ILLUMINATION IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY AND LATER
In the early part of the fifteenth century the work of the French School was undoubtedly superior to that of the English. The ivy-leaf decoration of the fourteenth century was developed into an elaborate decorative scheme. The gold and diaper backgrounds began to be dispensed with and natural scenery was substituted. In fact miniature painting became more and more naturalistic in treatment, and the same tendency is noticeable in the decoration, which, although often most elaborate and highly finished, is not to be compared with the earlier work.
In this century, Flemish illumination, which during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was very similar in style to the French and English MSS., developed into a most distinctive style specially notable for its fine, delicate drawing. An illuminated MS. in the British Museum, “Mandeville’s Travels” (Add. MS. 24189), is an example of this style. It contains twenty-seven miniatures, without text, illustrating Sir John Mandeville’s travels. These are drawn with a pen on vellum that has been tinted a soft pale green. They have been shaded in black and white with a brush, and colour is used for flesh tints, foliage, etc., and gold is also used for crowns, nimbi, etc.
In Flemish illumination of the latter part of the fifteenth century miniature painting became highly developed, becoming more realistic. The decoration became debased, becoming eventually merely a frame of gold or colour upon which were painted realistic representations of flowers, fruit, insects, etc. These were often beautifully painted, and the miniatures also show great skill from a technical standpoint, but lacking generally the fine feeling that characterises the work of the earlier periods.
This later style is represented by a number of MSS. in the British Museum. One only is mentioned here, although this is but one of many. The “Hours of the Virgin” (Egerton MS. 1147).
The Breviary of John, Duke of Burgundy (Harley MS. 2897), and the “Book of Hours” of John, Duke of Bedford (Add. MS. 18850), are two famous MSS. of the French School at this period, now in the British Museum.
“The Missal of William Melrith, Alderman of London” (Arundel MS. 109), is an example of English illumination of the first half of this century.
In Italy, as was the case in regard to writing, the illuminators in the early part of this century seem to have gone back to the period of the eleventh and twelfth centuries for models. A familiar type of decoration is formed of twining vine-tendrils, generally in white on coloured grounds. Another type that was in use a great deal was a delicate style of decoration composed of a conventional treatment of flowers, foliage, etc., studded with a large number of raised gold spots brilliantly burnished, outlined and rayed. In course of time these styles became much more elaborated with medallions, vases, candelabra, portrait busts, realistic renderings of gems, and Renaissance figures.
Some examples of late Italian work in the British Museum are as follows:—St. Augustine’s “Commentary on the Psalms” (Add. MS. 14799); “Luiz, de Bello Macedonico,” etc. (Harley MS. 3694); “Book of Hours,” of Bona Sforza, Duchess of Milan (Add. MS. 34294).
When the art of printing from type was first practised, this did not at once stop the production of illuminated MSS. The large number of MSS. that were produced after this date shows quite plainly that, except in the commoner class of books, the MS. book still occupied the most prominent place. Professional illuminators were still employed by people in high positions, and some very costly and elaborate volumes were produced. Many of the early printed volumes were printed with spaces left for initials, miniatures, etc., to be filled in by the illuminator. However, in course of time this art gradually fell into disuse.
This brief summary of the history of this art is necessarily incomplete; it has not been possible to deal thoroughly with this subject here. It is hoped, however, that the student will continue the study of the historical side of illumination, and that this little sketch will serve as an introduction to further study.
Early 14th Century.
Flemish Initials.
Late 13th Century.
Flemish Initials.
CHAPTER XI
THE INITIAL LETTER
If the illuminated MSS. of the Middle Ages are carefully studied, the importance of the initial letter as a starting-point for the growth of the decoration cannot possibly escape one’s notice. The rough sketches shown in [Figs. 23 and 24] trace the development in this direction through the various centuries. These are given simply to indicate the way in which the initial letter was used in the different periods. The student is strongly advised to study the subject for himself. If he cannot examine the details from the actual MSS., there are plenty of excellent reproductions published which will enable him to study them at his leisure. It is, however, practically essential that, even if he cannot spend much time over them, he should make a point of at least seeing some of the actual work of the mediæval artists.
In the famous Book of Kells the initial letter is used to great advantage. It will well repay the student to study carefully some good reproductions of the pages of this wonderful MS. It shows what can be done with fine decoration based on lettering. Quite a number of pages are taken up with the words Liber generationis Christi, while one page is entirely devoted to the sacred monogram X P I.
Fig. 23.
In [Fig. 23] an example is shown in (a) from the famous Lindisfarne Gospels, now in the British Museum (Cotton MS., Nero D. IV.). This beautiful MS. is written in fine, half-uncial characters, the decoration being of the kind known as Hiberno-Saxon, or Anglo-Celtic. A note at the end of this MS. states that it was written by Eadfrith, Bishop of the Church of Lindisfarne. It was finished about the year 700. It has a most interesting history, which is much too detailed to describe here. It should, however, be carefully studied from the standpoint now being considered, viz., the initial letter. The page represented by this rough sketch is the opening page of the Gospel of St. Matthew. Of course this very rough suggestion can convey no idea of the beauty of the original, but it gives one some notion of the way in which the monogram X P I has been used as a basis for the decoration.
Perhaps it would be as well for the student to study, for the present, some of the MSS. of the best periods from this standpoint alone. He should note exactly how the letters are placed and the manner in which they are used. For the time being he should not concern himself so much with the details of the decoration. This may follow later, after he has become more familiar with the subject.
The page shown in (b) is from a Psalter probably written at Winchester in the latter part of the tenth century (Harley MS. 2904). It is the commencement of Psalm ci. This is also in the British Museum, as also are all the examples illustrated here. It is quite different to that of the Lindisfarne Gospels, although possibly some Celtic influence may be noted.
The next one (c) is also from a Psalter (Arundel MS. 60). This is a further development of the same school as the last, and was probably written at New Minster, Winchester, about 1060. It is interesting to observe how the D is linked up with the border.
The initial B, illustrated by (d), is from a twelfth-century Psalter of Westminster Abbey (Royal MS. 2 A. XXII.). Very large initials were very common during this period. This letter is filled with foliage, animals, etc., and also shows scenes from the life of David. The initial B at the commencement of the Psalms was a favourite subject with the illuminator at this time. He generally introduced the subject of David slaying Goliath also.
A common feature of the thirteenth-century illumination was the use of large decorated examples of the initial I, of which an instance is given in (e). These were filled with miniatures and foliage and were extremely decorative in character. This one is from a French Gospel Lectionary (Add. MS. 17341), and is filled with scenes from the Life of Christ.
A charming example is shown in (f), which is from a Book of Hours (Stowe MS. 17). The initial D contains a miniature, as also does the A. This is probably either late thirteenth or early fourteenth century. David and Goliath are also represented. The whole MS. is delightful in style.
[Fig. 24] shows some more examples. Another page from a Book of Hours is given in (g) (Egerton MS. 2781). This is a fourteenth-century MS. The initials and borders are rather rough in technique, but they are very interesting from the point of view of design. The large initial D has a miniature representing a legendary story of the childhood of Christ.
The initial A shown in (h) is from a fourteenth century Missal (Harley MS. 2891). The letter is filled with a most delightful miniature.
The next example (i) is a very beautiful initial taken from a Bible executed in England during the latter part of the fourteenth century (Royal MS. 1 E. IX.). A number of the initials are filled with foliage, as in this case, and others contain miniatures. The backgrounds of these letters are usually of burnished gold with patterns indented upon them.
A simple, but very beautiful, type is given in (j). This is taken from an extremely fine MS. written, also, at the end of the fourteenth century (Royal MS. 20 B. VI.). It is a very interesting MS., being an Epistle by Philippe de Maizières to Richard II. of England, advocating peace and friendship between him and Charles VI. of France. This type of initial was fairly common at this period. It is a type of letter that should be very useful for the beginner.
Fig. 24.
In the fifteenth century the initial letter lost a good deal of its importance. The result of this was that the decoration became debased in character, until it finally became nothing more or less than a number of naturalistic renderings of flowers and insects, painted on a gold border and represented as throwing shadows upon it. There is, however, a certain amount of sweetness about some of this work, especially when it is compared with some of the work of the present day. However, some of the MSS. that were produced in the earlier part of this century are very fine pieces of work. The example illustrated by (k) is from a Psalter of Henry VI., about 1425–1430 (Cotton MS. Domitian A. XVII.). The large initial D is joined to a miniature.
Several initials are given in (l). These are all of the thirteenth century. The E is of raised and burnished gold on a blue block, the centre being red and the whole finished with white lining. The N, P, and U are of a type largely used, being generally red with blue pen-work, or vice versâ. The others are similar to the E, but are shown as an example of how they were joined when coming close together.
Excellent reproductions of these examples have been published by the British Museum authorities in a series of collotype plates, the only exception being (e) in [Fig. 23], of which an illustration is published in the Guide to the MSS., Part III.
The main object of this chapter is to direct the student to the study of the MSS. for himself and especially to show what an important place the initial letter had in the MSS. of the mediæval period. He is strongly advised to make a point of studying some of the actual MSS. for himself.
A Simple Page in Black & Red.
CHAPTER XII
SIMPLE ILLUMINATION IN BLACK AND RED
A good deal of very effective work can be done by using black and red only. The student should be able to do good work in this way before attempting to use gold and colours.
A method for setting out the page, before commencing to write, is shown plainly in [Fig. 25]. For this purpose a tee-square and set-square are required, together with a pair of spring dividers and a sharply-pointed HB. pencil. The approximate size of the page and the distance between the lines of lettering must be decided. Then the margins at the top and the two sides must be marked out, and the upright lines drawn in by means of the set-square. The distance between the lines of lettering is then pricked off down one side with the spring dividers. The lines can then be ruled across against the tee-square. A word of caution is perhaps needed here: the pencil should be held as shown in the diagram, and kept at the same angle during the ruling of the line. If this rule is not carefully observed, it is possible to start with the point of the pencil close up against the edge of the tee-square, or set-square, and finish the line with it about one-sixteenth of an inch away from it. If this habit is developed, the lines of lettering will hardly ever be quite straight and even. Another important detail is to see that the tee-square rests tightly against the edge of the board, and the set-square against the tee-square.
Fig. 25.
It will be found that an HB. pencil is the most satisfactory grade for ruling the lines with, as if used lightly the lines can be cleaned off quite easily afterwards with a piece of soft rubber. Some illuminators recommend an H. or HH. pencil for this, but, although these keep a sharp point longer, the lines produced are not so easily erased.
After ruling the page the next thing to be settled is the size of the initial letter. It should be lightly sketched in with the pencil. It is best to use the writing lines to govern the size of this. For example, the size of this letter might be four or five lines down.
It is very effective to have the first few words in capitals. Several different arrangements are shown in [Fig. 25]. The position of these may be roughly planned out in pencil. They may then be written in red straight away, or may be left until after the black lettering is done. It is best not to finish the initial until after the lettering is done.
When the position of the initial and the opening words is determined, the black lettering should be proceeded with. The student should endeavour to ensure perfect freedom in working, also to aim at preventing the writing from looking as if a great deal of trouble had been taken to make it fit and space well. For anyone to derive any joy out of it, there must be a feeling of spontaneity and freedom about it. He should allow his imagination to work when writing. If he studies the words that he is writing he is bound to have suggestions come to his mind. For example, perhaps one verse seems to stand out very prominently, and it is felt that it would be better if written entirely in red. Or, again, another verse seems to start a new line of thought, and a fresh initial is suggested.
After the writing is completed, attention should be paid to the initial and the decoration. A good method for the beginner is to fix a sheet of tracing-paper over the page; as the lettering shows plainly through, there is plenty of opportunity for experimenting with decoration.
Some good types of letters suitable for initials are shown in [Fig. 26]. The first alphabet is based largely on a type of letter used in the eleventh century, while the second one is a free rendering of thirteenth-century letters. These letters are all built up. They may be made with either pen or brush.
Fig. 26.
Building up these letters with strokes made with the pen or brush is excellent practice for the student. For constructing the letters in the first alphabet the pen will probably be found to be the best tool. These letters are constructed in a similar manner to that described in an earlier chapter on forming Roman capitals. Some suggestive details are shown in [Fig. 27].
The letters in the second alphabet may be formed much more easily with a brush than with a pen. It will be seen in [Fig. 27] how naturally the letter is filled in with the brush, the end of the stroke terminating in a small knob. For filling in the letters in this way a brush should be used quite full of colour, and it should also have; a good point.
Fig. 27.
After having a fair amount of practice in forming letters in this way the student will soon be able to produce them quickly and easily.
The terminals of these letters may be drawn out if necessary, or they may be joined up with the border. The student should take note, from the examples given in the previous chapter, of the manner in which the initial was used in the past as a starting-point for the decoration.
Vermilion is a good red for this purpose. There are several varieties sold, known by various names, such as scarlet vermilion, orange vermilion, vermilion, and Chinese vermilion. The kind known simply as vermilion seems to answer best of all. Scarlet and orange vermilion are liable to look somewhat weak. This also applies to the Chinese vermilion we are able to get in this country. Some illuminators prefer to add a little crimson to the vermilion.
It is important that the red should be painted in solid, and not be thin and washy in character. This also applies to the black, which should be a decided black, not inclining to brown or grey. The red should be kept quite bright and clean, care being taken not to get it mixed up with dirty colour in any way. A great deal of the effect depends on the strong black and brilliant red.
In [Fig. 28] an initial with a simple border is shown in (a). The initial letter and the decoration may be done in red, and also the opening words.
Very decorative arrangements are possible with simple lettering and a fine initial, as in (b). When an initial letter is used in this way, without any border, it is best to fit it in with the lettering so that the line of the letter does not project beyond the line of the black lettering. When, however, a simple border is added down the side, it may project, as shown in (c).
An interesting arrangement is shown in (d), where two columns are used. By the judicious use of red, a fine decorated page is possible if carried out in this style.
Fig. 28.
The initial O shown here is an example of what can be done with simple pattern work in the way of diapers. In the illuminated manuscripts from the twelfth to the fourteenth centuries a great number of these were used. This simple pattern work is very pleasant, and the student is recommended to study these for himself. He should also study the fine initials with pen-work in red and blue. He can then vary his work by adding blue in addition to red, using a red initial with blue decoration, or vice versâ.
The various forms of simple pattern work, made with simple pen-strokes, and shown here, should also claim his attention. He should endeavour to make borders for himself in this simple way. They may serve as tail-pieces and line finishings, and the construction of these is all good practice in design.
It is excellent practice for the student to write out a number of quotations in this way, in black and red, with nicely-drawn initials and borders of simple pattern work. He should endeavour to guard against making them too florid in treatment, and, above all, should be careful not to employ a lot of meaningless flourishes. The work of the mediæval period affords the best examples for study that he could possibly have.
CHAPTER XIII
THE COLOURS USED BY THE MEDIÆVAL ILLUMINATOR
One can hardly study the illuminated work of the Middle Ages without being interested in the methods employed by the artists of this period. The MSS. still in existence, with colours still fresh and bright, make one curious to know what colours were used to produce this result.
Our knowledge of the colours used in classical times is derived chiefly from Pliny’s “Natural History” and the writings of Vitruvius. Theophrastus, in his work on stones, also adds some description of pigments.
It appears from these writers that the earth colours, such as the ochres and siennas, were well known, as also was the green earth terra verte. Blues and greens were obtained from the ores of copper, one of the most notable being azurite, a blue carbonate of copper. Verdigris was prepared by the action of vinegar on copper. Cinnabar, a native variety of red sulphide of mercury similar to our vermilion, which is the same thing artificially prepared, and orpiment, the native sulphide of arsenic, were also colours used at this period.
A number of white earths were also employed, chalk being the most important. White lead was used, being prepared in practically the same way as the best is to-day. Lakes were made by dyeing chalk or gypsum. Several vegetal dyes were used for this purpose, such as madder, weld, and woad. In addition to these dyes, lakes were prepared from kermes and the celebrated murex. Kermes is a red dye caused by a small insect similar to that of the cochineal insect; it was used for dyeing and for making pigments, both in classical and mediæval times. The murex was a species of shellfish from which was extracted the famous purple dye. This was the dye used for the purple vellum that was used so much in the early period.
The blacks used were carbon-blacks, such as lamp-black, bone-black, or the black prepared from grape husks and vine leaves.
Indigo was undoubtedly in use, and it is highly probable that the red resin known as dragon’s blood was also in use. Pliny, in his “Natural History,” describes the fighting between the elephant and the dragon, and he states that the name cinnabar should be given to the thick matter which issues from the dragon when crushed beneath the weight of the dying elephant, mixed with their blood. It is thought that he may be referring to this pigment, for, in another chapter, he refers to India sending the corrupt blood of her dragons and elephants. There is one colour, which was one of the principal pigments of the Middle Ages, of which no mention is made in the classical period, and that is ultramarine.
It is difficult to be certain as to how the different colours were mixed, but the ink used was prepared from lamp-black mixed with gum and water, and it is probable that the colours were mixed with either gum, glue, or egg.
The Lucca MS. of the eighth century, in the cathedral library at Lucca, contains, amongst other things, a short list of pigments. There is very little difference between the information given here and that given by Pliny. This MS., however, gives the first distinct directions for making artificial vermilion. It is also interesting as giving definite information as to how colours were mixed for working on parchment or vellum, as the following quotation plainly shows: “On wood the colours being mixed with wax, on skins fish-glue being mixed.”
In the twelfth-century MS., the Mappæ Clavicula, the greater part of the Lucca MS. is repeated.
The Schedula Diversarum Artium of Theophilus is also of about the same date, and is a very important MS. It is divided into three books, the first dealing with painting, the second with the manufacture of glass, and the third with metal-work. It is evident that Theophilus, who was a monk in some German monastery, was a worker in metal. However, he collected quite a lot of information on various forms of art work. It is, of course, in the book on painting that the information with regard to colours is found.
In Chapter XXVII. he gives instructions for preparing the gum for mixing with colours. This is described as follows: “Take gum which exudes from the cherry or plum tree, and, cutting it up very small, place it in an earthenware pot, and pour water upon it abundantly and place it in the sun, or in winter upon the coals, until the gum has liquefied; and mix it together with a smooth piece of wood. Then strain it through a cloth, and grind the colours with it and lay them on.”
In Chapter XXXIV., which is entitled “How Colours are Tempered for Books,” he says: “Make a mixture of the clearest gum and water as above, and temper all colours except green and ceruse and minium and carmine. Salt green is worth nothing for books. You will temper Spanish green with pure wine, and if you wish to make shadows, add a little sap of iris or cabbage or leek. You will temper minium and ceruse and carmine with clear of egg. Compose all preparations of colours for a book as above, if you want them for painting figures. All colours are laid on twice in books, at first very thinly, then more thickly; but once for letters.”
Salt green, that is mentioned here, was a mixture of verdigris and subchloride of copper. Spanish green was verdigris, and minium was red lead, while ceruse was white lead. Verdigris is, of course, a notoriously fugitive colour, but while in ordinary water-colour painting it would probably not be safe to use, it would last fairly well in books. Certainly it seems to have done so in the past, if one may judge from the greens in many of the old MSS., which are still brilliant.
Other colours described are those known as “folium” colours. These seem to have been different vegetal dyes.
In Chapter XL. he gives a description of how to prepare ink. This is quite different from the ink of the classical period, which, as mentioned before, was made from lampblack and gum-water. The ink described by Theophilus is more of the nature of our modern writing-ink, being prepared from the bark of thorn-trees, amounting really to an infusion of tannin, with the addition of iron sulphate, popularly known as green vitriol.
There is no mention in this MS. of the preparation of ultramarine.
Following this there are the MSS. that have been translated by Mrs. Merrifield, viz., Eraclius, Alcherius, the book of Peter St. Andemar, all included in the MSS. of La Bègue, the Sloane MS., and the Strassburg MS.
The MS. of Eraclius is regarded as not being later than the thirteenth century, the first two books being very early and quoted by Theophilus.
In these MSS. it is plainly stated that the colours were generally mixed with either gum-water or egg. White of egg was often used, but occasionally the yolk. For example, it seems to have been used as a medium for vermilion and orpiment. These MSS. contain a lot of information very similar to that in the MS. of Theophilus.
Lakes were, in the earliest MSS., prepared in a similar way to that used in the classical period, and are described in this manner in the MS. of Eraclius. In the MS. of Jehan le Bègue, however, there are several recipes that have been compiled by him from the MSS. of Alcherius, of the fourteenth century, which are practically the same as the modern method.
The MS. of Le Bègue is also of interest, as it contains a recipe for the preparation of real ultramarine.
Perhaps the most interesting MS. of all is that known as the Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini. This is a most delightful treatise on the methods then in use. Cennino Cennini was an Italian painter and was living in Padua in 1398. The MS. in the Vatican is dated 1437, but this is in all probability merely the date attached by the copyist. It is evident that the colours and methods that he mentions were in use during the fourteenth century.
As this was a period when some of the finest examples of illumination were produced, it is interesting to note the various colours used, so they are given in detail.
The reds mentioned by him are sinopia, cinabrese, cinnabar, minium, amatisto, dragon’s blood, and lake. Sinopia is a similar colour to light red, either native or prepared by roasting yellow ochre. Cinabrese is a mixture of sinopia with chalk. Cinnabar, as mentioned before, is mercuric sulphide, which, when artificially prepared, is termed vermilion. There is hardly any doubt that the variety Cennino was familiar with was the artificial kind, for he remarks that it “is produced by alchemy, performed in an alembic.” Minium is red lead, while amatisto is probably hæmatite. Dragon’s blood, as already referred to, is a resinous colour, and lakes were prepared from various dyes.
The yellow pigments were ochre, giallorino, orpiment, risalgallo, zafferano, and arzica. Giallorino is supposed to have been a native mineral yellow pigment. It is described by Cennino as a volcanic product. Some, however, think this to be similar to the pigment that used to be known as Naples yellow, which was a compound of the oxides of lead and antimony. Risalgallo realgar, or red orpiment, was prepared by gently heating orpiment. Zafferano was saffron, while arzica was a lake prepared from weld, which is wild mignonette.
The greens that he refers to are verde terra, verde azzurro, and verderame. Verde terra is the natural earth known also as terra verte. In all probability verde azzurro was a native copper carbonate, similar to green bice. Verderame was verdigris.
The blues used were azzurro della magna, azzurro oltre marino, and indaco baccadeo. Azzurro della magna was a copper-blue similar to the azurite of the classical period. Azzurro oltre marino was the genuine ultramarine. Cennino’s description of the preparation of this pigment from the lapis lazuli is very similar to the recipes that are given in other MSS. Indaco baccadeo was indigo from Bagdad.
The white pigments were bianco sangiovanni and biacca. Bianco sangiovanni was whiting or chalk, while biacca was white lead.
The blacks were “a soft black stone,” black “made of the young shoots of the vine, which are to be burnt, and when burnt, thrown into water, and quenched, and then ground like other black pigments.” Another black pigment “is made of the shells of almonds, or of peach-stones.” Lampblack was also used.
The colours were mixed with gum arabic or egg.
Cennino also makes mention of the use of the pezzuole colours, or clothlet tints, which were used a great deal in the Middle Ages. These were pieces of linen stained with transparent pigments. When required for use, a small piece was cut off and soaked in water to make a tint of the colour, a little gum being added.
Cennino also treats of tinting parchment with various colours. This was not done, as was the custom in the earlier period, by staining the vellum with a dye, but by washing a colour over it with a large brush.
It may be noted that practically all the permanent colours mentioned in these MSS. are in use to-day. Some of the colours used in the Middle Ages can hardly be recommended to-day. The copper blues, for instance, are not reliable, as impure air is very liable to change them into copper sulphide. Orpiment is an unsafe colour to use, while kermes will fade in a strong light, besides being no longer an article of commerce. Both dragon’s blood and saffron are notoriously fugitive colours.
It is hoped that these few brief notes with regard to the colours used by the mediæval artist may be of interest to the student. If he wishes to study this subject further he is referred to the various works mentioned.
CHAPTER XIV
COLOURS: THEIR COMPOSITION AND PERMANENCE
One of the characteristics of the mediæval artist was that he had a good knowledge of the different materials that he employed in his work. One cannot help being struck by this fact when reading some of their writings that have come down to us. They seem to have known all the various properties of the different colours and materials that they used. It is probable that the chief reason for this was that it was absolutely necessary for them to be able to prepare the materials for use, as it was practically impossible to buy them ready prepared.
The artist of to-day can buy so many things ready prepared for him by the artists’ colourman that he is very liable to give little or no attention to their composition and quality. It is as well, however, that the artist should have some knowledge of the materials that he uses, so that he may be able to select the best for his purpose.
It is important that he should understand something, at any rate, about the composition of the various colours that he uses, and that he should be able to distinguish permanent colours from those notoriously fugitive. Of course, it must not be understood by this that it is necessary for the artist to subject all his colours to chemical analysis; if he buys his colours from any reliable artists’ colourman he can rely on the colours being true to their name.
There are, however, some students who have not the slightest idea of the character of the different colours that they are in the habit of using. It is a great pity when good work is completely spoiled by being executed with fugitive colours through the ignorance of the artist. Good work should be as lasting as it is possible to have it, and this is not practicable if one is not certain whether the colours are likely to fade or change in any way.
The following notes as to the composition and permanence of the different colours may be of service to the student.