English Grammar in Familiar Lectures / Accompanied by a compendium, embracing a new systematic order of parsing, a new system of punctuation, exercises in false syntax, and a system of philosophical grammar, in notes, to which are added an appendix and a key to the exercises : designed for the use of schools and private learners

by Samuel Kirkham

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING.

The order of parsing a RELATIVE PRONOUN, is—a pronoun, and why?—relative, and why?—gender, person, and number, and why?—RULE:—case, and why?—RULE.—Decline it.

"This is the man whom we saw."

Whom is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—relative, it relates to "man" for its antecedent—mas. gend. third pers. sing. num. because the antecedent "man" is with which it agrees, according to

RULE 14. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender, person, and number. Whom is in the objective case, the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw," and governed by it, agreeably to

RULE 16. When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its own member of the sentence.

Whom, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that governs it, according to NOTE 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline who.)

"From what is recorded, he appears," &c.

What is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which, or the thing which—Thing, the antecedent part of what, is a noun, the name of a thing—com. the name of a species—neuter gender, it has no sex—third person, spoken of—sing. number, it implies but one—and in the obj. case, it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep. "from," and gov. by it: RULE 31. (Repeat the Rule, and every other Rule to which I refer.) Which, the relative part of what, is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun—relative, it relates to "thing" for its antecedent—neut. gender, third person, sing. number, because the antecedent "thing" is with which it agrees, according to RULE 14. Rel pron. &c. Which is in the nom. case to the verb "is recorded," agreeably to

RULE 15. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb.

"What have you learned? Nothing."

What is a pron. a word used, &c.—relative of the interrogative kind, because it is used in asking a question—it refers to the word "nothing" for its subsequent, according to

RULE 17. When the rel. pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative. What is of the neut. gend. third pers. sing. because the subsequent "nothing" is with which it agrees; RULE 14. Rel. pron. agree, &c.—It is in the obj. case, the object of the action, of the active-transitive verb "have learned," and gov. by it, agreeably to RULE 16. When a nom. &c. See NOTE 1, under the Rule.

NOTE. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative when the answer to the question is not expressed.

WHO, WHICH, WHAT.

Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand. The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is in accordance with the usual method of treating them; but if they were unfolded according to their true character, they would be found to be very simple, and, doubtless, much labor and perplexity, on the part of the learner, would thereby be saved.

Of the words called "relatives," who, only, is a pronoun; and this is strictly personal; more so, indeed, if we except I and we, than any other word in our language, for it is always restricted to persons. It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. I, thou, he, she, it, we, ye, you, and they, relate to antecedents, as well as who. Which, that, and what, are always adjectives. They never stand for, but always belong to nouns, either expressed or implied. They specify, like many other adjectives, and connect sentences.

Who supplies the place of which or what and its personal noun. Who came? i.e. what man, what woman, what person;—which man, woman, or person, came? "They heard what I said"—they heard that (thing) which (thing) I said. "Take what (or whichever) course you please;"—take that course which (course) you please to take. "What have you done?" i.e. what thing, act, or deed have you done? "Which thing I also did at Jerusalem." "Which will you take?"—which book, hat, or something else? "This is the tree which (tree) produces no fruit." "He that (man, or which man) acts wisely, deserves praise."

They who prefer this method of treating the "relatives," are at liberty to adopt it, and parse accordingly.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. The boy whom I instruct, learns well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows many charities. That modesty which highly adorns a woman, she possesses. He that acts wisely deserves praise. This is the tree which produces no fruit. I believe what He says. He speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the heart, also fortifies it. What doest^[5] thou? Nothing. What book have you? A poem. Whose hat have you? John's. Who does that work? Henry. Whom seest thou? To whom gave you the present? Which pen did he take? Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. I heard what he said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza, take whichever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see this republic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold her liberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of the world, is the enemy of God.

NOTE. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and the objective case, before the verb that governs it. Whom, in every sentence except one, house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him, the third what and which, the relative part of the first two whats, are all in the objective case, and governed by the several verbs that follow them. See RULE 16, and NOTE 1. Tree is nom. after is, according to RULE 21. Thing, the antecedent part of whatever, is nom. to "fortifies;" which, the relative part, is nom. to "purifies." Nothing is governed by do, and poem, by have, understood. Henry is nominative to does, understood. Whose and John's are governed according to RULE 12. I, thou, you, him, &c. represent nouns understood. Him, in the last sentence but five, is governed by declare, and I is nominative to declare. George and Eliza are in the nominative case independent: Rule 5. "Whatever science," &c. is equivalent to, that science which suits your taste;—"whichever pattern;" i.e. that pattern which pleases you best. Whoever is a compound relative; he, the antecedent part, is nominative to "will behold." Take agrees with you understood. Forsake is in the infinitive mood after "see:" Rule 25.

REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Which sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole sentence, for its antecedent: as, "We are required to fear God and keep his commandments, which is the whole duty of man." What is the whole duty of man? "To fear God and keep his commandments:" therefore, this phrase is the antecedent to which.

The conjunction as, when it follows such, many, or same, is frequently denominated a relative pronoun; as, "I am pleased with such as have a refined taste;" that is, with those who, or them who have, &c. "Let such as presume to advise others, look well to their own conduct;" that is, Let those, or them who presume, &c. "As many as were ordained to eternal life, believed;" that is, they, those, or all who were ordained, believed. "He exhibited the same testimonials as were adduced on a former occasion;" that is, those testimonials which were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, as will be found to be a conjunction; thus, "I am pleased with such persons, as those persons are who have a refined taste; Let such persons, as those persons are who presume," &c.

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING.

From what words is the term pronoun derived?—Do pronouns always avoid the repetition of nouns?—Name the three kinds of pronouns.—What distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns?—How many personal pronouns are there?—Repeat them.—What belong to pronouns?—Is gender applied to all the personal pronouns?—To which of them is it applied?—Which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to denote their gender?—How many persons have pronouns?—Speak them in their different persons.—How many numbers have pronouns?—How many cases?—What are they?—Decline all the personal pronouns.—When self is added to the personal pronouns, what are they called, and how are they used?—When is you singular in sense?—Is it ever singular in form?—Why are the words, my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, called personal pronouns?—Why are the words, mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, denominated compound pers. pron.?—How do you parse these compounds?—What is said of others?—Repeat the order of parsing a personal pronoun.—What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the first person, and in the nom. case?—What rule when the pronoun is in the possessive case?—What Rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person?—What Rules in parsing the compounds, yours, ours, mine, &c.?—What is said of the pronoun it?

What are adjective pronouns?—Name the three kinds.—What does each relate to?—To what does every relate?—To what does either relate?—What does neither import?—To what do this and these refer?—Give examples.—To what do that and those refer?—Give examples.—Repeat all the adjective pronouns.—When adj. pronouns belong to nouns understood, how are they parsed?—When they stand for, or represent nouns, what are they called?—Give examples.—Repeat the order of parsing an adj. pronoun.—What Rule do you apply in parsing the indefinite adjective pronouns?—What Notes, in parsing the distributives and demonstratives?

What are relative pronouns?—Repeat them.—From what words is the term antecedent derived?—What does antecedent mean?—Are relatives varied on account of gender, person, or number?—To what are who and which applied?—To what is that applied?—Should who ever be applied to irrational beings or children?—In what instances may which be applied to persons?—Decline the rel. pronouns.—Can which and that be declined?—Is that ever used as three parts of speech?—Give examples.—What part of speech is the word what?—Is what ever used as three kinds of a pronoun?—Give examples.—What is said of whoever?—What words are used as interrogative pronouns?—Give examples.—When are the words, what, which, and that, called adj. pron.?—When are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives?—What is said of whatever and whichever?—Is what ever used as an interjection?—Give examples.—Repeat the order of parsing a rel. pron.—What Rules do you apply in parsing a relative?—What Rules in parsing a compound relative?—What Rules in parsing an interrogative?—Does the relative which ever relate to a sentence for its antecedent?—When does the conjunction as become a relative?—Give examples.

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX.

NOTE 1, to RULE 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must be in the nominative case.

Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do? Is thee well?

"Him and I;" not proper, because the pronoun him is the subject of the verb will go understood, therefore him should be in the nominative case, he, according to the above NOTE. (Repeat the NOTE.) Him and I are connected by the conjunction and, and him is in the obj. case, and I in the nom., therefore RULE 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.) In the second and third examples, thee should be thou, according to the NOTE. The verbs, does and is, are of the third person, and the nom. thou is second, for which reason the verbs should be of the second person, dost do and art, agreeably to RULE 4. You may correct the other examples, four times over.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is careless, will not improve. They can write as well as me. This is the man whom was expected. Her and I deserve esteem. I have made greater proficiency than him. Whom, of all my acquaintances, do you think was there? Whom, for the sake of his important services, had an office of honor bestowed upon him.

NOTE 2, to RULE 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of nouns, should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with the noun which they represent.

FALSE SYNTAX.

The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it is just. Many words they darken speech. That noble general who had gained so many victories, he died, at last, in prison. Who, instead of going about doing good, they are continually doing evil.

In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be omitted, according to Note 2.

NOTE 3, to RULE 13. A personal pronoun in the objective case, should not be used instead of these and those.

FALSE SYNTAX.

Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them men their discharge. Observe them three there. Which of them two persons deserves most credit?

In all these examples, those should be used in place of them. The use of the personal, them, in such constructions, presents two objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead.

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