use; to be carried in the right-hand side-pocket of the coat.

Entomological forceps, pointed forceps, and larger forceps for picking up scorpions, large spiders, etc., and entomological killing-bottle; to be carried in the left-hand side-pocket of the coat.

Two larger-sized corked glass tubes half-full of spirits and a camel’s-hair brush to be carried in the right and left top waistcoat-pockets, for collecting small spiders, etc. It is difficult to pick up the swift-running ground-haunting species without injury, but, by dipping the brush in spirits and placing it on them, they are at once stupefied, and may then be easily transferred to the tube.

The spirit is also required for saturating the small plug of cotton-wool to be pushed down the throat of each bird as soon as it has been killed; the gape should then be plugged with dry cotton. Specimens thus prepared may be carried, even in a hot climate, for several hours without deteriorating.

A game bag carried by the second bearer, with a large supply of paper for wrapping up birds when shot.

Several sets of glass-top pill-boxes carried in the ‘hare’-pocket, or in one of the pockets of the game-bag, to which they can be transferred when filled.

A pickle pot in Willesden canvas or basket-work cover with handle, half filled with spirits, for collecting small snakes, lizards, frogs, scorpions, etc.; to be carried by the first bearer, who should be instructed how to hunt for reptiles, etc.

If possible, a beetle-killing bottle should be added to the above impedimenta, and may be carried in the left-hand breast-pocket of the coat.

A Norfolk coat is a most useful article of clothing, and should be provided with a deep ‘hare’ pocket running round the skirt and divided in the middle.

After a very short time the collector will be able to find any article he may require by instinct, and without loss of time. To have a pocket for each article, and to know where it is, saves an infinity of trouble.

At daylight the traps should be visited, and any specimens to be preserved should at once be sent back into camp.

Collecting should always, if possible, be vigorously prosecuted during the early morning hours, when birds, etc., are feeding, and are much more easily procured.

When butterflies and thick-bodied moths are placed in the killing-bottle, care should be taken to see that they die with their wings turned the ‘right way,’ i.e., with the underside outermost. Those which die with the upper side outermost should be at once reversed with the aid of a pin or the sharp-pointed forceps, and then replaced in the bottle. If not attended to at once they become rigid, and the wings get rubbed and spoilt before they are quite dead.

Where and what to collect.—The countries which are now the least known with regard to their natural history are New Guinea and some of the large islands to the east of it, East Sumatra, the highlands of Mindanao and other Philippine Islands, Formosa, Tibet, Indo-China, and other parts of Central Asia, Equatorial Africa, and Central South America. A special interest attaches to the indigenous products of oceanic islands, i.e., islands separated by a deep sea from any large tract of land. Those who have opportunities could not fail to make interesting discoveries by collecting specimens of the smaller animals (insects, molluscs, etc.,) and plants in these isolated localities. Both in continental countries and on islands the truly indigenous species will have to be sought for on hills and in the remote parts, where they are more likely to have escaped extermination by settlers and the domestic animals introduced by them. In most of the better-known countries the botany has been better investigated than the zoology, and in all these there still remains much to be done in ascertaining the exact station, and the range, both vertical and horizontal, of known species of animals and plants. This leads us to one point which cannot be too strongly insisted on, namely, that some effective means should be adopted by the traveller to record the exact locality and date of every specimen he collects.[12]

A traveller may be puzzled, in the midst of the profusion of animal and vegetable forms which he sees around him, to know what to collect and what to leave. Books can be of little service to him on a journey, and he had better at once abandon all idea of encumbering himself with them. A few days study at the principal museums before he starts on his voyage may teach him a great deal, and the cultivation of a habit of close observation and minute comparison of the specimens he obtains will teach him a great deal more. As a general rule all specimens which he may meet with for the first time far in the interior should be preferred to those common near the civilised parts, and he should bear in mind that the few handsome kinds which attract the attention of the natives, and are offered for sale to strangers, are almost sure to be of species well known in European museums. He should strive to obtain as much variety as possible, and not fill his boxes and jars with quantities of specimens of one or a few species, but as some of the rarest and most interesting species closely resemble others which may be more common, he should avail himself of every opportunity of comparing the objects side by side. In most countries, as already remarked, the truly indigenous, and often the rarest, species are to be found only in the mountains at considerable elevations and in the primitive forests, the products of cultivated districts being nearly all widely distributed and well known. In Botany a traveller, if obliged to restrict his collecting, might confine himself to those plants which are remarkable for their economic uses; always taking care to identify the flowers of the tree or shrub whose root, bark, leaves, wood, etc., are used by the natives, and to preserve a few specimens of them. But if he has the good fortune to ascend any high mountain not previously explored, he should make as complete a collection of the flowering plants as possible, at the higher elevations. The same may be said of insects found on mountains, where they occur in great diversity—on the shady and cold sides rather than on the sunny slopes—under stones, and about the roots of herbage, especially near springs, on shrubs and low trees, and so forth; for upon a knowledge of the plants and insects of mountain ranges depend the solution of many curious questions regarding the geographical distribution of forms over the earth. In Reptiles, the smaller Batrachians (Frogs, Salamanders, etc.) should not be neglected, especially the extremely numerous family of tree-frogs; the arboreal, or rock-haunting species of Lizards seen out of reach, and the swift-running forms that inhabit sandy plains may be secured with a charge of dust-shot, the saloon pistol being especially handy for this purpose. Snakes should be taken without injuring the head, which is the most important part of the body: a cleft stick may be used in securing them by the neck, or they may be shot, and on reaching camp placed in the jars of spirits. As large a collection as possible should be made of the smaller Fishes and Tortoises of lakes and rivers.

Mammals and Birds.[13]—An ordinary geographical expedition will hardly have the means at its disposal for bringing home many specimens of the larger animals, but many species in regions visited only by adventurous explorers are still desiderata in the large museums of Europe; and additional specimens of all genera of which there are numerous closely allied species (e.g., Rodents, Antelope, Deer, etc.), and of all the small nocturnal mammals would be welcome to zoologists. If only portions can be obtained, skulls with horns attached are to be preferred. The smaller birds shot on an excursion should be carried to camp in the game bag, folded in paper, the mouth, anus and any wounds being first plugged with cotton-wool. In a hot climate when the birds have to be carried for some distance before they are skinned, a plug of cotton-wool dipped in a weak solution of formaline or in spirits should be pushed down the gullet into the stomach, before the mouth is plugged with dry cotton-wool. This precaution will insure specimens remaining fresh for many hours.

Small dull-coloured birds are most likely to be new or interesting. Immediately after killing a small mammal or bird, make a note of the colour of its eyes and soft parts, and, if time admits, of the dimensions of its trunk and limbs. Full directions for skinning will be found in the British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 15-29. It should however be mentioned that in large-headed Parrots, Woodpeckers, Ducks, and some other birds, in which the skin of the head cannot be turned back, an incision has to be made in the nape, through which the skull can be pushed and cleansed, the incision being afterwards closed by two or three stitches. In finishing the skin of a bird the feet should be placed side by side, with the claws folded and fastened together by means of a pin run transversely through the soles. The protruding ends of the pin can afterwards be cut off close to the feet. This is Mr. W. Foster’s plan, and is by far the best and neatest method. When the skin is dry, it should be laid on its back in one of the trays fitted into the zinc-lined collecting boxes, and secured by means of a couple of stout pins passed through the head at the base of the lower mandible and through the root of the tail. By dovetailing the specimens into one another, they can thus be packed with the least loss of space, and need not again be moved. They require no wrapping or paper, and are much more easily looked over to see that no insects have attacked them.

Preserving Mammals, etc., in Alcohol.—When Mammals cannot be prepared as skins with skulls, according to the British Museum directions, they may prove of service if preserved in spirits. Indeed, when a series of skins has been made, additional specimens may well be placed in spirits, while in the case of Bats half the individuals taken of any species should be skinned and half put in spirits.

On the subject of the preservation of such spirit specimens, the late Dr. G. E. Dobson has published the following ‘Hints’:—

General Collecting-Case.

The general collecting case should be made of strong block tin, or, better still, of copper, rectangular in form, about 2 feet × 1 foot × 1 foot 8 inches in height, having in the top a circular aperture from 6 to 8 inches in diameter, closed by a well-fitting brass screw-cap, the flange of which is made air-tight by a well-greased leather collar. This should fit accurately into a similarly shaped box of inch boards, having a simple flat lid (not projecting beyond the sides), secured by eight long screws, and provided with a strong iron handle. This case should be filled with the strongest methylated spirits procurable (in foreign countries over-proof rum, brandy, or arrack will suit equally well). If circumstances admit, two or more such cases should be taken, or four wide-mouthed earthenware jars placed in a square wooden case, separated by light wooden partitions, and having their mouths closed by well-fitting bungs tied down with bladder and string. On arrival at the collecting station one of the jars should be half filled with spirits from the tin case. Into this each specimen, as it is obtained, having been slit along the side of the abdomen, should be put, and allowed to remain 24 hours before being transferred to the general collecting case. When the latter can hold no more the specimens should be removed one by one and packed in the moist state in the other wide-mouthed jars, one above the other, like herrings in a cask, each rolled in a piece of thin cotton cloth, in which a label, having the locality and date written in pencil, should be placed. When the jar has been thus filled to the mouth a glass or two of the strong spirits (kept in reserve) should be poured in so as to fill up the interstices, but not to appear on the surface, which should be covered with a thick layer of cotton-wool. A few drops of carbolic acid, if the spirit be weak, will greatly aid its preserving powers. The bung should then be replaced, secured round the margin outside with a mixture of tallow and wax, and tied down securely with bladder or skin, and the name of the collector and district written legibly outside. The jar is now ready for transmission to any distance, for specimens thus treated will keep good in the vapour alone of strong spirits for months. Other jars may be filled in like manner, and finally, the general collecting case. Incisions should invariably be made in the sides (not in the centre line) of all animals, so as to allow the spirits to enter, and no part of the intestines should be removed. In the case of Tortoises the opening may be made in the soft parts round the thighs; if this be not done, the body soon becomes distended with gases. Frogs should always be first placed in weak spirits, and after being soaked for one or two days, be removed to strong alcohol. Crabs should be rolled up alive in thin cotton-cloths, secured by thread tied round, and may then be readily killed by immersion in alcohol; if this be not done they lose many of their limbs in their dying struggles.

Preparation of Skeletons of Animals.—In many cases it will be found impossible to preserve the whole animal, especially if of large size, but it may advantageously be converted into a skeleton by attention to the following directions of the late Sir W. H. Flower, F.R.S.

If the animal is of small size—say not larger than a Fox—take off the skin except from the feet below the wrist and ankle joints. If it is intended to preserve the skin as a zoological specimen as well as the skeleton, the bones of the feet should all be left in the skin; they can be easily extracted afterwards, and will be preserved much more safely in their natural covering. Remove all the contents of the abdominal and thoracic cavities; also the larynx, gullet, and tongue. In doing this be careful to leave attached to the base of the skull the chain of bones which supports the root of the tongue. These may either be left in connection with the skull, or cleaned separately and tied to the skeleton. Then clear away, with the aid of a knife, as much as possible of the flesh from the head, body, and limbs, without cutting or scraping the bones, or separating them from each other. At any intervals that may be necessary during this process it will be desirable, if practicable, to leave the body in water, so as to wash away as much of the blood as possible from the bones, and a few days’ soaking in water frequently changed will be an advantage.

The body, with all the bones held in connection by their ligaments, should then be hung up to dry in a place where there is a free current of air, and out of the way of attacks from animals of prey. Before they get hard the limbs may be folded by the side of the body in the most convenient position, or they may be detached and placed inside the trunk.

When thoroughly dry the skeletons may be packed in boxes with any convenient light packing material between them. Each should be well wrapped in a separate piece of paper or canvas, as sometimes insects will attack the ligamentary structures and allow the bones to come apart.

If it can be avoided, skeletons should never be packed up so long as any moisture remains in them, as otherwise decomposition will go on in the still adhering soft parts, and cause an unpleasant smell.

If the animal is of larger size it will be most convenient to take it partially to pieces before or during the cleaning. The head may be separated from the neck, the vertebral column divided into two or more pieces, and the limbs detached from the trunk; but in no case should the small bones of the feet be separated from one another. The parts should then be treated as above described, and all packed together in a canvas bag.

In the cetacea (porpoises, etc.), look for two small bones suspended in the flesh, just below the vertebral column, at the junction of the lumbar and caudal regions (marked externally by the anal aperture). They are the only rudiments of the pelvis, and should always be preserved with the skeleton.

If there is no opportunity of preserving and transporting entire skeletons, the skulls alone may be kept. They should be treated as above described, picked nearly clean, the brain being scooped out through the foramen magnum, soaked for a few days in water, and dried.

Every specimen should be carefully labelled with the popular name of the animal, if known, and at all events, with the sex, the exact locality at which it was procured, and the date.

For the purpose of making entire skeletons, select, if possible, adult animals; but the skulls of animals of all ages may be advantageously collected.

Collectors of skins should always leave the skull intact. It should be taken out, labelled with a corresponding number to that on the skin, and dried with as much flesh on it as possible.

Reptiles and Fishes.—Full directions for preserving these will be found in the British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 33-47. The following ‘hints’ were prepared by the late Mr. Osbert Salvin, F.R.S., who collected these animals most successfully in Guatemala:—

Almost any spirit will answer for this purpose, its fitness consisting in the amount of alcohol contained in it. In all cases it is best to procure the strongest possible, as it is less bulky, and water can always be obtained to reduce the strength to the requisite amount. When the spirit sold retail by the natives is not sufficiently strong, by visiting the distillery the traveller can often obtain the first runnings (the strongest) of the still, which will be stronger than he requires undiluted. The spirit used should be reduced to about 20° over proof, and the traveller should always be provided with an alcoholometer. If this is not at hand, a little practice will enable him to ascertain the strength of the spirit from the rapidity with which the bubbles break when rising to the surface of a small quantity shaken in a bottle. When the spirit has been used this test is of no value. When reptiles or fish are first immersed, it will be found that the spirit becomes rapidly weaker. Large specimens absorb the alcohol very speedily. The rapidity with which this absorption takes place should be carefully watched, and in warm climates the liquid tested at least every twelve hours, and fresh spirit added to restore it to its original strength. In colder climates it is not requisite to watch so closely, but practice will show what attention is necessary. It will be found that absorption of alcohol will be about proportionate to the rate of decomposition. Spirit should not be used too strong, as its effect is to contract the outer surface, and close the pores, thus preventing the alcohol from penetrating through to the inner parts of the specimen. The principal point, then, is to watch that the strength of the spirit does not get below a certain point while the specimen is absorbing alcohol when first put in. It will be found that after a few days the spirit retains its strength: when this is the case, the specimen will be perfectly preserved. Spirit should not be thrown away, no matter how often used, so long as the traveller has a reserve of sufficient strength to bring it back to its requisite strength.

In selecting specimens for immersion, regard must be paid to the means at the traveller’s disposal. Fishes up to 9 inches long may be placed in spirit, after a slit has been cut in the side of the belly to allow the spirit to enter to the entrails. With larger specimens, it is better to pass a long knife outside the ribs, so as to separate the muscles on each side of the vertebræ. It is also as well to remove as much food from the entrails as possible, taking care to leave all these in. The larger specimens can be skinned, leaving, however, the intestines in, and simply removing the flesh. Very large specimens preserved in this way absorb very little spirit. All half-digested food should be removed from snakes and animals. In spite of these precautions, specimens will often appear to be decomposing; but, by more constant attention to restrengthening the spirit, they can, in most cases, be preserved.

A case (copper is the best), with a top that can be unscrewed and refixed easily, should always be carried as a receptacle. The opening should be large enough to allow the hand to be inserted; this is to hold freshly-caught specimens. When they have become preserved, they can all be removed and soldered up in tin or zinc boxes. Zinc is best, as it does not corrode so easily. The traveller will find it very convenient to take lessons in soldering, and to be able to make his own boxes. If he takes them ready-made, they had best be arranged so as to fit one into another before they are filled. When moving about, all specimens should be wrapped in calico or linen or other rags to prevent their rubbing one against the other. This should also be done to the specimens in the copper case when a move is necessary, as well as to those finally packed for transmission to Europe. These last should have all the interstices between the specimens filled in with cotton-wool or rags. If a leak should occur in a case, specimens thus packed will still be maintained moist, and will keep some time without much injury. Proof spirit should be used when the specimens are finally packed, but it is not necessary that it should be fresh.

Land and Freshwater Mollusca.[14] Full instructions for collecting these will be found in the ‘British Museum Handbook,’ pp. 113-115. Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., has contributed the following notes on collecting these animals: Mollusca are always most abundant on limestone rocks, and should be searched for under the larger stones lying about the ground, and under fallen trees and logs in the woods and forests. They may generally be found adhering to the surface of the stone or wood. Many species are often only 0.05 inch in length, so that very close examination is necessary. In damp spots, generally in ravines with a northerly aspect, the dead leaves when damp with dew in the early morning may be turned over one by one, and the under surface examined for minute species; larger species will be found very frequently on the surface of the ground below the layer of decaying vegetable matter. Many may also be secured by tearing off the bark of decaying trees. In the drier parts of the country some species are only to be found among the roots of shrubs, at considerable depth; by digging these up and shaking the earth on to paper, small shells may be found on close examination. At a dry place like Aden, I should expect to find most of the living land-shells in such a habitat. Look well in limestone caves on the damp surface of the rock; some forms hide themselves under a coating of earthy matter. Search also on damp moss and rocks near waterfalls.

Some species will be found high up on the bushes and trees. This is the habit of certain African forms especially; not so in India. A very good idea of the land-shells of a country may at first be obtained by the examination of the beds of the streams, either along the highest flood-line, or in the fine sand and mud collected in the bed. Land-shells found in such situations are usually old and bleached, but the living specimens will not be far off.

The leaves and stems of water plants should be examined, and Confervæ taken out of the water and well washed in a basin; in these, and in the mud of ponds and still rivers, many minute shells may be found.

The best way of preserving minute shells is to put them into glass tubes plugged with wool; it is better than cork. Capital collecting tubes can be made out of the smaller sorts of bamboo and the large grasses. A certain number of every species (at least a dozen) should be preserved in spirits for the sake of the anatomy. It is best to kill them first in water and then put them into spirits; if this is not done they contract, so that it is impossible to form any idea of the form of the mantle and other parts, and they become so hard they are difficult to cut up.

A good method of keeping the small shells and slugs, especially in spirits, is to put them with labels into small tubes plugged with wool, and then place the tubes in a large jar, capable of holding three or four dozen.

Other small shells, ½ to ¾ of an inch in diameter, may be put into pill-boxes at once, for in a dry climate they very soon dry up. The very large animals may be removed by boiling them in water, but when time does not admit of attending to the cleaning of the shells, species, such as Unios, may be put into empty soup-tins and then filled up with dry sand.

It is very important to make a few notes on the colour of the animal, attaching a number for reference on the box or in the tube, and the operculum, when present, should always be preserved.

With respect to slugs, note the surface of the mantle, and always the form of the extremity of the foot, whether pointed or provided with a mucous pore; and again the lobes of the mantle. Preserve them in spirits as above. Drawings from the living animal are invaluable, and should be made if possible. Very little is known of the Asiatic forms; they are of much interest, and have been very little collected.

Insects.—For the best means of preserving the various orders of insects the traveller should consult the ‘British Museum Handbook,’ pp. 48-89.

Botanical Collecting.—Full instructions will be found in the ‘British Museum Handbook,’ pp. 116-125.

The following instructions have been prepared by the late Mr. J. Ball, F.R.S.:—

To obtain good specimens of dried plants in a condition serviceable to scientific men, the following are the chief points to be observed:—

1. Selection of Specimens.—The object is to give as much information as possible respecting the plant which it is intended to collect. Small plants not exceeding 16 inches in height should be collected entire with the roots. Slender plants of greater dimensions may be folded to the same length, and may often be collected entire. Of larger plants, shrubs and trees, the object is to show as much as possible of the plant within the limit of the size of your drying paper. As an universal rule, both the flower and fruit (seed-vessel) should, if possible, be preserved. Of those plants whereon the male and female flowers grow separately, specimens of both should, if possible, be collected.

2. Conveyance of Specimens to Camp or Station.—Tin boxes made for the purpose are generally used in Europe for carrying botanical specimens until they can be placed in the drying press. They answer sufficiently well in cool weather, but in hot countries specimens are often partly withered before they can be laid out; and a rough portfolio, into which the plants can be put when (or soon after) they are gathered, is much to be preferred.

Such a portfolio is easily prepared with two sheets of millboard connected by an endless tape, so as to be easily slung over the shoulder; between these about thirty or forty sheets (60 to 80 folds) of thin soft (more or less bibulous) paper may be carried and kept in place by a strap or piece of twine. With two such portfolios a traveller can carry as many plants as it is possible to collect with advantage in a day. As soon as possible after being gathered, the specimens should be laid roughly between the sheets of paper: except in the case of delicate flowers, no special care is needed, and no harm comes of two or three being put together.

3. The Drying Press.—The great object, both to secure good specimens and to save labour and weight of paper, is to get the plants dried quickly, and for this one of the first conditions is to lose as little time as possible. When practicable, the specimens should always be put in the press on the same day on which they are gathered. The press should be made with two outer gratings of iron wire; the outer frame of strong wire, about a quarter of an inch in diameter—the size being that of the paper used. Between these the paper is laid. As to the choice of drying paper, the general rule is, that the coarser it is the better, provided it be quite or nearly quite free from size.

To enable the plants to dry quickly, the traveller should be provided with light wooden gratings of the same size as the drying paper. I think the size 18 inches × 12 inches is quite large enough. The iron wire outer gratings may with advantage be a quarter of an inch longer and broader to save the edges of the wooden gratings.

GRATING SEEN FROM THE EDGE.

GRATING SEEN FROM ABOVE.

These should be made of light laths fastened with a few nails (all the better if these are of copper), the interstices should be rather less than three-quarters of an inch, at all events not more. Their use is to allow the air to circulate through the pile of plants that are being dried. One should be inserted at each interval of about two inches (counting the drying paper and the plants laid out for drying), and when this is done the parcel may with advantage be exposed to the sun or placed near a fire, as the case may be. In dry warm climates, the majority of plants may be dried in the course of a few days, and will be fit to pack up, without any need of changing the drying paper in which they were originally placed; but in damp weather, and in regard to plants of thick fleshy foliage, it is usually necessary to change the paper more than once before the specimens are thoroughly dry.

The pile of paper, with plants between each five or six thicknesses of paper, and gratings at intervals of about two inches, should be squeezed between the outer (iron) gratings by means of two strong straps. Too much pressure is not desirable. For a pile ten or twelve inches thick, the parcel may be pulled nearly as tight as a moderate man can do it; but in proportion as the thickness is less, the pressure should be moderated.

Plants with fleshy leaves are very difficult to dry well. The best way is to dip them in quite boiling water for a minute or less, then to lay them between a few sheets of drying paper with slight pressure, merely to remove the exterior moisture, and then place them (when externally dry) in the drying press. Plants collected in rain should be treated in a similar way to remove outer moisture before it is attempted to dry them.

4. When once dry, plants may be packed away between paper of almost any kind. Old newspapers answer very well. The only precaution needed is to preserve them from insects.

The chief trouble in collecting plants is to get the paper already used thoroughly dry before it is again employed. The best resource in dry climates is to stretch cords and hang these papers exposed to sun and air. Artificial heat must be resorted to in wet seasons, but the process is then slow and troublesome.

For a traveller wishing to make large collections, the time consumed in changing the paper in which the plants are dried becomes an important consideration. I have adopted with advantage a suggestion of the late Professor A. Gray to use, instead of ordinary drying paper, sheets cut to the proper size, of the paper-felt which is used for laying under carpets. The specimens when originally laid out for drying are placed within sheets of thin paper without size, such as filtering paper, and as a rule these do not need to be changed. One sheet of felt-paper is generally sufficient between each layer of plants, and the operation of changing the paper is very quickly effected.

It is an important rule to note the locality where the specimens have been collected, with the date. If proper care be taken to keep together all the specimens collected at the same time, it is not necessary to place a separate scrap of paper within each sheet; but it is advisable to do this when the dried specimens are packed for transmission home.

5. Seeds.—Travellers may easily make valuable contributions to our knowledge of the vegetation of distant countries by preserving seeds of remarkable and unusual plants. The only precautions necessary are, to select seeds that are fully ripe; if enclosed in a seed vessel, or covering of a succulent character, to take care that this is thoroughly dried before they are packed; and that they are preserved from moisture during the homeward voyage. Small seeds may be enclosed in paper, the larger kinds in canvas bags, and the whole wrapped in a piece of oiled cloth. It is very desirable to keep each description of seed separate, and to note the place where it was gathered, with indications of altitude, soil, and climate.

6. Bulbs.—These are easily obtained, but as a rule, they should be taken only at the end of the growing season, and kept until the leaves are quite withered. They should be packed dry in a small box with shavings, or other elastic stuffing. The same treatment will suit the pseudo-bulbs of some orchids.

7. Fleshy Tubers.—Fleshy and thick tubers are best sent in boxes, wrapped in slightly moist materials, such as cocoa-nut fibre, peat, or leaf mould.

8. Living Plants.—As a general rule, these require to be established in pots or boxes for some time before being packed for transmission. They travel best in what are called Wardian cases; but an ordinary wooden box covered with a glass top, and with sufficient moisture in the soil and air to prevent excessive evaporation, is found to answer the purpose. The cases should be kept on deck under some protection from the direct heat of the sun. Tropical plants should be despatched so as to reach England during the summer months. At other seasons they are liable to perish from cold.

9. Succulent Plants, such as cacti, aloe, houseleeks, &c., survive for a long time if packed without earth in a perfectly dry box, with sufficient openings for ventilation.

10. Small plants with woody roots and cuttings of larger species of plants from the north or south temperate zones often travel successfully when merely packed with a little soil, slightly moist, about the roots, and a wrapping of damp moss, or similar substance, tied up in thick paper or canvas. There is, however, much risk of failure in these cases where, on the homeward voyage, it is necessary to pass through the tropics.

As a general rule, plants are more often injured by excess of moisture than by being sent too dry.

It is desirable to make use of every favourable opportunity for sending botanical collections of all kinds to England, as in hot countries they are always exposed to risk of injury.

It is scarcely necessary to mention that living plants, as well as seeds, and bulbs, should be placed in the hands of skilful gardeners after reaching this country. The chance of preserving interesting specimens is commonly much greater when they are sent to botanic gardens than when entrusted to private cultivators. In all cases information as to the soil and climate of the native home of the plant is a necessary guide to proper treatment.

Fossils.—The collection of fossils and minerals (except in the case of the discovery of new localities for valuable metals) is not to be recommended to the traveller, if he is not a geologist. Fossils from an unexplored country are of little use unless the nature and order of superposition of the strata in which they are found can be at the same time investigated. In the cases, however, of recent alluvial strata or the supposed beds of ancient lakes, or deposits in caves, or raised sea-beaches containing shells or bones of vertebrate animals, the traveller will do well to bring away specimens if a good opportunity offers. If the plan of the expedition includes the collection of fossil remains, the traveller will, of course, provide himself with a proper geological outfit, and obtain the necessary instructions before leaving Europe. (See [Section III].) For suggestions as to the collecting and preserving fossils and minerals, cf. British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 126-135.

General Remarks.—All collections made in tropical countries should be sent to Europe with the least possible delay, as they soon become deteriorated and spoilt unless great care be bestowed upon them.

Observations of Habits, etc.—Travellers have excellent opportunities of observing the habits of animals in a state of nature, and these ‘Hints’ would be very deficient were not a few remarks made upon this subject. To know what to observe in the economy of animals is in itself an accomplishment which it would be unreasonable to expect the general traveller to possess, and without this he may bring home only insignificant details, contributing but little to our stock of real knowledge. One general rule, however, may be kept always present to the mind, and this is, that anything concerning animals which bears upon the relations of species to their conditions of life is well worth observing and recording. Thus, it is important to note the various enemies which each species has to contend with, not only at one epoch in its life, but at every stage from birth to death, and at different seasons and in different localities. The way in which the existence of enemies limits the range of a species should also be noticed. The inorganic influences which inimically affect species, especially intermittently (such as the occurrence of disastrous seasons), and which are likely to operate in limiting their ranges, are also important subjects of inquiry. The migrations of animals, and especially any facts about the irruption of species into districts previously uninhabited by them, are well worth recording. The food of each species should be noticed, and if any change of customary food is observed, owing to the failure of the supply, it should be carefully recorded. The use in nature of any peculiar physical conformation of animals, the object of ornamentation, and so forth, should also be investigated whenever opportunity occurs. Any facts relating to the interbreeding in a state of nature of allied varieties, or the converse—that is, the antipathy to intercrossing of allied varieties—would be extremely interesting. In short, the traveller should bear in mind that facts having a philosophical bearing are much more important than mere anecdotes about animals.

To observe the actions of the larger animals, a telescope or field-glass will be necessary. The traveller should bear in mind, if a microscope is needed in his journey, that by unscrewing the tubes of the telescope in which all the small glasses are contained, a compound microscope of considerable power may be produced.

V.
ANTHROPOLOGY.

By the late Sir E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.

The characters of men’s bodies and minds being matters of common observation, Europeans not specially trained in anthropology, who have happened to be thrown among little-known tribes, often bring home valuable anthropological information. Though explorers, traders, and colonists have made their way into almost every corner of the earth, it is surprising to find how many new facts may still be noted down by any careful observer. If familiar with anthropological methods, he will, of course, observe more and better. The hints here given will serve to draw attention to interesting points which might otherwise be overlooked. Directions for such investigation, drawn up in much greater detail, will be found in the small British Association manual entitled: ‘Notes and Queries on Anthropology’ (Royal Anthropological Institute, 50, Great Russell Street, W., 4th edition (1912), price 5s.) For fuller details see the international agreement for the Unification of Anthropometric Measurements to be made on the living subject. English translation of the official version, W. L. H. Duckworth.

Physical Characters.—On first coming among an unfamiliar race, such as the Negroes, the traveller is apt to think them almost alike, till after a few days he learns to distinguish individuals more sharply. This first impression, however, has a value of its own, for what he vaguely perceived was the general type of the race, which he may afterwards gain a more perfect idea of by careful comparison. Among tribes who for many generations have led a simple uniform life and mixed little with strangers, the general likeness of build and feature is very close, as may be seen in a photograph of a party of Caribs or Andamaners, whose uniformity contrasts instructively with the individualised faces of a party of Europeans. The consequence is that a traveller among a rude people, if he has something of the artist’s faculty of judging form, may select groups for photography which will fairly represent the type of a whole tribe or nation. While such portrait-groups are admirable for giving the general idea of a race, characteristic features belonging to it should be treated separately. For instance, to do justice to the Tartar eye or the Australian forehead, the individual feature must be carefully sketched or photographed large.

How deceptive mere unmeasured impressions of size may be is shown by the well-known example of the Patagonians, who, though really only tall men (averaging 5 feet 11 inches), long had the reputation of a race of giants. Such measurements as any traveller can take with a measuring-tape and a three-foot rule with sliding square are good if taken with proper precautions. As the object of the anthropologist is to get a general idea of a race, it may be in some respects misleading to measure at random one or two individuals who are perhaps not fair specimens. If only a few can be measured, they should be selected of ordinary average build, full-grown but not aged. What is much better is to measure a large number (never less than thirty) of persons taken indiscriminately as they come, and to record the measurements of each with sex, age, name, locality, etc. Such a table can afterwards be so classified as to show not only the average or mean size, but the proportion of persons who vary more or less from that mean size; in fact, it represents on a small scale the distribution of stature, etc., in the whole people. Gigantic or dwarfish individuals, if not deformed, are interesting, as showing to what extremes the race may run. The most ordinary measurements are height, girth round chest, fathom or length of outstretched arms, length of arm from shoulder and leg from hip, length of hand and foot. The traveller may find that such measuring of another race shows very different stature and girth from that of his own companions, who, if they are well-grown Europeans, may stand 5 feet 8 inches to 6 feet, and measure 34 to 36 inches round the chest. Beyond this, he will find that the relative proportions of parts of the body differ from those he is accustomed to. An example of this is seen by placing Europeans and negroes side by side, and noticing how much nearer the knee the negro’s finger-tips will reach. It will be found that body measurement needs skill in taking the corresponding points, and in fact all but the simplest measures require some knowledge of anatomy. This is especially the case with skull measurements. There are instruments for taking the dimensions of the living head, and with care and practice the untrained observer may get at some of the more conspicuous, such as the relative length and width of the skull as taken by hatters. This roughly indicates the marked difference between dolichocephalic or long-headed peoples, like the African negro, and brachycephalic or short-headed peoples, like the Kalmuks and other Tartars. Attention should be paid also to the degree of prognathism or projection of jaw, which in some races, as the Australian, gives a “muzzle” unlike the English type. Where practicable, native skeletons, and especially skulls, should be sent home for accurate examination. How far this can be done depends much on the feeling of the people; for while some tribes do not object to the removal of bones, especially if not of their own kinsfolk, in other districts it is hardly safe to risk the displeasure of the natives at the removal of the dead—a feeling which is not only due to affection or respect, but even more to terror of the vengeance of the ghosts whose relics have been disturbed.

In describing complexion, such terms as “brown” or “olive,” so often used without further definition in books of travel, are too inexact to be of use. Broca’s scale of colours (see Final Report of British Association Committee on Anthropometric Method. R. Anthrop. Institute, 1909) gives means of matching the tints of skin, hair and eyes; if this is not forthcoming, the paint-box should be used to record them. Among rude tribes, the colour of the skin is often so masked by paint and dirt that the subject must be washed to see the real complexion. Hair is also an important race-mark, varying as it does in colour from flaxen to black, and also in form and size of the hairs; for instance the American Indian’s coarse straight hair seems almost like a horse’s tail in comparison with the Bushman’s hair with its natural frizz of tiny spirals. Locks of hair should therefore be collected. The traveller, however, will often find some difficulty in getting such specimens, from the objection prevalent in the uncivilised world of letting any part of the body, such as hair and nail-clippings, pass into strangers’ hands lest they should be used to bewitch their former owner. Even in such countries as Italy, to ask for a lock of a peasant-girl’s hair may lead to the anthropologist being suspected of wishing to practise love-charms on her.

Differences of temperament between nations are commonly to be noticed; for instance, in comparing the shy and grave Malays with the boisterous Africans. It is an interesting but difficult problem how far such differences are due to inherited race-character, and how far to such social influences as education and custom, and to the conditions of life being cheerful or depressing. Nor has it yet been determined how far emotions are differently expressed by different races, so that it is worth while to notice particularly if their smiling, laughing, frowning, weeping, blushing, etc., differ perceptibly from ours. The acuteness of the senses of sight, hearing and smell, among wild peoples is often remarkable, but this subject is one on which many accounts have been given which require sifting. The skill of savages in path-finding and tracking depends in great measure on this being one of their most necessary arts of life to which they are trained from childhood, as, in an inferior degree, gipsies are with us. The native hunter or guide’s methods of following the track of an animal, or finding his own way home by slight signs, such as bent twigs, and keeping general direction through the forest by the sky and the sheltered sides of the trees, are very interesting, though when learnt they lose much of their marvellous appearance. The testing of the mental powers of various races is an interesting research, for which good opportunities now and then occur. It is established that some races are inferior to others in volume and complexity of brain, Australians and Africans being in this respect below Europeans, and the question is to determine what differences of mind may correspond. Setting aside the contemptuous notions of uneducated Europeans as to the minds of “black-fellows” or “niggers,” what is required is, to compare the capacity of two races under similar circumstances. This is made difficult by the fact of different training. For instance, it would not be fair to compare the European sportsman’s skill in woodcraft and hunting with that of the native hunter, who has done nothing else since childhood; while, on the other hand, the European, who has always lived among civilised people, owes to his education so much of his superior reasoning powers, that it is mostly impossible to get his mind into comparison with a savage’s. One of the best tests is the progress made by native and European children in colonial or missionary schools, as to which it is commonly stated that children of African or American tribes learn as fast as or faster than European children up to about twelve, but then fall behind. Even here it is evident that other causes besides mental power may be at work, among them the discouragement of the native children when they become aware of their social inferiority. The subject is one of great importance, both scientifically and as bearing on practical government.

Both as a matter of anthropology and of practical politics the suitability of particular races to particular climates is of great interest; sometimes this depends on one race being free from a disease from which another suffers, as in the well-known immunity of negroes from yellow fever. Or it may be evident that tribes have become acclimatised, so as to resist influences which are deadly to strangers; for instance, the Khonds flourish in the hills of Orissa, where not only Europeans but the Hindus of the plains sicken of the malaria in the unhealthy season. That such peculiarities of constitution are inherited and pass into the nature of the race, is one of the keys to the obscure problem of the origins of the various races of man as connected with their spread over the globe. As yet this problem has not passed much beyond the stage of collecting information, and no pains should be spared to get at facts thus bearing on the history and development of the human species. European medical men in districts inhabited by uncivilised races have often made important observations of this kind, which they are glad to communicate, though being occupied with professional work they do not follow them up. In all races there occur abnormal varieties, which should be observed with reference to their being hereditary, such as Albinos, whose dead-whiteness is due to absence of pigment from the skin. Even such tendencies as that to the occurrence of red hair where the ordinary hue is black, or to melanism or diseased darkening of the skin, are worth remark. It is essential to discover how far these descend from parents to children, which is not the case with such alterations as that of the Chinese feet, which, in spite of generations of cramping, continue of the natural shape in the children.

Language.—Before coming to actual language, remark may be made on the natural communication of all races carried on by pantomimic signs without spoken words. This is the “gesture language” to which we are accustomed among the deaf-and-dumb, and which sometimes also comes into practical use between tribes ignorant of one another’s languages, as on the American prairies. It is so far the same in principle everywhere, that the explorer visiting a new tribe, having to make frequent use of signs to supplement his interpreter, or to eke out his own scanty knowledge of the native language, soon adapts himself to the particular signs in vogue. He will observe that, as to most common signs, such as asking for food or drink, or beckoning or warning off a stranger, he understands and is understood quite naturally. Signs which are puzzling at first sight will prove on examination to be intelligible. Some are imitative gestures cut short to save trouble, or they may have a meaning which was once evident, like the American Indian sign for dog, made by trailing two forked fingers, which does not show its meaning now, but did so in past times, when one of the principal occupations of the dog was to trail a pair of tent-poles attached to his back. Besides its practical use, the gesture-language has much scientific interest from the perfect way in which it exposes the working of the human mind, expressing itself by a series of steps which are all intelligible. It will be particularly observed that it has a strict syntax; for instance, that the quality or adjective must always follow the subject or substantive it is applied to. Thus, “the white box” may be expressed by imitating the shape and opening of a box, and then touching a piece of linen or paper to show its colour; but if the signs be put in the contrary order, as in the English words, the native will be perplexed. It is worth while, in countries where gesture-language is regularly used, to note down the usual signs and their exact order.

In recording a vocabulary of a language not yet reduced to form in a grammar and dictionary, the traveller may seek for equivalents of the principal classes of words in his own grammar: verbs, substantives, adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, etc. But the structure of the language he is examining will probably differ from any he is familiar with, the words actually used not coming precisely into these classes. The best method is for the traveller to learn a simple sentence, such as “the men are coming,” and to ascertain what changes will convert them into “the men are going,” “the women are coming.” He thus arrives at the real elements of the language and the method of combining them. Having arrived at this point, he will be able to collect and classify current ideas, such as the following:—

Actions—as stand, walk, sleep, eat, see, make, etc.

Natural Objects and Elements—as sun, moon, star, mountain, river, fire, water, etc.

Man and other Animals—as man, woman, boy, girl, deer, buck, doe, eagle, eagles, etc.

Parts of Body—as head, arm, leg, skin, bone, blood, etc.

Trees and Plants.

Numerals (noticing how far they extend, and whether referring to fingers).

Instruments and Appliances—as spear, bow, hatchet, needle, pot, boat, cord, house, roof, &c.

Arts and Pastimes—as picture, paint, carving, statue, song, dance, toy, game, riddle, &c.

Family Relationships (as defined by native custom).

Social and Legal Terms—as chief, freeman, slave, witness, punishment, fine, &c.

Religious Terms—as soul, spirit, dream, vision, sacrifice, penance, &c.

Moral Terms—as truth, falsehood, kindness, treachery, love, &c.

Abstract Terms, relating to time, space, colour, shape, power, cause, &c.

The interjections used in any language can be noted, whether they are organic expressions of emotion, like oh! ugh! ur-r-r! or sounds the nature of which is not so evident. Also imitative words which name animals from their cries, or express sounding objects or actions by their sounds, are common in all languages, and strike the stranger. Examples of such are kah-kah for a crow, twonk for a frog, pututu for a shell-trumpet, haitschu for to sneeze. When such imitative words are noticed passing into other meanings where the connection with sound is not obvious, they become interesting facts in the development of language; as, to take a familiar example from English, the imitative verb to puff becomes a term for light pastry and metaphorically blown-up praise.

It is only when the traveller has a long or close acquaintance with a tribe, that he is able to deal satisfactorily with the vocabulary and structure of their language. To be able to carry on a conversation in broken sentences is not enough, for an actual grammar and dictionary is required to enable philologists to make out the structure and affinities with other languages. It used to be customary to send out English lists of thirty or forty ordinary words to have equivalents put to them in native languages. As every detail of this kind is worth having, these lists cannot be said to be quite worthless, but they go hardly any way toward what is really wanted. They are liable to frequent mistakes, as when the barbarian, from whom the white man is trying to get the term “foot,” answers with a word meaning “my leg,” which is carefully taken down and printed. Such poor vocabularies cannot even be relied on to show whether a language belongs to a particular family, for the very word which seems to prove this may be borrowed. Thus, in various African vocabularies, there appears the word sapun (or something similar) with the meaning of soap; but this is a Latin word which has spread far and wide from one country to another, and proves nothing as to original connection between languages which have adopted it. While it is best not to under-rate the difficulty of collecting such information as to a little-known dialect as will be really of service to philology, it must be remembered that travellers still often have opportunities of preserving relics of languages, or at any rate special dialects, which are on the point of dying out unrecorded. Where no proper grammar and dictionary has been compiled, it is often possible to find some European or some interpreter fairly conversant with the language, with whose aid a vocabulary may be written out and sentences analysed grammatically, which, when read over to intelligent natives and criticised by them, may be worked into good linguistic material. It is worth while to pay attention to native names of plants, minerals, &c., as well as of places and persons, for these are often terms carrying significant meaning. Thus ipecacuanha is stated by Martius to be i-pe-caa-guéne, which in the Tupi language of Brazil, signifies “the little wayside plant which makes vomit.”

Arts and Sciences.—The less civilised a nation is, the ruder are its tools and contrivances; but these are often worked with curious skill in getting excellent results with the roughest means. Stone implements have now been so supplanted by iron that they are not easily found in actual use. If a chance of seeing them occurs, as, for instance, among some Californian tribe, who still chip out arrow-heads of obsidian, it is well to get a lesson in the curious and difficult art of stone-implement making. In general, tools and implements differing from those of the civilised world, even down to the pointed stick for root-digging and planting, are worth collecting, and to learn their use from a skilled hand often brings into view remarkable peculiarities. This is the case with many cudgel or boomerang-like weapons thrown at game, slings or spear-throwers for hurling darts to greater distances than they can be sent by hand, blow-tubes for killing birds, and even the bow-and-arrow, which in northern Asia and America shows the ancient Scythian or Tartar form, having to be bent inside out to string it. Though fire is now practically made almost everywhere with flint and steel or lucifers, in some districts, as South Africa or Polynesia, people still know the primitive method of fire-making by rubbing or drilling a pointed stick into another piece of wood. Europeans find difficulty in learning this old art, which requires some knack. As is well known to sportsmen, different districts have their special devices for netting, trapping and other ways of taking game and fish, some of which are well worth notice, such as spearing or shooting fish under water, artificial decoys, and the spring-traps set with bent boughs, which are supposed to have first suggested the idea of the bow. While the use of dogs in hunting is found in most parts of the world, there is the utmost variety of breeds and training. Agriculture in its lower stages is carried on by simple processes; but interesting questions arise as to the origin of its grain and fruits, and the alterations in them by transplanting into a new climate and by ages of cultivation. Thus in Chili there is found wild what botanists consider the original potato; but while maize was a staple of both Americas at the time of Columbus, its original form has no more been identified than that of wheat in the Old World. The cookery of all nations is in principle known to the civilised European; but there are special preparations to notice, such as bucaning or drying meat on a hurdle above a slow fire, broiling kebabs or morsels of meat on the skewer in the East, etc. Many peoples have something peculiar in the way of beverages, such as the chewed Polynesian kava, or the South American maté sucked through a tube. Especially fermented liquors have great variety, such as the kumiss from mares’ milk in Tartary, the pombe or millet-beer of Africa, and the kvass or rye-beer of Russia. The rudest pottery made by hand, not thrown on the wheel, is less and less often met with, but ornamentation traceable to its being moulded on baskets is to be seen; and calabashes, joints of bamboo, and close-plaited baskets are used for water-vessels, and even to boil in. Among the curious processes of metal-working, contrasting with those of modern Europe, though often showing skill of their own, may be mentioned the simple African smelting-forge by which iron-ore is reduced with charcoal in a hole in the ground, the draught being supplied by a pair of skins for bellows. In the far East a kind of air-pump is used, of which the barrels are hollowed logs. The Chinese art of patching cast-iron with melted metal surprises a European, and the Hindu manufacture of native steel (wootz) is a remarkable process. No nation now exists absolutely in the Bronze Age, but this alloy still occupies something of its old place in Oriental industry. As an example of the methods still to be seen, may be mentioned the Burmese bell-founding, which is done, not in a hollow mould of sand, but by what in Europe is called the cire perdue process, the model of the bell being made in beeswax and imbedded in the sand-mould, the wax being melted and the hot metal taking its place. The whole history of machinery is open to the traveller, who still meets with every stage of its development, from savagery upward. He sees, for instance, every tilling implement from the stake with fire-hardened point, and the hoe of crooked branch, up to the modern forms of plough. In like manner he can trace the line from the rudest stone-crushers or rubbers for grinding seed or grain up to the rotating hand-mills or querns still common in the East, and surviving even in Scotland. From time to time some special contrivance may be seen near its original home, as in South America the curious plaited tube for wringing out the juice from cassava, or the net hammock which still retains its native Haitian name hamaca. Architecture still preserves in different regions interesting early stages of development, from the rudest breakwinds, or beehive huts of wattled boughs, up to houses of logs and hewn timber, structures of mud and adobes, and masonry of rough or hewn stone. Even the construction of the bough-hut or the log-house often has its peculiarities in the arrangements of posts and rafters. Among the modes of construction which interest the student of architectural history is building with rough unhewn stones. Many examples of “rude stone monuments” are to be seen on our own moors and hills. The most familiar kinds are dolmens (i.e., “table-stones”), formed by upright stones bearing a cap-stone; they were burial-places, and analogous to the cists or chambers of rough slabs within burial-mounds. Less clearly explicable are the single standing-stones or menhirs (i.e., “long-stones”), and the circles of stones or cromlechs. Ancient and obscure in meaning as such monuments are in Europe, there are regions where their construction or use comes down to modern times, especially in India, where among certain tribes the deposit of ashes of the dead in dolmens, the erection of menhirs in memory of great men, and even sacrifice in stone circles, are well-known customs. The traveller may also sometimes have opportunities of observing the ancient architectural construction by fitting together many-sided stones into what are sometimes called Cyclopean walls, a kind of building which seems to have preceded the use of squared blocks, fastened together with clamps or with mortar. Vaulting or roofing by means of courses of stones projecting inwards one course above the other (much as children build with their wooden bricks), so as to form what architects call a “false arch,” is an ancient mode of construction found in various parts of the world where the “true arch” with its keystone has not superseded it. It often appears that rude nations have copied the more artistic buildings of higher neighbours, or inherited ancient architectural traditions. Thus traces of Indian architecture have found their way into the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, and hollow squares of mud-built houses round a courtyard in northern Africa have their plan from the Asiatic caravanserai. In boat-building some primitive forms, as the “dug-out,” hollowed by the aid of fire from a tree-trunk, and the bark-canoe, are found in such distant regions that we cannot guess where they had their origin. When, however, it comes to the outrigger-canoe, this belongs to a district which, though very large, is still limited, so that we may at least guess whereabouts it first came into use, and it is important to note every island to which it has since travelled. So there is much in the peculiar build and rig of Malay prahus, Chinese junks, etc., which is worth noting as part of the history of ship-building. This may suffice to give a general idea of the kind of information as to the local arts which it is worth while to collect, and to illustrate by drawings and photographs of objects too large to bring away.

Naturally, nations below the upper levels of culture have little or no science to teach us, but many of their ideas are interesting as marking stages in the history of the human mind. Thus, in the art of counting, which is one of the foundations of science, it is common to find the primitive method of counting by fingers and toes still in practical use, while in many languages the numeral words have evidently grown up out of such a state of things. Thus lima, the well-known Polynesian word for five, meant “hand,” before it passed into a numeral. All devices for counting are worth notice, from the African little sticks for units and larger sticks for tens, up to the ball-frames with which the Chinese and Russian traders reckon so rapidly and correctly. It is a sign of lowness in a tribe not to use measures and weights, and where these appear in a rough way, it is interesting to discover whether vague lengths, such as finger, foot, pace, are used, or whether standard measures and weights have come in. If so, these should be estimated according to our standards with as much accuracy as possible, as it may thus become possible to ascertain their history. In connection with this comes the question of money, as to whether commerce is still in the rudimentary stage of exchanging gifts, or has passed into regular barter, or risen to regular trade, with some sort of money to represent value, even if the circulating medium be only cowries, or bits of iron, or cakes of salt, all which are current money to this day in parts of Africa. Outside the present higher civilisation, more or less primitive ideas of astronomy and geography will be found to prevail. Among tribes like the American Indians the obvious view suggested by the senses still prevails, that the earth is a flat round disc (or sometimes square, with four quarters or winds) overarched by a solid dome or firmament, on which the sun and moon travel—in inland countries going in and out at holes or doors on the horizon, or, if the sea bounds the view, rising from and plunging into its waves at sunrise and sunset. These early notions are to us very instructive, as they enable us to realise the conceptions of the universe which have come down to us in the ancient books of the world, but which scientific education has uprooted from our own minds. With these cosmic ideas are found among the lowest races the two natural periods of time, namely, the lunar month and the solar year, determined by recurring winters, summers, or rainy seasons. Such tribes divide the day roughly by the sun’s height in the sky, but among peoples civilised enough to have time-measures and the sun-dial, there is a tolerably accurate knowledge of the sun’s place at the longest and shortest days, and indeed, throughout the year. The astronomy of such countries as India has been of course described by professional astronomers; but among ruder nations there is still a great deal unrecorded—for instance, as to the constellations into which they map out the heavens. This likening stars and star-groups to animals and other objects is almost universal among mankind. Savages like the Australians still make fanciful stories about them, as that Castor and Pollux are two native hunters, who pursue the kangaroo (Capella) and kill him at the beginning of the hot season. Such stories enable us to understand the myths of the Classical Dictionary, while modern astronomers keep up the old constellations as a convenient mode of mapping out the sky. As to maps of the earth, even low tribes have some notion of their principle, and can roughly draw the chart of their own district, which they should be encouraged to do. Native knowledge of natural history differs from much of their rude science in its quality, often being of great positive value. The savage or barbarian hunter knows the animals of his own region and their habits with remarkable accuracy, and inherited experience has taught him that certain plants have industrial and medicinal uses. Thus, in South America the Europeans learnt the use of India-rubber or caoutchouc, which the native tribes were accustomed to make into vessels and playing-balls, and of the Peruvian bark or cinchona, which was already given to patients in fever.

Here a few words may be said of magic, which, though so utterly futile in practice, is a sort of early and unsuccessful attempt at science. It is easy, on looking into the proceedings of the magician, to see that many of them are merely attempts to work by false analogy or deceptive association of ideas. The attempt to hurt or kill a person by cutting or piercing a rude picture or image representing him, which is met with in all the four quarters of the globe, is a perfect example of the way in which sorcerers mistake mere association of ideas for real cause and effect. Examined from this point of view, it will be found that a large proportion of the magic rites of the world will explain their own meaning. It is true that this is not the only principle at work in the magician’s mind; for instance, he seems to reason in a loose way that any extraordinary thing will produce any extraordinary effect, so that the peculiar stones and bits of wood which we should call curiosities become to the African sorcerer powerful fetishes. It will often be noticed that arts belonging to the systematic magic of the civilised world, which has its source in Babylon and Egypt, have found their way into distant lands more readily indeed than useful knowledge, so that they may even be met with among barbaric tribes. Thus it has lately been pointed out that the system of lucky and unlucky days, which led the natives in Madagascar to kill many infants as of inauspicious birth, is adopted from Arabic magic, and it is to be expected that many other magical arts, if their formulas are accurately described, may in like manner be traced to their origin.

Society.—One of the most interesting features of savage and barbaric life is the existence of an unwritten code of moral conduct, by which families and tribes are practically held together. There may be no laws to punish crime, and the local religion may no more concern itself directly with men’s behaviour to one another than it did in the South Sea Islands. But among the roughest people there is family affection, and some degree of mutual help and trust, without which, indeed, it is obvious that society would break up, perhaps in general slaughter. Considering the importance of this primitive morality in the history of mankind, it is unfortunate that the attention of travellers has been so little drawn to it, that our information is most meagre as to how far family affection among rude tribes may be taken to be instinctive, like that of the lower animals, or how far morality is produced by public opinion favouring such conduct as is for the public good, but blaming acts which do harm to the tribe. It is desirable to inquire what conduct is sanctioned by custom among any people, whether, for instance, infanticide is thought right or wrong, what freedom of behaviour is approved in youths and girls, and so on. For though breaches of custom may not be actually punishable, experience will soon convince any explorer among any rude tribe that custom acts in regulating their life even more strictly than among ourselves. The notion of even savages leading a free and unrestrained life is contradicted by those who know them best; in fact, they are bound in every act by ancestral custom. While each tribe thus has its moral standard of right and wrong, this differs much in different tribes, and one must become intimately acquainted with any people to ascertain what are really their ruling principles of life. Accounts have been often given of the natural virtue and happiness of rude tribes, as in the forests of Guiana or the hills of Bengal, where the simple native life is marked by truthfulness, honesty, cheerfulness, and kindness, which contrast in a striking way with the habits of low-class Europeans. There are few phenomena in the world more instructive than morality thus existing in practical independence either of law or religion. It may still be possible to observe it for a few years before it is altered by contact with civilisation, which, whether it raises or lowers on the whole the native level, must supersede in great measure this simple family morality.

The unit of social life is the family, and the family is based on a marriage-law. Travellers who have not looked carefully into the social rules of tribes they were describing, or whose experience has been of tribes in a state of decay, have sometimes reported that marriage hardly existed. But this state of things is not confirmed as descriptive of any healthy human society, however rude; in fact, the absence of definite marriage appears incompatible with the continued existence of a tribe. Therefore statements of this kind made by former visitors should be carefully sifted, and marriage-laws in general deserve careful study. The explorer will hardly meet with marriage at so low a stage that the union can be described as little beyond annual pairing; but where divorce is almost unrestricted, as in some African tribes, there is more or less approach to this condition, which is possible, though unusual, under such laws as that of Islam. Polygamy, which exists over a large part of the globe, is a well-understood system, but information is less complete as to the reasons which have here and there led to its opposite polyandry, as among the Toda hill-tribes and the Nairs in South India. Among customs deserving inquiry are match-making festivals at spring-tide or harvest, when a great part of the year’s marriages are arranged. This is not only often done among the lower races, but traces of it remain in Greece, where the dances at Megara on Easter Tuesday are renowned for wife-choosing, and till lately in Brittany, where on Michaelmas Day the girls sate in a row decked in all their finery on the bridge of Penzé, near Morlaix. The custom of bride-capture, where the bridegroom and his friends make show of carrying off the bride by violence, is known in Europe as a relic of antiquity, as in ancient Rome, Wales within the last century or two, or Tyrol at the present day; but in more barbaric regions, as on the Malay peninsula or among the Kalmuks of North Asia, it may be often met with, practised as a ceremony, or even done in earnest. On the other hand, restrictions on marriage between kinsfolk or clansfolk are more prominent among the lower races than in the civilised world, but their motive is even now imperfectly understood. Partly these restrictions take the form we are accustomed to of prohibiting marriage between relatives more or less near in our sense, but among nations at a lower level they are apt to involve also what is called exogamy or “marrying-out.” A tribe or people—for instance, the Kamilaroi of Australia, or the Iroquois of North America—is divided into hereditary clans, members of which may not marry in their own clan. In various parts of the world these clans are named from some animal, plant, or other object, and anthropologists often call such names “totems,” this word being taken from the native name among Algonquin tribes of North America. For an instance of the working of this custom among the Iroquois tribes a Wolf was considered brother to a Wolf of any other tribe, and might not marry a Wolf girl, who was considered as his sister, but he might marry a Deer or a Heron. In contrast with such rules is the practice of endogamy, or “marrying-in,” as among some Arab tribes, who habitually marry cousins. But it will be found that the two rules often go together, as where a Hindu must practically marry within his own caste, but at the same time is prohibited from marrying in his own gotra or clan. Researches into totem-laws are apt to bring the traveller into contact with other relics of the ancient social institutions in which these laws are rooted, especially the practice of reckoning descent not on the father’s side, as with us, but on the mother’s side, after the manner of the Lycians, whose custom seemed extraordinary to the Greeks in the time of Herodotus, but may be still seen in existence among native tribes of America or in the Malay islands. Even the system of relationship familiar to Europeans is far different from those of regions where forms of the “classificatory system” prevail, in which father’s brothers and mother’s sisters are called fathers and mothers. In inquiring into native laws of marriage and descent, precautions must be taken to ensure accuracy, and especially such ambiguous English words as “uncle” or “cousin” should be kept clear of.

Another point on which travellers have great opportunity of seeing with their own eyes the working of primitive society is the holding and inheritance of property, especially land. Notions derived from our modern law of landlord and tenant give place in the traveller’s mind to older conceptions, among which individual property in land is hardly found. In rude society it is very generally the tribe which owns a district as common land, where all may hunt and pasture and cut fire-wood; while, when a family have built a hut, and tilled a patch of land round it, this is held in common by the family while they live there, but falls back into tribe-land if they cease to occupy it. This is further organised in what are now often called “village communities,” which may be seen in operation in Russia and India, where the village fields are portioned out among the villagers. Those who have seen them can understand the many traces in England of the former prevalence of this system in “common fields,” etc. There is the more practical interest in studying the working of this old-world system from the light it throws on projects of communistic division of land, which in such villages may be studied, and its merits and defects balanced. On the one hand it assures a maintenance for all, while on the other it limits the population of a district, the more so from the obstinate resistance which the counsel of “old men” who manage a village always oppose to any improved method of tillage. Not less perfectly do the tenures existing in many countries show the various stages of landholding which arise out of military conquest. The absolute ownership of all the land by a barbaric chief or king, which may be seen in such a country as Dahome, whose subjects hold their lands on royal sufferance, is an extreme case. In the East, feudal tenures of land granted for military service still have much the same results as in mediæval Europe.

At low levels of civilisation the first dawning of criminal law may be seen in the rule of vengeance or retaliation. The person aggrieved, or his kinsfolk if he has been killed, are at once judges and executioners, and the vengeance they inflict stands in some reasonable relation to the offence committed. Not only is such vengeance the great means of keeping order among such rude tribes as the Australians, but even among half-civilised nations like Abyssinians and Afghans the primitive law may still be studied in force, carried out in strict legal order as a lex talionis, not degraded to mere illegal survival in outlying districts like the “vendetta” of modern Europe, carried on even now, in spite of criminal jurisprudence, which for ages has striven to transfer punishment from private hands to the State. Whether among savages, barbarians, or the lower civilised nations, the traveller will find everywhere matter of interesting observation in the law and its administration. The law may be still in the state of unwritten custom, and the senate or council of old men may be the judges, or the power at once of lawgiver and judge may have passed into the hands of the chief, who, as among the modern Kaffirs, may make a handsome revenue by the cattle given him as fees by both sides, a fact interesting as illustrating the times when an European judge took gifts as a matter of course. Among the nations at higher levels of culture in the East, for instance, most of the stages may still be seen through which the administration of law, criminal and civil, was given over to a trained legal class. One important stage in history is marked by religion taking to itself legal control over the conduct of a nation. The working of this is seen among Oriental nations, whether Mohammedan, Brahman, or Buddhist, whose codes of law are of an ecclesiastical type, and the lawyers theologians. There is much to be learnt from the manner in which such law is administered, and the devices are interesting by which codes framed under past conditions of society are practically accommodated to a new order of things, without professedly violating laws held to be sacred, and therefore unchangeable. Ordeals, which have now disappeared from legal procedure among European nations, are often to be met with elsewhere. Thus in Arabia the ordeal by touching or licking hot iron is still known (the latter is an easy and harmless trick, if the iron is quite white-hot). In Burma, under native rule, the ancient trial of witches by “swimming” went on till lately. In many countries also symbolic oaths invoking evils on the perjurer are to be met with, as when the Ostyaks in Siberia swear in court by laying their hand on a bear’s head, meaning that a bear will kill them if they lie. It shows the carelessness with which Europeans are apt to regard the customs of other nations, that in English courts a Chinese is called upon to swear by breaking a saucer, under the entirely erroneous belief that this symbolic curse is a Chinese judicial oath.

The most undeveloped forms of government are only to be met with in a few outlying regions, as among some of the lower Esquimaux or Rocky Mountain tribes, where life goes on with hardly any rule beyond such control as the strong man may have over his own household. Much oftener travellers have opportunity of studying, in a more or less crude state, the types of government which prevail in higher culture. It is of especial interest to see men of the whole tribe gathered in assembly (the primitive agora) to decide some question of war or migration. Not less instructive are the proceedings of the council of old men (the primitive senate), who, among American tribes or the hill tribes of India, transact the business of the tribe; they are represented at a later social stage by the village-elders of the Hindus or the Russians. Among the problems which present themselves among nations below the civilised level is that of the working of the patriarchal system, still prevailing among such tribes as the Bedaween, while often the balance of power is seen adjusting itself between the patriarchal heads of families and the leaders who obtain authority by success in war. The struggle between the hereditary chief or king and the military despot, who not only usurps his place but seeks to establish hereditary monarchy in his own line, is one met with from low to high levels of national life. The traveller’s attention may be called to the social forces which do their work independently of men in authority, and make society possible, even when there is little visible authority at all. The machinery of government described in books is often much less really powerful than public opinion, which controls men’s conduct in ways which are so much less conspicuous that they have hardly yet been investigated with the care they deserve.

Religion and Mythology.—While great religions, like Mohammedanism and Buddhism, have been so carefully examined that European students often know more about their sacred books than the believers themselves, yet the general investigation of the religions of the world is very imperfect, and every effort should be made to save the details from being lost as one tribe after another disappears, or passes into a new belief. Missionaries have done much in recording particulars of native religions, and some have had the skill to describe them scientifically; but the point of view of the missionary engaged in conversion to another faith is unfavourable for seeing the reasons of the beliefs and practices he is striving to upset. The object of the anthropologist is neither to attack nor defend the doctrines of the religion he is examining, but to trace their rational origin and development. It is not only among the rudest tribes that religious ideas which seem of a primitive order may be met with, but these hold their place also among the higher nations who profess a “book-religion.” Thus the English or German peasant retains many ideas belonging to the ancestral religion of Thor and Woden, and the modern Burmese, though a Buddhist, carries on much of the old worship of the spirits of the house and the forest, which belong to a far earlier religious stratum than Buddhism. It is in many districts possible for the traveller to obtain at first hand interesting information as to the philosophical ideas which underlie all religions. All over the world, people may be met with whose conception of soul or spirit is that belonging to primitive animism, namely, that the life or soul of men, beasts, or things, resides in the phantoms of them seen in dreams and visions. A traveller in British Guiana had serious trouble with one of his Arawaks, who, having dreamt that another had spoken impudently to him, on waking up went quite naturally to his master to get the offender punished. So it is reported that our officials in Burma have considered themselves disrespectfully treated when the wife or servant of the person they have come to see has refused to wake him, the Englishman not understanding that these people hold early animistic ideas, believing the soul to be away from the sleeper’s body in a dream, so that it might not find its way back if he were disturbed. As scientific ideas of the nature of life and dreams are rapidly destroying these primitive conceptions, it is desirable to collect all information about them for its important bearing on the history of philosophy and religion. The same may be said as to the ancient theory of diseases as caused by demons, and the expulsion and exorcism of them as a means of cure, which may still be studied everywhere outside the scientific nations. Information as to religious rites is of course valuable, even when the foreign observer does not understand them, but if possible their exact meaning should be made out by some one acquainted with the language, otherwise acts may be confused which have really different senses, as where a morsel of food offered as a pious offering to an ancestral ghost may be taken for a sacrifice to appease an angry wood-demon. A people’s idea as to the meaning of their own rites may often be very wrong, but it is always worth while to hear what they think of the purpose of their prayers, sacrifices, purifications, fasts, feasts, and other religious ordinances, which even among savage tribes have been long since stereotyped into traditional systems.

Mythology is intimately mixed up with religion, which not only ascribes the events of the world to the action of spirits, demons, or gods, but everywhere individualises many of these beings under personal names, and receives as sacred tradition wonder-tales about them. Thus, to understand the religion of some tribes, we have not only to consider the rude philosophy under which such objects as heaven and earth or sun and moon are regarded as personal beings, whose souls (so to speak) are the heaven-god and earth-god, the sun-god and moon-god; but we have to go on further and collect the religious myths which have grown on to these superhuman beings. The tales which such a people tell of their origin and past history may to some extent include traditions of real events, but mostly they consist of myths, which are also worth collecting, as they often on examination disclose their origin, or part of it. This is seen, for instance, in the South Sea Island tale of the god Maui, whose death, when he plunged into the body of his great ancestress the Night, is an obvious myth of the sunset. The best advice as to native mythology is to write down all promising native stories, leaving it to future examination to decide which are worth publishing. The native names of personages occurring in such stories should be inquired into, as they sometimes carry in themselves the explanation of the story itself, like the name of Great-Woman-Night in the Polynesian myth just referred to. Riddles are sometimes interesting, as being myths with an explanation attached, like the Greek riddle of the twelve black and twelve white horses that draw the chariot of the day. It is not too much to say that everything which a people thinks worth remembering as a popular tradition, and all the more if it is fixed in rhyme or verse, is worth notice, as likely to contain something of historical value. That it may not be historically true is beside the question, for the poetic fictions of a tribe often throw more light on their history than their recollections of petty chiefs who quarrelled fifty years ago. The myths may record some old custom or keep up some old word that has died out of ordinary talk, or the very fact of their containing a story known elsewhere in the world may give a clue to forgotten intercourse by which it was learnt.

Customs.—It remains to say a few words as to the multifarious customs which will come under the traveller’s observation. It does not follow that because these may be mentioned or described in books they need not be further looked into. The fact is that accurate examination in such matters is so new, that something always remains to be made out, especially as the motives of so many customs are still obscure. The practice of artificially deforming the infant’s skull into a desired shape, which is not quite forgotten even in Europe, may be noticed with respect to the question whether the form to which the child’s head is bulged or flattened is the exaggeration of the natural form of an admired caste or race. If not, what can, for instance, have induced two British Columbian tribes, one to flatten their foreheads and the other to mould them up to a peak? In tattooing, an even more widespread practice, it is well to ascertain whether the pattern on the skin seems to have been originally tribe-marks or other signs or records, or whether the purpose is ornament. In South-East Asia the two motives are present at once, when a man has ornamental designs and magical charm-figures together on his body. With regard to ornaments and costumes, the keeping-up of ancient patterns for ceremonial purposes often affords curious historical hints. Thus in the Eastern Archipelago, the old-fashioned garments of bark-cloth are used in mourning by people who have long discarded them in ordinary wear, and another case is found among some natives of South India, whose women, though they no longer put on an apron of leaves as their real ordinary garment, wear it over a cotton skirt on festival-days. Among the amusements of a people, songs are often interesting musically, and it is well to take them down, not only for the tunes, but also for the words, which sometimes throw light on old traditions and beliefs. Dancing varies from spontaneous expression of emotion to complex figures handed down by tradition and forming part of social and religious ceremony. The number of popular games in the world is smaller than would be supposed. When really attractive they may be adopted from one people to another till they make their way round the world. Any special variety, as of ball or draughts, should therefore be noticed, as it may furnish evidence of intercourse by which it may have come from some distant nation.

Though the subjects of anthropological interest are not even fully enumerated in the present chapter, some idea may have been given of the field of observation still open to travellers, not only in remote countries, but even in Europe. In taking notes, the explorer may be recommended not to be afraid of tedious minuteness, whereas the lively superficiality of popular books of travel makes them almost worthless for anthropology.[15]

In looking through the above remarks, written some years since, alteration has seemed hardly needful. The writer thinks, however, that it may be useful to call attention to the increased opportunities of travellers to study and obtain implements of the rudest and most ancient Stone Age. Up to a few years ago they could only have expected to find proof of the recent use among savages of stone hatchets, knives, arrow-heads, etc., such as in Europe are relics of ancient tribes. These, indeed, have been known for more than a generation not to be the oldest relics of the kind, but have been called neolithic or of the New-Stone Age, to distinguish them from the far older and lower types of the mammoth period, called palæolithic or of the Old-Stone Age. Implements of this class, after their discovery in Europe, were soon noticed in India, and are now especially recognised as found over a great part of Africa. Of later years, in the islands of the South Pacific, stone implements of an even lower class have not only been found in the ground, but there is evidence that they had remained in use into modern times. In Tasmania it is on record from European eye-witnesses that tools made from chips of hard stone by trimming to an edge on one side, and which were grasped in the hand without any handle, were the cutting and hacking instruments of the natives into the last century, almost up to the time of their extinction. Thus apparently the oldest known phase of human life endured in this region untouched by civilisation, and travellers have the opportunity of studying its recent relics in Tasmania, while similar traces of rude Stone Age life, though not reaching up to so late a time, are making their appearance both in West Australia and New Zealand. Travellers should be careful to consider whether chipping is really artificial, and not due to natural action of water or wind-blown sand. There is no doubt that many “implements” in our museums are freaks of nature, e.g., those found in such quantities in the desert plateaux above the lower Nile.

Travellers of the present day have still opportunities of observation in the history of culture which will have disappeared in another generation. Inquiry in outlying countries should be made for the vanishing survivals of arts and customs, stories, and even languages. In Europe there is much of this kind to be met with by the inquirer, especially off the beaten track. Thus the dug-out canoe, the monoxyle of Hippokrates, need not be sought on African lakes, for it is still the fisherman’s craft of Hungary and Bosnia; and in the same region the apparatus for producing the ceremonial need-fire by friction of wood, which disappeared from Scotland towards the beginning of last century, and the “whithorn” of coiled bark, the rustic musical instrument just vanishing from English peasant life, are still in ceremonial use. As for savage tribes which come within the traveller’s ken, though their stone implements have been mostly superseded by the white man’s cutlery, many arts of the remote past may still be seen. The yet simpler means of producing fire by drilling a stick with the hands without further mechanical adaptation may still be seen among savages who have not lost their old arts, and the twisting of thread with the hands, which preceded the use of even the spindle, is not everywhere forgotten. Though the study of the religion and folk-lore of the savage and barbaric world must be left to those who are residents rather than visitors, the passer-by who inquires may see primitive rites of religion or magic. Thus in many an Indian house in Arizona or New Mexico the traveller is reminded of his classic recollections when he sees the first morsel of the meal thrown into the fire as an offering to the ancestral spirits.