Cover created by Transcriber, using an illustration from the original book, and placed in the Public Domain.
ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY
There are some who
follow the arts from poverty
and necessity, also for gain,
and for love of the art; but
those who pursue them from
love of the art and true
nobleness of mind are to
be commended above all
others.—Cennino Cennini.
Sidney Farnsworth
1920
ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY
BY
SIDNEY FARNSWORTH
Illustrated with Drawings
and Diagrams by the Author
NEW YORK
GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY
Printed in Great Britain
PREFACE
This book is the outcome of a series of articles which appeared in Drawing and Design. At the suggestion of the Editor of this periodical, the whole of the chapters originally published have been entirely rewritten and considerably enlarged; at the same time a large amount of quite new matter has been added.
The additions that have been made include a chapter on the development of writing in the past, together with a number of alphabets based on historical examples. I have also added a brief sketch of the history of Illumination, as I felt that the book would not be complete without some reference to this side of the subject. Some attention has been given to the colours and gilding methods of the mediæval artists, and it is hoped that the notes given may be of interest to the student. Extensions have also been made in connection with the use of colours and materials by the student to-day.
Chapters on the further development of illumination, the illumination of the printed book, and printed book decoration, are also amongst the additions. The chapters on the application of lettering and decoration from the commercial standpoint have also been developed considerably, and at the end of the book some notes have been added on books for further study.
I have tried to write in as simple a manner as possible, so that the youngest student should have no difficulty in understanding the instructions that are given.
So many books have been written on the subject of Illumination that it may seem quite superfluous to add yet another to the long list. Still, I think that a work treating the matter from the present-day standpoint ought to be of some service to the student who is desirous of practising this art to-day.
I have felt for some time past that there was a need for a work that would deal with the various ways in which this art could be applied in a time like the present. I have found that most of the books that have been written on Illumination treat the subject either from the standpoint of the archæologist or merely from that of the amateur. It is simply the result of a sincere desire to supply what I feel to be a real need that this book has been written, and in the hope that it may serve as a handbook and guide for the serious worker.
It has not been written with the idea of introducing a quick and easy method of becoming expert in the art of illumination. Success, in this, as in anything else of importance, can come only through hard work.
I have endeavoured to foster interest and enthusiasm, so that the student may not look upon the hard work entailed with this subject merely as a certain amount of drudgery to be got through. To one who is keenly interested in any particular study hard work often becomes a pleasure, and it is only when such is the case that the full benefit is derived from such study.
Illumination has a value in the present day as well as it had in the past. The developments of this art are seen in many of the common-place things of to-day. In some cases the development has been carried so far as to lose almost its identity with the original craft from which it has sprung, but the connection is there all the same.
The art of the book began with the illuminated manuscript, the early printed books being based entirely on the manuscripts that preceded them; and the same thing may be said with regard to the application of decoration to printed lettering generally.
The practice of illumination in the present day should result in something more than weak imitations of illuminated borders which were produced in the mediæval period. Illumination ought to be a real living art to-day.
There are numerous ways in which it could be used as a craft at the present time, quite apart from the many ways in which it could be applied commercially.
With regard to the study of lettering, there is a great need for more serious attention to be given to it. We are so surrounded by bad lettering that it is well that an effort should be made to get better results, and, as a means to this, some study of the beautiful forms of lettering used in the past should be of the greatest service. For this reason I have tried, by giving some examples, to direct the student’s attention to at least some of the fine styles of lettering that were employed in centuries gone by.
It is a great pity that the splendid book-hands of the past should have fallen into disuse, to say nothing of the beautiful decoration that accompanied the writing. It would, undoubtedly, be a good thing if some further encouragement were given to serious study of the well-formed lettering that was produced during the mediæval period.
I trust that this small work may, in some slight measure, be the means of fostering increased interest in lettering and illumination. I am deeply conscious of its many imperfections, and I only hope that, in spite of its many faults, it may be of some use to the reader who is interested in this art. If the study of it is the means of creating greater zeal and energy in the production of good work in this direction, I shall feel that my efforts have not altogether been in vain.
Sidney Farnsworth.
The Island,
Little Waltham,
Near Chelmsford.
INTRODUCTION
“In all great arts, as in trees, it is the height that charms us; we care nothing for the roots or trunks; yet they could not exist without the aid of these.” This quotation from Cicero may as well be applied to the art of illumination as to anything else. The fact, however, that the tree cannot exist without the aid of the trunk and roots, shows how important these are; and no one who intends giving serious attention to the tree in its entirety can afford to neglect these.
It is only through careful study of the art of illumination that it is possible to understand fully the construction that enters into the growth of this art. When some knowledge has been gained of the manner in which this work has been done in the past, through practical experience, it is then that a real appreciation is felt for the choice work of the mediæval period.
“Perfect illumination,” says Ruskin, in one of his Lectures on Art, “is only writing made lovely;... But to make writing itself beautiful—to make the sweep of the pen lovely—is the true art of illumination.” Certainly it is only when the student is able to produce writing that is attractive in itself, that it is permissible to add decoration to it. The decoration should be the natural outgrowth from the writing.
A page of well-formed lettering makes good pattern, and is not merely pattern, as it serves also the purpose for which it was intended, viz., to be read.
It is when he has gained the mastery of the pen, in making well-formed letters with good arrangement on the page, that the student may consider that he has well started on the road to the production of good illumination.
For the construction of well-finished lettering it is essential that a mastery of the tool and materials employed should be acquired. It is when the pen becomes almost a part of the writer, so that he is able to concentrate all his energy on the writing, giving scarcely any attention to the pen itself, that he may claim to be proficient in the use of the pen.
If there is one thing more than another that one feels when examining some of the best illuminated work of the past, it is that the writer was a master of the pen as a letter-making tool. He did his work well; his books were transcribed in a workmanlike manner, and the decoration which followed seems to come quite naturally from the writing itself.
It is for this reason that so much attention has been given to the use of the quill and reed pen in the formation of good writing.
Students are frequently at a disadvantage from inability to handle the pen properly. To help, in some measure, to remedy this, the student is shown how to make sharply-defined strokes before attempting to form letters. At the same time no particular manner of holding the pen has been insisted upon.
In the Introduction to his “Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful,” Burke says: “I am convinced that the method of teaching which approaches most nearly to the method of investigation is incomparably the best; since, not content with serving up a few barren and lifeless truths, it leads to the stock on which they grew; it tends to set the reader himself in the track of invention, and to direct him into those paths in which the author has made his own discoveries, if he should be so happy as to have made any that are valuable.”
This has been the ideal that the present writer has tried to keep ever before him in writing the instructions that are given in the succeeding pages. His aim has been to direct the student in the right way, and then to encourage him to study the subject for himself. Whether he has been successful in this endeavour must be left for the reader to judge.
The study of calligraphy, in connection with illumination, ought to be helpful in making the ordinary handwriting more legible. Before the age of printing, the book-hand developed alongside of the ordinary cursive handwriting, and possibly the fact that the book-hand has been lost may be advanced as a reason why most of the handwriting to-day is so degenerate. A careful study of some of the fine models of book-hands of the past cannot but be beneficial. It will certainly enable the student to appreciate beautiful forms of lettering, and its influence should soon be apparent in the lettering in general use. This should result in better sign-writing, better lettering in our magazines and papers, in short, better lettering all round.
Undoubtedly it would be a good thing if the children in our schools could be taught to form some of the fine book-hands of the past with the quill pen. It is certainly, to a great extent, due to the lack of a practical knowledge of some of the splendid forms of lettering used in the past, that the general lettering in use at the present time is so bad. It ought not to be at all impracticable for this suggestion to be carried out.
After the student is able to make well-formed letters with the quill and reed pen, and arrange them well, the use of decoration and the further development of illumination should follow naturally.
There is undoubtedly a place for illumination to-day, and even in connection with the illuminated manuscript book, which should certainly possess the first place amongst the work of the modern illuminator. There is not the slightest suggestion there that the illuminated manuscript should usurp the place of the printed book, but there is no reason why it should not be in use at the same time. One of the great charms that a fine manuscript possesses is its uniqueness, not being one of many, as in the case of the printed book. Then again, some things, as, for example, Poetry and Romance, are rendered in a much more sympathetic fashion in the illuminated manuscript than in the printed book.
There are many ways in which the art of illumination might be applied to-day, as well as in the usual illuminated testimonial. Several suggestions are given in the following pages for different ways in which it may be employed.
In the decoration of the printed book the services of the artist who is well-trained in the use of good lettering and book-decoration should be of value to the printer. Although there is no need for the printer to endeavour to imitate the work of the illuminator, there ought, certainly, to be room for a well-developed style of decoration that could be used with a good form of type.
A few centuries ago, before printing was used for the production of books, illumination as a part of calligraphy was an important craft. Books were not only beautifully written but they were also richly decorated with gold and colours. The writing of long manuscripts was very slow work, compared with the increased speed of production afforded by the printing press; but, notwithstanding this, it appears to have been important that the writing should be rendered more beautiful by the enrichment of decoration. Unfortunately, although methods of book-production are now so speedy, most of the lettering is of the barest and crudest kind. Book-decoration seems to be, in most cases, confined to illustration, and even this does not often form an altogether inseparable part of the book.
With regard to the various developments on the purely commercial side, the study of pen- and brush-formed lettering cannot but be of the greatest service to the commercial artist who requires lettering for posters, labels, book-covers, and the many things that require lettering.
In fact, lettering enters so largely into decorative design that the study of some of the fine forms of lettering is of paramount importance to any artist who desires that the lettering that he uses should be of good construction. So many drawings have been spoiled through the introduction of weak and badly formed lettering that the need for training the student to produce lettering that is well-finished and of good form should be obvious to everyone.
Without doubt one of the great things in lettering is to allow the tool to have its way. Pen-formed lettering should be of a form easily constructed with the pen, and should not pretend to be a brush-formed lettering, and vice versâ.
It is for this reason that in the first chapter so much attention has been given in noting the influence that the tools and materials employed have had on the shaping of the letters.
CONTENTS
| PAGE | |
| [PREFACE] | 1 |
| [INTRODUCTION] | 5 |
| [CHAPTER I] | |
| THE INFLUENCE OF THE TOOL | |
| Writing the Foundation of Illumination—Early Influences—Babylonian Characters—Egyptian Hieroglyphics—The reed and quill Pen—The use of Vellum | 23 |
| [CHAPTER II] | |
| THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING IN THE PAST | |
| Majuscule Writing—Square Capitals—Rustic Capitals—Uncials—Mixed Uncial and Minuscule Writing—Half-Uncials—Irish Half-Uncials—English Half-Uncials—Minuscule Writing—Lombardic Writing—Visigothic Writing—Merovingian Writing—Carlovingian Writing—Later Styles | 32 |
| [CHAPTER III] | |
| THE PREPARATION AND USE OF THE PEN | |
| Cutting the Pen—Simple Exercises | 42 |
| [CHAPTER IV] | |
| THE FORMATION OF LETTERS | |
| Letters formed with simple Pen-strokes—Method in working—How the various Letters are formed | 48 |
| [CHAPTER V] | |
| FORMING WORDS AND SENTENCES | |
| Writing a short Quotation—Spacing Letters—Italics—Pen-formed Figures | 54 |
| [CHAPTER VI] | |
| ALPHABETS FOR STUDY, BASED ON HISTORICAL EXAMPLES | |
| Uncial Letters—Half-Uncials—Writing, from the Tenth to the Fifteenth Century | 60 |
| [CHAPTER VII] | |
| ROMAN LETTERING | |
| Building up Letters with Pen-strokes—Roman Letters made with simple direct Pen-strokes—The Construction of Roman Capitals | 70 |
| [CHAPTER VIII] | |
| SOME HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF ROMAN LETTERING | |
| The Alphabet of the Trajan Column—Various Alphabets from the Thirteenth to the Sixteenth Century | 76 |
| [CHAPTER IX] | |
| A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ILLUMINATION 1. From the Fourth to the Eleventh Century | |
| Classical and Byzantine Illumination—Celtic and Anglo-Celtic—Carlovingian—The Winchester School | 84 |
| [CHAPTER X] | |
| A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ILLUMINATION 2. From the Twelfth Century to the Decline | |
| Illumination in the Twelfth Century—Thirteenth Century—Fourteenth Century—Fifteenth Century and later | 93 |
| [CHAPTER XI] | |
| THE INITIAL LETTER | |
| How the Decoration springs from the Initial letter—Examples from the Seventh to the Fifteenth Century | 101 |
| [CHAPTER XII] | |
| SIMPLE ILLUMINATION IN BLACK AND RED | |
| Method of setting out a Page—Arranging the Lettering—Initial letters, and how to construct them—Various arrangements of Lettering | 107 |
| [CHAPTER XIII] | |
| THE COLOURS USED BY THE MEDIÆVAL ILLUMINATOR | |
| Early treatises—Theophilus—The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini | 115 |
| [CHAPTER XIV] | |
| COLOURS: THEIR COMPOSITION AND PERMANENCE | |
| The importance of a knowledge of the different Colours employed—Yellow Pigments—Red Pigments—Blue Pigments—Green Pigments—Brown Pigments—Black Pigments—White Pigments | 123 |
| [CHAPTER XV] | |
| COLOURS: THEIR PREPARATION AND USE | |
| Various forms in which Colours are prepared—Mixing Colours—A method of keeping body colours in a convenient form—Preparing a set of Colours for Illuminating | 131 |
| [CHAPTER XVI] | |
| THE GILDING METHODS OF THE MIDDLE AGES | |
| Early gilding methods—Powder gold—The early use of gold-leaf—Raised gilding | 138 |
| [CHAPTER XVII] | |
| THE USE OF GOLD | |
| Shell-gold—The use of gold-leaf—How to handle gold-leaf | 146 |
| [CHAPTER XVIII] | |
| ILLUMINATION WITH GOLD AND COLOURS | |
| Vellum for Illuminating—Hand-made paper—Brushes—Colour-work | 152 |
| [CHAPTER XIX] | |
| THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION | |
| The development of decoration—Present-day uses of Illumination—Possible developments | 161 |
| [CHAPTER XX] | |
| THE ILLUMINATED ADDRESS | |
| The Framed Address—The Vellum Scroll—The Book-form | 171 |
| [CHAPTER XXI] | |
| THE VARIOUS METHODS OF REPRODUCTION | |
| Line Blocks—Half-tones—The Three-colour Process—Lithography | 178 |
| [CHAPTER XXII] | |
| CHRISTMAS CARDS | |
| Bronze gilding—Setting out to design—Suggestions—Hand-written Cards—Invitation Cards | 185 |
| [CHAPTER XXIII] | |
| LETTERING FOR COMMERCIAL PURPOSES | |
| Various things requiring Lettering—Lettering for Maps, Plans, etc.—Lettering for Poster-work—Arrangement of letters—Designing a Magazine Cover | 192 |
| [CHAPTER XXIV] | |
| HAND-WRITTEN POSTERS, ETC. | |
| A quick method of writing a Poster—The reed pen and the brush—Window Tickets—Showcards | 203 |
| [CHAPTER XXV] | |
| THE ILLUMINATED MS. BOOK | |
| The Arrangement of Pages—Planning out—The Colophon—The Primary Object of the Book—The Decoration | 216 |
| [CHAPTER XXVI] | |
| A SIMPLE METHOD OF BINDING MSS. | |
| Binding in limp Vellum—Sewing the sections—The Decoration of the Cover | 225 |
| [CHAPTER XXVII] | |
| THE ILLUMINATION OF THE PRINTED BOOK | |
| The Combination of Printing and Illumination—Books suitable for Illumination—The Style of Decoration suited to this | 232 |
| [CHAPTER XXVIII] | |
| PRINTED BOOK DECORATION | |
| The Title-page—The Initial Letter—Types to avoid—Tail-pieces, etc. | 238 |
| [CHAPTER XXIX] | |
| CONCLUDING REMARKS | 248 |
| [CHAPTER XXX] | |
| NOTES ON BOOKS | 256 |
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
| PAGE | |
| Illuminated Page | [Frontispiece] |
| Babylonian Characters (Fig. 1) | [25] |
| Egyptian Hieroglyphics (Fig. 2) | [27] |
| Egyptian Hieratic Writing | [28] |
| Stylus and Early Pens | [29] |
| Cadmus gives the Greeks an Alphabet | [32] |
| The Development of Writing (Fig. 3) | [34] |
| The Development of Writing (Fig. 4) | [38] |
| The Pen (Fig. 5) | [43] |
| Simple Pen-Strokes (Fig. 6) | [45] |
| Pen-formed Letters (Fig. 7) | [49] |
| The Construction of Letters (Fig. 8) | [51] |
| Forming Words and Sentences (Fig. 9) | [55] |
| Word-spacing, etc. (Fig. 10) | [57] |
| Alphabets for Study (Fig. 11) | [61] |
| Alphabets for Study (Fig. 12) | [63] |
| Alphabets for Study (Fig. 13) | [64] |
| Alphabets for Study (Fig. 14) | [66] |
| Roman Lettering (Fig. 15) | [71] |
| Pen-formed Roman Lettering (Fig. 16) | [74] |
| The Trajan Column | [76] |
| The Trajan Alphabet (Fig. 17) | [77] |
| The Trajan Alphabet (Fig. 18) | [78] |
| The Trajan Alphabet (Fig. 19) | [79] |
| Roman Alphabets (Fig. 20) | [80] |
| Roman Alphabet, pen-formed (Fig. 21) | [81] |
| Roman Alphabets (Fig. 22) | [82] |
| The Lindisfarne Gospels | [84] |
| Flemish Initials | [101] |
| Initial Letters (Fig. 23) | [102] |
| Initial Letters (Fig. 24) | [105] |
| A Simple Page in Black and Red | [107] |
| Method of Setting out Page (Fig. 25) | [108] |
| Mediæval Alphabets (Fig. 26) | [110] |
| The Construction of Initials (Fig. 27) | [111] |
| Illumination in Black and Red (Fig. 28) | [113] |
| The Preparation of Colours (Fig. 29) | [133] |
| Gilding Materials (Fig. 30) | [148] |
| Illumination with Gold and Colours (Fig. 31) | [157] |
| Illuminated Altar Tablet | [161] |
| The Development of Illumination (Fig. 32) | [162] |
| Rough Sketches of Illuminated Pages (Fig. 33) | [166] |
| A Roll of Honour | [167] |
| Illuminated Altar Tablet | [169] |
| A Church Porch Text | [170] |
| An Illuminated Address | 171 |
| Various Forms of Illuminated Addresses (Fig. 34) | [172] |
| Designs for Christmas Cards | [185] |
| A Christmas Card | [187] |
| Styles of Cards (Fig. 35) | [188] |
| Styles of Cards (Fig. 36) | [189] |
| Designs for Programme and Progressive Whist Card | [190] |
| Booklet Cover | [192] |
| An Attractive Advertisement | [192] |
| A Handbook Cover | [194] |
| Lettering for Maps, etc. (Fig. 37) | [195] |
| A Design for a Certificate | [196] |
| An Alphabet for Poster Work (Fig. 38) | [197] |
| Two Designs for Labels | [198] |
| A Design for a Letter Heading | [199] |
| A Design for a Music Cover | [200] |
| A Design for a Bookplate | [201] |
| An Attractive Piece of Lettering | [204] |
| Guide for Hand-written Posters (Fig. 39) | [205] |
| Specimen Poster written with Pen (Fig. 40) | [207] |
| Specimen Poster written with Brush (Fig. 41) | [209] |
| Design for a Menu | [210] |
| Window Tickets (Fig. 42) | [213] |
| A Showcard (Fig. 43) | [214] |
| Frontispiece of Blake’s “Songs of Innocence” | [216] |
| Arrangement for MS. Book (Fig. 44) | [218] |
| Title-page of Blake’s “Songs of Innocence” | [219] |
| Examples of Colophons (Fig. 45) | [221] |
| Two pages from “Songs of Innocence” | [223] |
| Method of Stitching MS. Book (Fig. 46) | [226] |
| Vellum Cover (Fig. 47) | [228] |
| Cover ready for Binding (Fig. 48) | [229] |
| Completing the Cover (Fig. 49) | [230] |
| The Illumination of the Printed Book (Fig. 50) | [233] |
| Styles of Title Pages (Fig. 51) | [239] |
| Types of Initials to Avoid (Fig. 52) | [242] |
| Decorative Initials (Fig. 53) | [243] |
| Tail-pieces (Fig. 54) | [245] |
ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY
CHAPTER I
THE INFLUENCE OF THE TOOL
Calligraphy and Illumination are inseparably bound up with each other. The art of Illumination cannot be severed from that of Writing. One cannot imagine the decoration apart from the writing. Undoubtedly this sprang from a desire to beautify the writing. Man sought to make his manuscripts beautiful, and the result was a form of illumination, at first very primitive, but gradually developing into the beautiful art that we are so familiar with in the choice manuscripts of the middle ages.
When commencing the study of the art of illumination it is extremely important that it should be approached from the proper standpoint. It is to be feared that this has not always been the case. The lure of the bright gold and colours has often led both teacher and taught astray, and the proper use of the pen in writing has been almost entirely neglected.
Instead of allowing the tool to have its own way, it has been forced to form laborious shapes that are not suited to its construction at all. The decoration, it is to be feared, has been looked upon as a sort of spice to be added as a finishing touch, instead of being a vital growth springing naturally from the writing. Until it be viewed from this standpoint, no real progress can be made. If a building is to be soundly constructed, the first thing to see to is that the foundations are well laid. The same principle applies in this case. The decoration, if it is to be living and real, must have a starting-point for growth. The student should see that this is a sure foundation and not a tottering, shaky structure. Well-formed writing should be the first consideration.
Ordinary hand-writing is a development of the kind of writing used by the old calligraphers. Generally speaking, the connection between the two is not recognised. Probably if this were so calligraphy of the present day would be much better than it generally is. The fact that it is generally referred to as “printing” shows how the connection has been lost. Drawing is thought to be more akin to it than hand-writing. It is no uncommon sight to see a student carefully drawing the shapes of the letters and then filling them in with a fine mapping pen. If the individuality of the pen as a letter-making tool were recognised this kind of thing would not occur.
It may be interesting to consider briefly some of the early influences at work in the production of writing.
BABYLONIAN CHARACTERS.
Showing the influence of the tool on the shapes of the Characters.
Fig. 1.
In [Fig. 1] some examples of early Babylonian characters are shown. In these early days the common writing material was clay. The characters used in writing were rough pictures of different objects which were drawn in outline. Thus the sign for “king” was a rude drawing of a man crowned; this was scratched on the surface of the soft clay with a pointed tool. One can quite understand how these characters could be constructed with a series of impressions in much less time than it would take to draw them in outline. Then again it must have been much easier to draw on the soft clay in this way. A square-pointed stylus was used for this purpose, and, with the wedge-shaped impressions thus produced, the characters could be formed quite easily. Not only was the scribe able to write with greater speed, but the way in which the characters were produced was more methodical. The character for “king,” when made with the wedge-shaped impressions, was constructed as shown in (b). One can easily recognise the same form placed horizontally, instead of vertically, as was originally the case. In course of time the characters became somewhat simplified. The next step in the development of the character is shown in (c). The final form is shown in (d), this being very much simplified. In like manner the signs represented in (e) and (h) were used to denote “star” and “sun” respectively. The development of these is seen in (f) and (g), also in (i) and (j). The reason for calling attention to these characters is to show how the shapes are influenced by the tool and the material employed. This is a most important factor in the formation of letters.
Where soft clay was used as a material, and the characters were formed by making impressions with a stylus, one would naturally expect that these signs would take the form of a series of indentations rather than flowing lines as from a brush or pen.
In the case of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, shown in [Fig. 2], a difference is at once noticed. These characters were at first small pictures carved on stone. The hieratic characters were simple interpretations of these formed with a reed pen. It is quite obvious, to all who care to observe, how easily these characters could be formed, especially when they are compared with the earlier signs. In this case the influence is quite different from that of the Babylonian characters. Instead of a series of impressions, one notices long flowing strokes characteristic of the pen. It is interesting to note how the essential quality of the more elaborate character is obtained with simple pen-strokes. Although the hieroglyphic is often quite complex there is still a likeness retained in the hieratic form.
EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS.
Showing the development into the Hieratic or pen-formed Characters.
Fig. 2.
The reed pen used by the Egyptian scribes was the forerunner of the modern pen. It was formed from the hollow stalk of grasses that grew in marshy districts. Sometimes pens were made from hollow canes and bamboos. This kind of pen is still used in the East.
The material used for writing upon was known as papyrus. This was made from the pith of a species of reed, the Cyperus Papyrus of Linnæus. This was, in early days, cultivated in the Delta of Egypt. It was used for several different purposes, one of the most important being for writing-material. This was prepared by cutting it into strips and placing these side by side, with another set placed across them at right angles. The two layers were stuck together and the whole pressed and dried, and the surface smoothed to make a sheet of writing-material.
It is a most difficult matter to state when the quill pen was first used. Probably the earliest allusion to it occurs in the writings of St Isidore, Archbishop of Seville, who lived in the early part of the seventh century. The following is the quotation in question:
“Instrumenta scribæ calamus et penna; ex his enim verba paginis infiguntur; sed calamus arboris est, penna avis, cujus acumen dividitur in duo.”
(“The tools of the writer are a reed and a quill; for by these words on pages are impressed; the reed is of wood, the quill from a bird, and its point is divided into two.”)
But of course it is extremely probable that quill pens were in use at a much earlier period than this. It is well known that metal pens were used by the Romans, as a number of these, made of bronze, are in existence at the present time.
For general writing purposes tablets coated with wax were used by the Greeks and Romans. A stylus with one end pointed and the other flattened was used to write with, the writing being done with the sharp point and erasures made with the flattened end.
Egyptian Hieratic Writing.
Ivory Stilus.
Silver Stilus, bound with gold wire.
Ancient Roman Bronze Pen.
Ancient Reed Pen.
The skins of animals have been used as a writing material since quite an early period, and the use of vellum was probably an improvement upon this. Pliny, in his “Natural History,” tells the story, on the authority of Varro, of how Eumenes II., King of Pergamus from 197 to 159 B.C., was desirous of extending the library in his capital, but the Ptolemies, being jealous, stopped the export of papyrus, thinking by this means to prevent the royal library from growing. Owing to the lack of papyrus, skins were employed and, necessity being the mother of invention, the manufacture of vellum came about. Whether any real importance can be attached to this story or not, it is certain that Pergamus was a great centre for the manufacture of vellum. In fact, the word “parchment” is derived from charta Pergamena, i.e., “paper from Pergamum.”
It is easy to see how this ideal writing-material, with the quill pen, must have had a great influence upon the formation of letters. Generally speaking, the writing on parchment or vellum is crisper and more sharply defined than that on the papyrus.
There is not the slightest doubt that the influence of the tool and the writing-material had a great deal to do with forming the shapes of the letters. Good lettering was seldom or never consciously designed, but was the result of certain influences at work.
In the development of lettering in the past, the pen, as a letter-making tool, has played a most prominent part. A reed or quill pen cut with a broad nib, so as to give crisp thick and thin strokes, is an ideal tool for the formation of letters, but one thing is necessary: the pen must be allowed to have its own way. The letters should not be designed first and copied with the pen afterwards. If the lettering is to be pen-formed, let it be formed with the pen; it should come straight from the pen.
The capabilities of the pen as a letter-making tool should be carefully studied. The reed or quill pen should be used, and one of the best ways to become intimate with the pen is to cut it to shape for oneself. One is thus able to understand the possibilities of this tool as a means for the formation of letters, in a much more intimate manner than if a ready-made tool is placed in the hand. The first thing to endeavour to grasp is how to cut and use the pen. After this has been mastered, the next step should be the formation of letters. This is followed by forming letters into words. Then comes writing and designing with masses of writing. Not until the student is thoroughly familiar with the use of lettering should he attempt to add any decoration to it. A fine piece of writing in black, or black and red, on vellum or fine hand-made paper is a piece of decoration by itself, but a bad piece of lettering cannot be made beautiful, however much ornament be added afterwards. The first step towards the study of illumination proper comes then, and attention should be given to the place of the initial letter and the part it has played in the past as a starting-point for the decoration in the MSS. of the mediæval period. At first a good deal can be done with the use of black and red only, or black, red, and blue. Then come simple decoration with gold and colours; the use of raised burnished gold; the application of illumination for commercial purposes; and the illuminated MS. book.
CHAPTER II
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING IN THE PAST
Before describing the method of cutting and using the pen, it may possibly be instructive to survey briefly the development of writing through the centuries.
The alphabet, as we know it, has been traced right back to that used by the Phœnicians. In fact, until a comparatively short time ago, it was thought by some that it could be traced back to the Egyptian hieroglyphics, but in the light of recent discoveries this theory is no longer tenable. The origin of our alphabet is therefore still a matter for research, although there seems to be no doubt concerning its descent from the Phœnician alphabet.
The Roman alphabet seems to be a direct descendant from this, and it is from the Roman alphabet that the lettering that is in use to-day has been derived.
Roman writing was divided into two distinct classes: the formal book-hand, and the cursive hand which was the common hand-writing of the people.