CLASSES OF BINDINGS.
Forwarding—Finishing.
In advanced bookbinding, there are the two general divisions of work:—Forwarding, which includes in new books, sewing, backing, putting on boards, and covering; and finishing, which has to do with the lettering, tooling, inlaying, and general decorative treatment.
The elementary and high school treatment of the subject of bookbinding, such a treatment as is undertaken in the present volume, is almost wholly concerned with the various processes included in the term Forwarding, which in rebinding includes a number of other steps not mentioned above.
Case Binding; Library Binding; Extra Binding.
Based upon their methods of sewing, backing, covering, finishing, etc., there may be said to be three general classes of bindings:—Case Binding, Library Binding, and Extra Binding. These are arbitrary terms applied to methods of binding which have been fully established and recognized.
In the modern commercial binderies, all kinds of modifications, combinations and imitations are made, so that it is often difficult to tell by external appearances of bindings to what types they belong.
It is a common thing to see a case binding in full leather.
The proper way to have a book bound or rebound is to have written specifications which indicate details of methods, materials, etc.
The following are typical specifications for Case Binding:—
1. Plates guarded.
2. Sewed all along with five punctures and kettlestitches.
3. Full or half buckram.
4. Glued and backed.
5. Attached back.
6. Commercial silk headband.
7. First and last leaves used as pastedowns.
8. Edges uncut.
II.
CASE BINDING.
Case Bindings or casings (for the craft binder refuses to call them bindings) are those covers which are made separately from the books and laid on. These covers have the characteristics enumerated in the specifications and are the unsubstantial covers usually found on modern cheap, temporary books.
If the book is to be bound from original sheets, each sheet is folded into a section. Such a section is called a signature. The number of leaves in a folded sheet or section gives the name to the book. A sheet folded once, making two leaves, is a folio; twice, making four leaves, a quarto or 4to; three times, making eight leaves, an octavo or 8vo; four times, making sixteen leaves, a 16mo; etc. It is seen by this that owing to the varying sizes of paper, any form of book may vary greatly in size. However, the following may be taken as a general standard of sizes:—
16mo 5×7 inches.
Octavo (8vo) 6×9 inches.
Quarto (4to) 10×12½ inches.
End Paper
If there have not been left an abundance of blank leaves at the first and last of the book, at least four folios are cut—two for each end—and these become the first and last sections of the book.
The sections are now assembled in proper order, a tin is placed between sections at several places in the book and all are put under heavy pressure. This is usually done at the last of a recitation, and the book left in press over night, so that the sections may be perfectly flat.
Mark Up—Puncture.
After the book is carefully evened up by knocking the back and head against the table, it is marked up; that is, a mark is put on each outside endpaper near the head, so that the head of the book may be recognized without opening; and then places are marked for five punctures along the back. The top puncture may be put about three-fourths of an inch or an inch from the head, and the bottom one about one and one-fourth or one and one-half inches from the foot. It is considered that the head should be somewhat stronger, since it must bear the strain of pulling the book from the shelf.
Then with a small saw or a sharp-edged file, punctures are made across the back at the marks. These should be just deep enough to reach through the inside folio of each section.
Sewing First Two Sections.
Now the book is ready to sew. It is placed on the table to the left of the workman with the back toward him and the head to the left. With a linen thread and a long, slim needle ready, the workman takes up the section of endpapers lying on top and turns it entirely over, laying it exactly in front of him with the head to his right. Fig. 14. With his right hand he inserts the needle into the head puncture, while with his left hand in the middle of the section between the leaves, he draws the needle through to the inside and runs it out at the foot puncture. “In at the head puncture and out at the foot.” The second section is turned over upon the first, and the needle run in at the foot puncture and out at the second puncture from the foot. Then it is inserted at the second puncture from the foot of the first section and immediately run out at the same puncture but on the opposite side of the thread which runs along inside the first section. Then apply this unfailing rule when in doubt as to what puncture to go into:—“Put the needle into a puncture so located that it will not undo work already done, and that the thread will not be left exposed on the outside of the book.”
Applying this rule, it is seen that the needle must be put into the second puncture of the second section. This operation is repeated at each puncture until the head is reached. When the needle has been drawn from the head puncture of the second section, the threads coming out of the two head punctures are pulled up tight and are tied into a double knot. a Fig. 14. Care must be used in pulling the thread so as not to tear the paper.
Kettlestitch;—Sewing All along.
The third section is now laid on and the needle run in at the head puncture and out at the second puncture from the head. Now comes the elusive “kettlestitch.” The needle is run under the second section at the right of the second puncture and out at the left of the same puncture, as at b Fig. 14. The thread is drawn loosely so as to leave a small loop through which the needle is passed. It is now drawn taut and the needle run back into the second puncture of the third section. This stitch is made every time the needle comes out of a puncture until the sewing is finished. When the last puncture is reached, a double kettlestitch is made and the thread cut a half inch from the knot. This is what is meant by “sewing all along.” If the original thread should not be long enough or should break, a new thread is tied on with a weaver’s knot, Fig. 15, always inside the book and as closely as possible to the puncture to avoid pulling the knot through the next puncture.
Fig. 14. Sewing all along.
a. first two sections tied.
b. Kettlestitch.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 17. Marking of cloth for Case Binding.
Fig. 18. Laying on of the cover.
Fig. 19. Half cloth cover showing turn-ins at a.
Backing boards—Backing.
The book is now placed between backing boards with only a small portion of the book projecting above the boards and then put into the lying press (1. Plate 1), and clamped up tightly. The part projecting should about equal the thickness of the cardboard used for the cover.
This book is not to be rounded any more than is absolutely necessary in the backing. The process of backing is necessary because of a thickened condition of the back as a result of the numerous threads and perhaps a few guards that have been added to it. By clamping the book tightly and hammering the back, the thickness can be reduced by forcing the edges over the boards as at Fig. 16.
After the book is firmly fastened in the press, the back is covered with thin glue, which is rubbed in with a stiff brush and then wiped off, so that it remains only in the little depressions between the sections. Within about fifteen minutes, the glue reaches a kind of elastic condition, and then the hammer is brought into use.
By light strokes along the center of the back, and then gradually farther out toward the end sections, the edges of the sections are forced away from the center and made to project finally over the edges of the backing boards, making the joint.
PLATE I
1. Lying Press
2. Backing Boards
3. Bone Folder
4. Paper Cutter
5. Head Knife
6. Sewing Frame
7. Backing Sticks
8. Letter Press used as Standing Press
9. Back Saw
10. Joint Rods
11. Pressing Tin
12. Pressing Board
Super;—Headband;—Back Strip.
When the book is dry, a piece of super or thin canvas is glued to the back and about one and one-half inches down the endpapers, which are then cut off along the edges of this super. This forms what is called the slip. The super should be a little shorter than the book and about two or three inches wider than the back of the book.
A piece of cotton or silk stock headband is now glued to the back at the head and projecting about one-eighth of an inch above it. Then a strip of thick, tough paper, just large enough to cover the back, is glued on. This finishes the book ready for the cover.
Squares;—Foredge.
During the processes just described, while waiting for the glue to dry, the materials are gotten for the cover. Two boards are cut as wide as the book and from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch longer. This makes the squares one-eighth or three-sixteenths of an inch and determines the width of the joint at the back, since the board must go forward sufficiently to make the projection at the foredge the same as at the head and foot. This projection is called the squares.
Several things must be considered in determining the size of the squares. The most important are protection, strength, and beauty. From the standpoint of good proportion, of course, the large, thick book would demand large squares, whereas protection of the edges may not require them so long; while the strength and durability of the binding would suggest shorter squares still.
A large book set upon a shelf is forced by its own weight down between the boards against the shelf, straining or breaking the cover at the back.
Turn-in;—Size of Cover Cloth.
In cutting leather, cloth, and paper, it is a rule to allow three-fourths of an inch for each turn-in. So this is observed in cutting material for this cover. To find the size of the cloth for a full cloth cover, it is necessary to add together the widths of the two boards, the thickness of the back, the two joints and one and one-half inches for the turn-ins at the foredge. This sum gives the dimension, of course, from the foredge of one cover around the back to the foredge of the other cover. The dimension of the cloth lengthwise of the book is one and one-half inches greater than the length of the board.
To make the cover, the cloth is laid wrong side up on the table, Fig. 17. Three-fourths of an inch is measured down from the top and a pencil line is drawn, a, a´. Then the middle of the cloth from left to right is found and marked as indicated by the crosses. From these central points, the lines b b´ and c c´ are located which mark the positions of the back edges of the boards and of course, are as far apart as the thickness of the book plus the two joints. Then the boards are placed so that they fit into the right angles formed by lines bb´ and cc´ and aa´, and a pencil mark as dd´ is made along the foredge and bottom of each board, completing the rectangles. The strips of cloth outside these rectangles are the turn-ins.
Mitres.
With scissors or a knife the corners are clipped out as at e, which is called making the mitres. It is clear that if the corner were cut entirely up to the corner of the rectangle, there would be danger of exposing the corner of the board, so a distance is left about equal to the thickness of the board.
Pasting.
The surface of the cloth except the back strip between the boards, is covered with a thin coat of paste, the boards are laid on, and the edges of the cloth are turned over the edges of the boards and pressed down as at a, Figs. 18 and 19, care being taken to get the cloth firmly against the edges of the boards.
With less mature pupils, it is sometimes advisable to put on only one board at a time, in which case the head and foot of the back strip are treated as at g, Fig. 17. The cover is now ready for the press. It is closed in book fashion with a pressing tin or board between the covers. A piece of clean waste paper is put between each board and the pressing tin or board. A waste paper and a board are placed on each side of the cover and all put into the press. The cover should be left in the press over night. The waste paper is very important. Without it, the tins are likely to stick to the book and the moisture of the paste to cause rust which mars the book. This caution is never out of place and can never be repeated too often, i. e., do not use too thin paste; do not use too much paste; put on the paste rapidly.
Laid On.
Now the cover is ready to be laid on. A strip of tough paper just as wide and as long as the back of the book, is now pasted along the back cloth between the boards f, Fig. 17, and inserted under the cloth which is turned over at the two ends.
If the cover were to be left hollow, the paste would be applied to the slips only; but in this case, where the back cloth is to be attached, both the slips and the back, as well as the strip between the boards of the cover, are thoroughly covered with paste, and the book set into the cover in its proper position. While the workman supports the book with one hand, he brings up one side of the cover firmly against the book. The slip on this side becomes attached to the board. Then the book is laid down on the side just pasted, while the other cover is pulled firmly to bring the back cloth against the book, and is then pressed down upon the paste-covered slip or super b, Fig. 18. Examination is then made to see if the book is straight in the cover, if the squares are correct, etc. If it is not straight, it is removed and the process repeated.
When the cover is on straight, the cloth is rubbed firmly along the back and into the joints. When it is thoroughly attached at the back, the book is put lightly into the press, after a tin, inserted between two papers, has been put between the cover and the book on each side.
Paste-downs—Bone Folder.
The next step is the pasting down of the endpapers. The cover is lifted on one side and a piece of waste paper is placed beneath the endpaper which is then covered with paste.
This done, the endpaper is drawn back upon the board and rubbed down with the hands. Then with a bone folder, 3, Plate I, the endpaper and slip are rubbed under the back edge of the board at the joint.
The cover is now closed upon the book and immediately opened. If it is found that in closing, the endpaper wrinkles or proves in anyway wrong, the wrinkles are smoothed out and other defects corrected. If necessary, the endpaper may be lifted carefully from the board and then put down again. Then the cover is closed again, and again inspected. If it is all right, the other endpaper is treated in like manner, and the book is put lightly into press, not neglecting waste paper and tins, and left until thoroughly dry.
Paste.
The best paste is made as follows:—Add one-half a teaspoonsful of powdered alum and a few drops of wintergreen to one pint of flour. Mix with water to the consistency of cream. Cook until it becomes stiff and waxlike, stirring constantly. Then pour in some hot water, stir and cook again until it becomes the desired consistency. Ordinary library paste or photo mount is not satisfactory.
III.
LIBRARY BINDING.
The name Library Binding may be somewhat misleading if one has in mind the bindings commonly seen in libraries. This binding is practically what was recommended for the libraries of England by a committee from the English Society of Arts, appointed to investigate the causes of the lack of durability in bindings and to suggest remedies for defects found.
The following specifications indicate the distinguishing features of this binding:—
1. Half leather, paper sides. 2. Sewed on four or more tapes. 3. Double boards. 4. French joint. 5. Zigzag colored endpapers. 6. Head cut, out of boards, and colored. 7. Backed and slightly rounded. 8. Cord inserted under leather instead of headband. 9. Leather attached to back.
Zigzag Endpaper.
After the sheets are folded and pressed as described in the previous binding, the zigzag endpapers are prepared. In cutting these endpapers, four sheets of white paper to match the book are cut and folded, two of the folios being considerably wider than the book so as to allow for the fold e, Fig. 20. Each leaf of the large folios is folded back about one-fourth of an inch from the original fold. Then another folio, c, the same size as the book, is pasted under zigzag e, and the endpapers made in this way become the first and last sections. Folio b is the colored endpaper which is not inserted until book is sewed.
Fig. 20. Zigzag end. a, b, c, separate folios.
Fig. 21. Sewing Frame and sewing on tapes. a, finished catch or crowsfoot stitch. b, the beginning of the catchstitch.
Fig. 22. Ready for backing. a, Joint. b, Backing boards. c, Lying, or finishing press.
Fig. 23. putting on double boards. a, The slip.
Fig. 24. Putting on the leather back. a, cord.
The book is now marked up as in the Case Binding except that there are only two punctures, one about three-quarters of an inch from the head, and the other about one and one-quarter inches from the foot, in an ordinary size of book.
Sewing on Tapes.
Sewing on tapes requires a sewing frame, Fig. 21, which is prepared for sewing by tying five tapes to the horizontal bar. The book is then laid on the floor of the frame with the head toward the right and the back to the tapes. The head tape is placed one-fourth of an inch to the left of the head puncture, while the foot tape is placed one-fourth of an inch to the right of the foot puncture. The other tapes are distributed equally along the distance between those at the head and foot. All the tapes are fastened to the edge of the frame floor with thumb tacks. Of course, that is only one simple frame out of a great variety which may be made. There are numerous ways of improvising sewing frames. Temporary frames are often made by tacking small strips to the ends of drawing boards, and fastening a cross bar to them. In large classes, merely a board is sometimes used as in olden times, when stiff thongs or strips of vellum were used. This is not very satisfactory.
The book is laid to the left as in the previous binding, and the sections are turned in the same way, and laid upon the frame. The end section is laid with a, Fig. 20, on the floor of the frame and the needle inserted at the head puncture of the fold between e and d through folio c, Fig. 20. Then with the left hand, the needle is drawn in and run back out just to the right of the head tape. Then the needle is run into the section immediately to the left of the head tape, making a stitch across the tape. This is repeated at each tape and finally the needle comes out at the foot puncture. Now the second section is put on, the needle inserted at the foot puncture and the sewing continued as in the first section, until the head puncture is reached, when the thread is tied with a double knot to the original end. The third section is now put on and treated exactly like the first section until the needle comes out at the right of the head tape, when a crow’s foot or catch stitch is made in the following way:—
Crow’s Foot or Catch Stitch.
As the needle comes out at the side of the tape, instead of sewing the thread straight across the tape as before, the needle is run from the bottom up behind the two previous threads in such a way as to make a loop knot around them, a and b, Fig 21. Then the needle is run into the section on the opposite side of the tape exactly as in previous stitches. This is repeated at every tape until the foot puncture is reached, where a kettlestitch is made. After the third section, a kettlestitch is made every time the needle comes out at an end puncture, and a crow’s foot or catch stitch every third or fourth section.
The remainder of the book is sewed by exact repetitions of the processes thus far described.
When the sewing is completed, the tapes are cut, leaving them about one and one-half inches long at each side and a colored folio, b, Fig. 20, is tipped to the top of each zigzag as at e, and the book is then ready for gluing, rounding and backing.
Rounding.
Rounding, as the name implies, is the process of giving a convex shape to the back of a book to prevent its becoming sunken or concave. The book is laid upon the table, and the first few sections are pulled firmly forward, while with a hammer, the upper edge of the back is struck lightly, driving the upper sections forward. Then the book is turned over and the process is repeated on the other side.
A folded sheet of waste paper is tipped (pasted by a very narrow strip of paste) along the sides of the book at the back.
Marks are placed about one-eighth of an inch from the back, showing the places for the edges of the backing boards between which the book is put and all clamped into the lying press, Fig. 22. This done, the back is thoroughly covered with thin glue which is rubbed in with a stiff brush and wiped as in the previous book. Within fifteen or twenty minutes, when the glue has dried sufficiently to be rubbery, the back is pounded with a hammer, striking first along the center, then gradually toward the end sections, always with a gliding blow, until the edges have been forced over the tops of the backing boards, as a, Fig. 22. If this has been properly done, the back will be smooth and rounding, and the edges will project over about the thickness of the boards.
The tapes are now pasted down against the outside leaves of the endpapers, and the super glued on, reaching from puncture to puncture, and to the ends of the tapes on each side. When dry, the endpapers, to which the tapes were pasted, are cut off around the edges of the super, a, Fig. 23. Material is now gotten ready for the cover. Since this book is to have a French joint, the boards are cut as much narrower than the book as will make the proper width of joint; and since it is to have double boards, four boards are cut, two thin and two medium. A thin board and a thicker one are glued together, all except about two inches along the back edge, to form one board. The boards, thus glued, are put into the press, and the leather cut, which is to be one and one-half inches longer than the board and wide enough to reach around the back and as far down the sides as desired—the general rule being “more than a fourth and less than a third.” This, however, is a statement of the most general kind, and proper widths for the leather are determined to meet specific conditions.
Skiving—Head Cut—Coloring.
With a sharp skiving or head knife, 5, Plate I, the edges of the leather are pared thin, and also a strip through the middle where the back of the book goes, is pared, if the leather is quite thick. For this operation, the leather should be laid on a stone or slate.
The book is now marked with pencil and trysquare where the head is to be cut, and is placed between two pressing boards with a heavy piece of cardboard, called the cut-against, between the back pressing board and the book. In this condition, the book is now put into the cutting press, Plate II, the front pressing board being pushed down on a level with the mark on the book and with the top of the press. The plow is run forward and backward, the blade meanwhile being gradually screwed toward the book, cutting only a very few leaves at a stroke. With this easy stroke and slow advance of the blade, if the blade is sharp, the head is left smooth and ready for coloring. The head is colored with India ink and when dry, is rubbed with beeswax and burnished with a burnisher made for that purpose.
PLATE II
French Joint.
Now the book is marked for the French joint, that is, for the location of the back edges of the boards, and a strip of tough paper large enough to cover the back is glued on.
Glue is put into the open places left between the layers of the double boards; then the slips—super, tapes, and pieces of endpapers which were previously pasted together—are inserted into these openings, Fig. 23, and the book put into press, where it remains until thoroughly dry.
In putting on the boards, great care is necessary to insure a straight cover and perfect squares.
Half Leather.
It is now time to put on the leather, which is laid, flesh side up, on waste paper and thoroughly covered with paste. The waste paper is removed and the book is then placed in its proper position on the leather and the boards opened down against it with sufficient pressure to attach the leather to them. Then the ends of the leather are turned under the back of the book and over the boards, enclosing a cord at the head as shown at a, Fig. 24. This cord makes a roll instead of a headband. This done, the leather is thoroughly rubbed with the hands and forced closely down into the joints. Joint sticks, 10, Plate I, may be used for this purpose, but care must be used not to mar the leather with them. Now the book is placed with the foredge in the lying press, and a cord tied around it lengthwise through the joint to make sure than the leather holds its position at the joint. When dry, the leather is trimmed, since the work of getting it onto the book has probably stretched it, or the paring may have left the edges uneven.
Measurement is made from the foredge back to the points where it is desired to have the leather extend. With a sharp knife, the surplus leather is cut off. The book is now ready for the cover papers. Marks are made on the leather for the one-eighth inch lap of the paper.
Cover Paper.
The cover papers for the sides are cut one and one-half inches longer than the boards and seven-eighths of an inch wider than the distance from the leather to the foredge of the board. This allows three-fourths of an inch for turn-in and one-eighth of an inch for the lap over of the leather.
Then the book is placed on the paper, b, Fig. 24, in such manner as to have a straight edge of the paper come just to the marks on the leather and as nearly the same projection at the ends and foredge as possible. With a lead pencil, a line is drawn on the paper around the board. Corners for the mitres are cut, always cutting not closer to the pencil mark than the thickness of the board, as explained in the previous binding. This done, the paper is covered with paste, the book again laid on in position indicated by marks, and the turn-ins pasted.
The other board is now treated in the same manner. Great care is necessary to make sure that the paper fits firmly against the edge of the board. The bone folder is used here to force the paper against the edge of the board before the turn-in is pasted down on top.
The paper at the corners usually does not make a perfect mitre, but laps. This is remedied by taking a sharp knife and cutting through the lapping papers and removing the pieces cut off.
The book is now put under light pressure until dry. Nothing remains now but to paste the colored endpapers to the boards, the same as in the previous binding. It will be seen on opening the book how much flexibility the zigzag has lent to the cover.
IV.
EXTRA BINDING.
1. Three-quarters Morocco. 2. Sewed on cords; cords laced into boards. 3. Flexible back. 4. Edges cut in boards, head colored. 5. Rounded and backed. 6. Zigzag endpapers, colored pastedown. 7. Head and foot bands, silk thread over heavy cords. 8. Blind or gold tooled and lettered.
Cords.
The sewing frame is prepared exactly in the same way as in the Library Binding except that cords are here used instead of tapes, Fig. 25. Endpapers are cut and prepared zigzag, book marked up and punctures sawed the same as in the Library Binding.
These are the distinct differences between sewing on cords and on tapes. With cords, the needle goes in at the head puncture and out on the left of the cord and then doubles back and from the right of the cord, the needle is inserted at the same hole through which it came out, completely encircling the cord with the thread, a, Fig. 25. This is the whole story of sewing on cords. In the use of tapes, the thread simply goes back of the tapes, not around them. The kettlestitches are made just as in sewing on tapes, but there are no catch or crowfoot stitches as with tapes. When the book is taken from the sewing frame, the back is rounded. In this process, judgment must be used not to get the back too convex.
Fig. 25. Sewing on cords. a, stitch around the cord.
Fig. 26. Lacing cords into boards.
Fig. 27. Detail of holes and trough for cords.
Fig. 28. Board pulled down ready for the head to be cut.
The book is now put into the backing boards in the press and glued and backed as described in dealing with the Library Binding.
Lacing Holes.
Two boards, as wide as the book and one-fourth of an inch longer, are cut from heavy tar or mill board. The boards are placed in proper position closely up against the joint projection of the back, and marks perpendicular to the back edges of the boards, are made, indicating the positions of the cords. At each mark and about one-half of an inch from the edge, a hole almost as large as the cords, is made with an awl from the outside, and the projections caused by the awl are trimmed off. Then about one-half inch from these holes, another row of somewhat smaller holes is made. These holes are not in the lines drawn from the edges of the boards, as is shown in Figs. 26 and 27, and are punched from the inside, leaving the projections caused by the awl.
Then a kind of V or trough is cut from each of the first series of holes to the edge of the board, making a place for the cord to lie, Fig. 27.
Lacing.
Now the cords are frayed out and trimmed thin at the ends, and with paste, the frayed portions are twisted to points and inserted down through the first holes and up through the others, a, Fig. 26. When the cords have been drawn tightly and a small amount of paste put around the holes, the ends are again frayed out and spread about the holes, and with a hammer, the board resting firmly on a block, the protruding parts of the board are pounded down about the cords. After this has been done to all the cords on both sides, the book is left to dry.
The cutting of the edges in boards, is a process requiring the greatest care. A mark is drawn on the white endpaper indicating where the head is to be cut. A tin and a piece of heavy cardboard are placed between the book and the back board. These make a cut-against to protect the cover from the knife. The front board is now drawn down even with the head mark, Fig. 28, and prepared in this way, the book is put into the cutting press.
It is essential to good work that the book be absolutely true in the press, and that the head mark and the top of the board which has been pulled down, be on a level with the top surface of the jaw of the press. The cutting is the same as described under Library Binding, page [27].
The book is now removed, the covers are thrown back, and with a try square against the head, a mark is drawn on the endpaper, showing where the foredge is to be cut. With the covers hanging down and a pressing board and one or two thicknesses of cardboard for a cut-against, the book is put into the press and the foredge cut. The foot is cut exactly as was the head.
Fig. 29. Putting on the headband.
Fig. 30. Cutting the leather corners.
Fig. 31.
Pasting on leather corners and cover papers.
a, Turn-in of leather.
b, Turn-in mitre of leather.
c, and d, Turn-ins of paper.
e, Taper tied around book.
f, End pasted down.
Fig. 32. Deep punctures for sunken cords.
Fig. 33. Folded paper for hollow back cover.
Head and Foot Bands.
It is now time to make the head and foot bands. The book is fastened in a lying press as shown in Fig. 29, with the head leaning toward the workman. A needle, into which is tied one end of a long, colored silk thread is run through the middle of the first section down to the head puncture and out through the back, the thread being drawn half its length through. Then a strong piece of cord, considerably longer than the width of the back, is laid on the head of the book just back of the boards. The needle end of the thread is brought directly forward over the cord, while the other end is crossed over the needle end of the thread, under the cord, and forward over the cord the same as the first thread. Then changing hands again, this operation is repeated twice when the needle is run down into the head of the book and out at the back one-half inch or more below the head but as it comes back over the cord, it is crossed by the other thread exactly as at first. About every fourth crossing, the thread should be sewed into the book.
When the cord is covered to the other side of the book, the two threads are knotted firmly beneath the cord. A small bit of paste is put at the end of the silk on each side, and the cord cut off. Then a tough piece of paper reaching from the top cord to the top of the headband is glued on to hold the band in place.
The foot band is made in exactly the same manner.
Then a strip of paper as wide as the back is glued on and carefully fitted about the cords.
Rubbing Sticks—Band Nippers.
The leather back is put on as in the Library Binding, but much greater care and patience are required in rubbing down the leather about the cords and making it adhere strongly to the book at all points. Rubbing sticks, 7, Plate I, come in good place in this operation. Band nippers are often used to force the leather against the cords. The leather is moistened slightly at the head and foot and made to lie down snugly against the head and foot bands. After this, the leather pieces for the corners are cut and marked up, leaving a three-quarter inch margin on the two equal sides of the triangle, Fig. 30. A general rule for the size of corners is that the altitude of the finished corner triangle should be about the same as the extension of the back leather over the side of the book.
Leather Corners.
The corners of the leather pieces are cut out just as the corners of the paper in the previous book. Then the edges are pared thin. The leather corners are covered with paste, one at a time, a corner of the cover board is placed in proper position on the leather and the turn-ins pasted, a and b, Fig. 31. This done, the book is put under light pressure for a time. The leather is now all trimmed to proper size and the cover paper marked and cut for the sides. The one-eighth inch lap is marked on the leather back, and the book laid on the paper as in previous book. Then with a sharp pencil, points are made on the paper showing where it must be cut to allow not more than one-eighth inch lap on the leather of the corners, Fig. 31.
The corners of the paper are cut out, the paper covered with paste, the book placed in proper position and the turn-ins pasted as at c and d. Care must again be exercised that the paper comes squarely against the edges of the boards and fits closely around the edges of the leather. For such processes, the bone folder is almost indispensable.
The next step is the lining of the boards. A rectangular piece of heavy paper is pasted on the inside of each cover and fitted snugly against the edges of the leather and paper turn-ins. After these linings are dry, the end papers are trimmed and pasted down. In this case, great care and patience are necessary to make the endpapers attach themselves to the back edges of the boards. Of course, the outside white leaves are torn off and the colored pastedowns are drawn back upon the boards as in the Library Binding, and with a bone folder, the papers are forced against the back edges of the boards. Then the book is closed and immediately opened. If in closing, the endpaper is pulled loose or wrinkled, it is again put into proper order and the book again closed.
When the end papers hold their positions perfectly, the book is thoroughly protected with paper, tins and boards and put lightly into press.
Then the head is colored with India ink, a coat of beeswax put on, and a burnisher used to give it a polish. It is well to leave the completed book under some pressure for several days.
If, in the process, some paste has gotten on the leather or paper, it may be removed by the use of a damp cloth, carefully rubbed over the soiled places.
Hollow Back.
In case a hollow back is desired for this book, deep punctures are sawed at every cord, and the cords which are smaller than in the flexible binding, are sunken into these punctures, Fig. 32. The sewing in such a binding is very simple, the thread running along the middle of the section and behind the cords, with kettlestitches at the head and foot, the same as in the flexible sewing.
Before the cover goes on, a heavy paper folded as in Fig. 33, making from three to five thicknesses, is glued by the bottom layer to the back.
But especially in elementary work where very little gold tooling and lettering are undertaken, the hollow back is neither necessary nor desirable. At all events, let us avoid the false cords sometimes seen in commercial books.
V.
REBINDING.
The foregoing work has assumed that the books were to be bound from the original, unfolded sheets.
In case of rebinding books, the following preliminary steps are necessary before beginning the sewing:—
1. Taking off old cover. This is done simply by pulling loose the endpapers and carefully loosening the super. If the glue or paste refuses to come off, it is covered with a coat of fresh paste, and after a short time may be scraped off.
2. Cutting sections apart. The leaves are counted until the thread is reached which indicates the middle of the section. The thread is clipped and the same number of leaves, disregarding plates, is counted, bringing us to the end of the section. The counting is necessary because of the fact that in many books, the first and last few sections are pasted, or tipped, together, making it difficult to tell where one stops and the other begins.
3. Beating out the joint. In books which have been rounded and backed, the first and last few sections especially have a decided bend near the backs caused by the hammering. This is removed by laying the sections down on a solid block and hammering them along the joints.
4. Mending, cleaning and guarding. Guards are strips of tough paper about one-fourth of an inch wide which are used to paste together the leaves of a folio that have been torn apart, and to fasten plates into the book. In case of the torn folio, the leaves are laid side by side in the proper position and a guard, covered with paste, is placed over the joint where the leaves come together. The leaves are then folded together creasing the guard in the middle. This general rule as to the placing of the guards is given in the form of a bull:—“If it is to be guarded on the outside, put the guard on the inside; but if it is to be guarded on the inside, put the guard on the outside.” That is, if it is the outside folio of the section to be guarded, put the guard on the inside of the folio, so that the ragged edges of the tear may be gathered up by the glue on the back and that it may not interfere with the sewing. But if it is an inside folio to be guarded, put the guard or the outside of the folio. When guarding in a plate, a folio is opened out, the plate placed on the proper leaf, and the guard put on as in the case of a torn folio.
5. Cutting new end papers.
After all the foregoing steps, the book is ready to be pressed, placing the sections upon each other and inserting tins and boards as described in Case Binding.
When it comes to re-sewing the book and putting on new covers, the practice is to use any method or any combination of methods that seems to be demanded by the conditions and size of the book, and the character of usage which it will probably meet. It is not unusual in commercial binderies to sew books especially large, heavy books, on tapes or on sunken cords without regard to the style of cover. This is done especially where the book has large, thick sections that are difficult to hold in place. Thus it is seen how far, under some conditions, we depart from the standard types.
It sometimes happens that the folios are so badly torn at the folds that to guard them would make the back unusually thick. In such cases, the overcasting method is used. The back of the book is cut if it is in very bad condition, and then instead of sewing through punctures over cords or tapes, several of the leaves are taken and placed in the same position as a section, and sewed through, whipping over and over, and going around tapes or cords in the usual manner. It frequently happens however, that a book is in good condition with the exception of the cover, in which case, simply a new cover is put on. This necessitates re-gluing of the back and putting on new super and end papers. Then the question arises how to fasten in the end papers so that they may be strong. One method, especially in the case of heavy books, is to put in a cloth joint. This is a folded strip of cloth about one inch wide, at each end of the book, with one side of the fold pasted to the outside leaf. Then when the cover is put on, the other side of the cloth fold is pasted to the board, Fig. 34. A folio of cover paper is then tipped against the cloth and the outside leaf pasted to the board; or in many cases, a separate sheet is used for the pastedown, leaving both leaves of the end folio free.
Fig. 34.
Fig. 35.
a, Cloth joints b, End sheets
In the case of marbled endpapers, the folio is cut of paper to match the book, a piece of super or canvass is put along the fold like a guard, then the single sheet of marbled paper is pasted entirely over the first page of the folio which is then tipped in to the cloth of the joint. Where a book is to be resewed, sometimes single end sheets of heavy cover stock, together with the cloth for the joint, are folded around the backs of the first and last sections and sewed in with them, Fig. 35. Then when the boards are put on, the cloth is drawn back over the edge as before.
Another method of attempting to reinforce and strengthen the first and last parts of a book is to sew through the endpapers that are to remain free as “flyleaves” and the leaves of the first half of the first and last sections. This seems of somewhat doubtful value, although it may be of some service in the case of a thick, heavy book.
A very practical and easy method of rebinding moderately thin books which have torn backs, is to sew them in the manner described for a fourth-grade Language Book, Fig. 40, page [55], and put on a new case binding. In such cases, care must be used to make the joint wide enough to allow the boards to come well in front of the stitches; otherwise, the book would not open without tearing the cover.
Plate III shows a number of library books rebound in this manner by seventh grade boys.
PLATE III
Library Books Rebound by Seventh Grade Boys.
VI.
EQUIPMENT.
Equipment for elementary bookbinding, as already indicated in a preceding chapter, can be made almost entirely to fit the purse.
The statement occurs in text books and has gone the rounds on “good authority” that very little can be done in the way of bookbinding without a large and unusually expensive equipment. It is difficult to understand how such a statement could be made by anyone who is familiar with craft binding and its simplified forms as they may be worked out in the lower grades of our schools.
Of course, it is possible to spend any amount for bookbinding equipment, but there are many schools where good elementary work is being done with absolutely no equipment except pocket knives, scissors and such other aids as may be picked up about any school building.
It is entirely possible to adjust the upper grade work so that only a few will be handling the same processes at the same time, thus making a small equipment answer the purposes of a good sized class.
For making the typical books under good conditions with a moderate number of pupils in the eighth grade or high school, the following equipment may be said to be elaborate, and can be had for about $75:—
| 1 | 10-inch Card Cutter, |
| 6 | Lying Presses, |
| 1 | Plow and Press, |
| 2 | Letter Presses, |
| 12 | Sewing Frames, |
| 2 | Paring Knives, |
| 3 | Pairs Backing Boards, |
| 2 | Back Saws, |
| 6 | Try Squares, |
| 3 | Hammers, |
| 3 | Doz. Pressing Boards and Tins, |
| 6 | Awls, |
| 6 | Paste Brushes, |
| 12 | Bone Folders. |
Even this equipment may be very materially reduced. Many of the items may be improvised, made, or furnished by the pupils.
For instance, the sewing frames are of simple construction and offer an excellent problem for the class in woodwork.
The plow and press are not an essential even in high school work. Most excellent work may be done by cutting both paper and boards with a sharp knife guided by a trysquare or straight edge, against a cutting tin. Any ordinary hammer will do for backing purposes. So this brings us back to the repeated proposition that much and good bookbinding can be done in the schools with almost no equipment.
VII.
SUGGESTIVE COURSE.
In the previous discussions of the three main types of books, practically every process used in elementary hand-binding has been described.
The following outline is the result of several years of effort on the part of the author, to develop a series of problems involving the bookbinding processes, meeting some of the constructive needs of the various grades of the school, and relating in some vital way to the regular school interests.
It was thought that confusion would be avoided by indicating the methods and processes of a set of specific problems. It is understood that these problems are only typical and that from these, a great variety of books may be worked out in response to special needs. In the practical work of the class, these problems are not dictated step by step and in detail, to the pupils; but as far as possible each pupil plans for himself, size, number of pages, proportions, color combinations, decoration, etc. A very large part of the value derived from such work, comes from the necessity of thinking and planning in advance, and from the privilege and exercise of choice.
Let us assume that we are taking the problem of the fourth grade spelling book, page [53], Fig. 38. The first thing necessary is the spelling paper as a basis for our plans.
Each child is given a sheet of paper, say 3½×8 inches. The class is questioned to bring out the general characteristics of the cover needed, such as the direction of opening, the necessity for a hinge in the top cover, etc.
Then the matter of the squares or the extension of the boards is taken up and the pupils express opinions as to the amount of the extension. After reasons are given for various opinions, the pupils calculate and write on the sheets of paper the sizes the boards are to be cut.
Then comes the question of the distance the hinge is to be from the back. One pupil may answer three inches and another one-half an inch. Reasons are brought out why neither is satisfactory and also why it may vary, say, from three-fourths of an inch to one and one-half inches, and each child writes on his paper the distance he prefers. The same plan is used with reference to the width of the hinge; and since this may vary greatly, even from one-fourth to two inches, guided always by the ideas of good proportion and fulfillment of purposes, the pupils are asked to write down their preferences.
Then is taken up the question of the proportion of cloth to paper on the covers. In the first place, it is apparent that constructive considerations demand that the cloth must reach from the back some distance beyond the hinge toward the foredge, but how far beyond is a question of good proportion. It is always found that children vary but little in their judgments of proportion in this matter. The author has made this proposition to scores of children:—“Let’s have the cloth and the cover paper meet at the middle of the cover,” and in the whole number of children, there has never been one who would agree to any such an arrangement. When the matter of the cloth has been determined, the pupils calculate the sizes the pieces of cloth and paper must be cut, allowing the proper turn-ins. These dimensions are written down with the other decided points. From this information, the pupils make simple drawings. From samples of various colors of cloth, paper, and cords, the pupils select satisfactory combinations. In this, as in all other matters, if pupils make wrong selections or show poor judgment, it is the opportunity of the teacher to suggest and to convince them of the wisdom of some other choice.
Fig. 36.
Fig. 37.
The material is next marked out and cut. Of course, this is done by each pupil from the information he has written on his sheet of paper.
The actual pasting of the boards into the cloth and paper requires but few suggestions or directions if the pupils have gone through the work of the previous grades. If they have not, then they are asked to place the board upon the cloth in the proper position, mark around it, and clip out corners as at a, Fig. 36. When the cloth is pasted on, the same process is used with the paper allowing it to lap one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch on the cloth, b. When the covers are completed and pressed, the punctures are made and the cord tied in.
PLATE IV
1. Tilo Matting Poem Book 2. Nature or Sketch Book 3. Home Book