LATER STYLES
The tenth century example given is from the Benedictional of Æthelwold, Bishop of Winchester from A.D. 963–984. This lettering is of the foreign type, but it has a strongly defined native character all its own, some of the letters being distinctly Saxon in type.
From the twelfth century onwards a great number of MSS. were produced, each country having its own particular style and developing on certain definite lines. It is impossible to give specimens of all the different kinds of Calligraphy. The examples shown must be taken as roughly indicating the general style of the writing. The use of the slanted-cut pen tended towards the compression of the letters, thus forming a strong contrast to the letters produced in the earlier periods with the straight-cut pen.
In the thirteenth century writing became considerably smaller. In the latter part of this century a very large number of Bibles appear to have been written, and volumes were smaller, standing out in strong contrast to the ponderous tomes of the preceding century. In the fourteenth century the writing became considerably stiffer and more angular. This tendency showed itself still more strongly in the fifteenth century.
In Italy this tendency did not make itself felt quite as early as in the writings of Northern Europe. Although later on they became more or less affected in this way, there is a decided difference between Italian writing and the styles employed by the other countries.
In the fifteenth century the Italian scribes appear to have gone back to their early periods for models for book-hands, and it is this that influenced the early printers of Italy to use type of this character, which has its modern representative in the Roman type of to-day.
CHAPTER III
THE PREPARATION AND USE OF THE PEN
To obtain a practical knowledge of the use of the pen as a letter-making tool is, as stated before, the first important thing for the student to acquire. All the practice he can get in cutting it to shape, and using it in the manner described here, will be found to be of the greatest service in helping him to produce good lettering with it later on.
For large writing, the best tool is undoubtedly the reed pen. In fact, this is probably the best pen for the beginner to experiment with first. It is somewhat difficult to obtain a good reed pen. The ordinary kind that is sold by the artists’ colourmen is rather too soft and soon becomes sodden with the ink. Crisp writing is then impossible. A pen made from a piece of hollow cane or bamboo seems to answer best of all.
A sharp knife is required for cutting, and a thin piece of metal to form a spring to hold the ink is a great advantage. It should be quite easy to see from [Fig. 5] how the pen should be cut. The great thing to remember is to see that the pen is cut with a nice chisel point, as this ensures crisp and sharp writing. Another important detail is the slit in the nib. This should be just the right length for easy writing. If it is too long it makes the pen too soft, while, on the other hand, if too short it is difficult to write with it. The student will find that experiment alone will teach him what is right in this matter. An hour or two spent experimenting for himself with a reed or quill will teach him far more than pages of instruction. Beyond just giving a few hints, there is no need to devote much space to directions as to how to cut the pen. The few details given are just to act as a guide to the student.
THE PEN
Fig. 5.
In cutting the nib, care should be taken that the slit is a clean cut, also that the points are equally proportioned on each side. The spring is best made from a piece of thin brass, copper, or pure tin. If, ordinary tinned iron is used it is liable to get rusty besides being generally too thick. It will be found that a great deal depends on the position in which this is placed, with regard to the flow of ink from the pen.
When using the reed pen for large writing it will be found necessary to pare the curved inside of the pen quite flat at the point, to ensure a firm stroke, as otherwise a hollow stroke will be the result.
For smaller writing the best pen is the turkey quill. The goose quill is not quite firm enough, but a good turkey quill can be cut either for quite tiny writing or large bold writing. It is best to strip the feather part right away, as there is no advantage in having it on the pen. This can easily be torn off by pulling the end of the feather downwards.
For practice any good smooth-surfaced paper may be used. Several of the well-known makers of high-class hand-made drawing papers make a special paper for writing and illumination.
A good fluid waterproof drawing ink should be used. Care should be taken to procure one that will not thicken either in the bottle or in the pen. It is a great fault with some inks that, although they do not seem to thicken very much in the bottle, they do so in the pen. When this is the case, good writing is almost impossible. One cannot produce good writing if one has to stop every little while to wash out one’s pen. Besides, when the ink is beginning to thicken, clear, sharp writing becomes impossible.
[Fig. 6] gives some simple exercises with the pen. It should be quite easy to understand the formation of the pen-strokes from this diagram. They should be practised over and over again until the strokes can be made very easily. It should be noticed that the pen is kept practically at the same angle all the time. It must be held as easily as possible. There is no need to acquire any special manner of holding it. Different people hold the pen in different ways and it is best for the student to find out which way is easiest for him to hold it to produce good writing. If the pen is held in a manner which may be correct according to a copy-book but which feels awkward and cramped for the writer, the writing produced in this way is bound to show evidences of this. If, however, the pen is held freely, and easily, it becomes almost a part of the writer himself, and there is a feeling of freedom about the writing that is entirely absent from that produced by the other method.
Fig. 6.
The strokes in the diagram were made with a turkey quill pen in exactly the same manner as described here. One of the most important things is to endeavour to keep the pen practically at the same angle all the time. If the pen is allowed to twist about in the hand, the distinction between the thick and thin strokes will not be sufficiently marked. It should be quite easy for the student to acquire this mastery of the pen without holding it in a vice-like grip.
For clear, sharp writing it is practically essential that there should be no ink on the back of the nib. A small piece of linen, free from fluff, should be kept for a pen-wiper, and the back of the pen should be wiped before commencing to write. The ink should be kept free from pieces of fluff or small hairs, as if these get into the pen it is impossible to produce good writing.
The exercise should be practised first with two ruled lines, then with one only. It is good training if, after this, the student will try his skill in writing without any lines at all. He should not sketch it in lightly first in pencil, but should start straight away with the pen.
The width of the nib should be approximately the same as the thickness of the thick strokes of the writing.
When the nib becomes blunt or uneven it should be carefully re-cut. When re-cutting the pen it is advisable not to cut it in too drastic a fashion. Cut it gradually, taking very little off at first and using only a very sharp knife. One of the best knives for this purpose is a surgeon’s scalpel, as, being made of hard surgical steel, it does not get blunt so quickly as the ordinary pen-knife.
In the next chapter it is intended to begin to practise the formation of letters. Before studying it the student should practise cutting the pen and forming the strokes in [Fig. 6]. He should endeavour to make a sharp distinction between the thick and thin strokes, and also strive after perfect regularity. The more he practises this exercise the better will he be able to form the letters in the succeeding ones.
The student is advised thoroughly to master one stage before proceeding with the next. One that has been mastered is of more value than several hurried over in a careless fashion.
CHAPTER IV
THE FORMATION OF LETTERS
Having become somewhat acquainted with the use of the pen, the next step to be taken is the formation of letters, on the same principle as the strokes were made in the last chapter.
[Fig. 7] shows an alphabet of capital letters and also one of small letters. Each letter is formed with simple pen-strokes, and the student should experience no difficulty in forming these after practising the previous exercise.
Perhaps it would not be amiss to give a few suggestions as to working. In the first place he should set about his task in a workmanlike manner. It is practically useless practising on a few odd scraps of paper, in a slipshod way, without making any special preparations. This method of working is responsible for a good deal of slovenly work and cannot be too severely censured. The old proverb, “If a thing is worth doing it is worth doing well,” is perfectly true in this case.
PEN-FORMED LETTERS.
Fig. 7.
The student should obtain a drawing-board and fasten his paper down carefully before commencing to work. It will be found that a pad made of several sheets of blotting-paper placed under the writing-paper will make the writing easier. This makes a much more sympathetic surface to write upon than the hard drawing-board. Then the slope should be considered. It is not advisable to work with the board flat on the table. It should be raised to form a convenient slope. In the old illustrations that we have representing the mediæval illuminator at work, he is always depicted as writing at a sloping desk. By far the most suitable for writing is a firm water-colour easel which can be inclined to any angle. If, however, this is not to hand, a drawing can be raised on a table to the required angle by resting one end of the board on a small box.
Another point is the lighting. It is best to arrange this so that the light comes over the left shoulder, otherwise the shadow of the hand falls on the work.
Rule lightly, with a black-lead pencil, some lines to work upon. First rule two lines for each row of letters. For the capitals these should be about ¾ in. apart, and for the lower-case letters 3/8 in. should be sufficient.
The pen should be cut so as to give a fairly bold stroke, to prevent forming a thin, weak-looking letter. Great care should be taken to ensure that the writing be crisp and sharp. See that the back of the nib is free from ink, and be careful to keep the pen at practically the same angle. The habit of turning the pen about in the hand while writing is responsible for a lot of clumsy work. The beginner generally fails to turn the ends of his strokes smartly, thus failing to distinguish between the thick and thin strokes. This is caused by not keeping the pen at the same angle. The least possible pressure should be put on the nib. Let the pen have its own way; do not force it at all. Some prefer to dip the pen into the ink, wiping the back of the nib on a small linen pen-wiper. Others use a small brush or quill for dropping the ink into the pen. Some dealers put their ink into bottles provided with quill stoppers for this purpose. Whichever way be used, care should be taken not to fill the pen too full, as if this is done there is every probability that a blot may be caused by ink dropping from it.
[Fig. 8] shows exactly how the various strokes are formed. The different strokes that go to make up the capital A are carefully shown in the proper order and exactly how they can be made. Most of the letters in the alphabet are also shown with the pen-strokes necessary for their production. They are numbered so that the student should have no difficulty in understanding exactly how to form them, the first stroke being numbered 1, the second 2, and so on. It will be found that the letters that are not shown in this manner are made up of strokes that are shown plainly in some other letter.
Fig. 8.
After practising the formation of these letters between two lines, the student should use one line only. In fact, after he begins to get familiar with this method of forming letters he should discard altogether the use of the second line, as he should be able to write just as easily on one line only. Some students seem to be afraid that they will not be able to keep the writing the same size unless they use two lines. It is strange that in ordinary hand-writing they would never think it necessary to rule two lines to keep their writing the same size. The use of two lines is necessary to the beginner until he has become familiar with the pen, but there is no necessity to keep using these, for they only hamper him and give him less freedom in working.
One of the difficulties that beginners generally experience, in attempting to form letters with the pen in this way, is that they are unable to get good firm curves and strong upright strokes. The cause of this is nothing more or less than simply lack of practice. If the student has any trouble in this way he should practise the earlier exercise again and again. Weak-looking curves and tottering strokes will soon become few and far between as he gains confidence in himself. If he gives his whole attention to forming the strokes, the facility to produce well-formed letters will soon be acquired.
Another cause of bad writing is often due to the pen. If this is not cut so that it will give crisp strokes good lettering is impossible. The student should not waste time trying to write with a badly-cut pen; it is much better to re-cut it straight away.
After practising forming the letters this size, he should reduce them. The pen should be cut with a smaller point to suit the size of the letters, and lines should be ruled closer together. He should endeavour to get the same crispness and sharp distinction between the thick and thin strokes as in the larger writing. He should not rest satisfied until he is able to produce clear sharp writing on single lines. He should strive to keep the strokes of the letters quite upright, not leaning to the right or to the left. If he has practised the earlier exercise thoroughly he should experience no difficulty in this matter.
The next chapter will deal with massing letters together to form words and sentences. It is, however, as well to emphasise the fact that the formation of the individual letters should be mastered thoroughly first.
CHAPTER V
FORMING WORDS AND SENTENCES
One of the best ways to get familiar with spacing and forming letters into words is to write out a short quotation.
In [Fig. 9] one is given for the student to transcribe. A sheet of smooth-surfaced paper should be fastened to a board with drawing-pins, placing the pad of blotting-paper underneath. The page should then be ruled out with the lines 3/16 inch apart, with the exception of the first lines, which are 3/8 inch apart. Rule the lines as lightly as possible, with an HB. pencil, so that they are just visible, and can be removed by the gentlest possible touch of the rubber.
It should be noticed that the width of the paragraph is determined by the first word, “Imagination.” The way that the individual letters are carefully packed together, side by side, is an important factor. It is hardly worth while cutting a special wide pen for writing the initial I. This can be easily formed by making two strokes closely together. This practice should not be adhered to as a general rule for this type of letter, as some letters present a patched appearance when constructed in this manner. Letters should be composed either of simple pen-strokes or else built up. Never attempt to worry a letter into existence. Later on a method of building up letters will be shown. They are, however, a different type from those shown here.
Fig. 9.
This exercise should first be written between two ruled lines to each row of lettering. Then write it out using one line only. Then reduce the size, cutting a pen with a smaller point, but keeping to the same proportion in spacing. In copying this do not draw the lettering first in pencil, but go straight ahead with the pen. Also do not attempt to copy it in a rigid manner, endeavouring to get exactly the same number of words on each line as in the copy. Pack each letter closely to its fellow, and do not attempt to spread out any word to make it fit better. The distance between each word should be about the width of a small letter. Do not try to squeeze a word or syllable in at the end of a line. It is better to let it project slightly over the line; see (a) [Fig. 9]. If, when the end of the line is reached, there is a space left not quite large enough for the next word, do not attempt to spread out the last word, but either add a simple pen ornament as in (b) or the line may be emphasised by pen-strokes or dots, as in the copy. Still another method is shown in (c), where flourishes from the final letter fill the space. These, however, should be used sparingly, as they tend to make the matter less readable.
After the student has had a good amount of practice in writing in this manner he will begin to feel his way and be able to mass and arrange the letters and words properly. It is only when he becomes master over the pen, so that he can write quickly and easily, that he is able to mass the letters into words with facility.
After having written this quotation, a fresh one may be selected and written out in a similar manner. If this practice is persisted in, the student will gain valuable experience in the spacing and arrangement of words.
Fig. 10.
In [Fig. 10] several interesting points are noticed. In the first place the necessity for packing the letters should be noted in (a). If the two renderings of the same word be carefully examined, it will be seen that the first one has a somewhat broken appearance. This is notwithstanding the fact that each letter is exactly the same distance from the next to it. In the second example there is much more unity, yet the letters are not really so equally spaced. The way to get over this difficulty is to place each letter as closely as possible to its fellow. The first example looks like L ETTER ING because due consideration has not been given to the fact that however closely L and E, and R and I, are placed together, there will always be a fair amount of space, so that these should be packed, if possible, closer together than the rest. As the E is a curved letter, the L can easily be formed so that the lower part comes underneath. Also the tail of the R can project under the I. This device should not be carried to excess as shown in (b). One often sees architectural drawings disfigured by a lot of this kind of thing. The student is advised carefully to guard against this, or his writing will become freakish.
In (c) two examples are given which show the advantage of massed writing. In the first example the letters are placed together in a loose manner, and the two lines are too far apart. The second is much easier to read because the letters are packed closer together, and also the lines of lettering are nearer. For general purposes massed writing is undoubtedly best, but for some things, as, for example, in writing poetry, the lines may be wider apart. The letters, however, should be packed together, and it is not a bad plan to make the stems and tails of the letters just a trifle longer than usual.
A curious optical illusion is shown in (d), in connection with the letter S. The first one is constructed so that each half is approximately the same size, but it appears to be larger in the top half. It presents the same illusion if the page is held upside down. The second one, which is drawn with the top half slightly smaller, appears right. This applies to several other letters in the alphabet, but in the letter S it is most noticeable. The letter P is a letter that requires some attention. If a word begins with this letter, the form with the stem projecting below the line may be used; but when this occurs in the middle of a word, it tends to make it less readable. The example given, at first glance, looks like HEADS.
A modern fad of using V instead of U, and I in place of J, should be discouraged. In Latin, possibly, there is something to be said for it, but in modern English it looks foolish and affected, besides being almost unreadable at times.
The student will find the alphabet of italics useful for rapid lettering of plans, maps, etc. He should endeavour to preserve the same slope, not getting some letters falling over and others nearly upright. There is no need to give detailed instructions as to how to form the individual letters, as, after having practised the formation of letters in the preceding chapter, he should experience no difficulty in feeling his way with regard to the forming of the individual strokes that go to make up each letter. The same thing applies to the pen-formed figures that are given here. These are all composed of simple pen-strokes, and the student should be able to form these quite easily and quickly.
Constant practice with the reed or quill pen will do more than anything to make him an efficient writer.
CHAPTER VI
ALPHABETS FOR STUDY, BASED ON HISTORICAL EXAMPLES
After the student has, to some extent, mastered the pen, and is able to write fairly easily, it would be a good plan for him to study some of the best historical examples, forming the letters in the same simple manner.
The examples given here are free renderings of the various alphabets used in the different periods. In the case of any of the letters being missing to form the complete alphabet, these have been constructed in a similar style. The reason for doing this is so that the student should experience no difficulty in writing when using any one of these alphabets, as would possibly be the case if an incomplete alphabet were given. These alphabets are merely given for convenience, the object not being in any way to keep the student from studying the original manuscripts for himself. It was thought, however, that it might possibly be helpful if the various letters were given in the form of complete alphabets, as, after studying the various forms of lettering in this manner, the student would be encouraged to study the actual MSS. for himself.
Fig. 11.
One of the most beautiful forms of simple pen-formed lettering is given in [Fig. 11]. The uncial characters shown here (a) afford one of the best examples for practice in writing with the reed or quill. These letters are all formed with simple strokes made with the slanted-cut pen. For the purpose of general writing it may be as well to change the form of one or two of the letters, such as the A, for example, and possibly the D. Forming these characters with a well-cut pen is splendid practice for the student. He should endeavour to form the letters with simple direct strokes, with no touching up afterwards. After having practised the previous exercises well, he should be able to form these letters quite easily. He should, as opportunity occurs, examine carefully some of the fine uncial manuscripts, or at any rate some good reproductions of them.
The alphabet shown next (b) is founded on the Irish half-uncials. The one striking difference between this and the previous alphabet is that this is written with a straight-cut pen instead of a slanted-cut pen. This is plainly noticeable in the round letters such as a, c, e, o, etc., the thickness coming in quite a different place. It will be found that writing in this manner with the straight-cut pen is much slower work than writing in the other way. It is, however, very good practice for the student. The same remarks that were made about the uncial letters apply also here; it would be as well to modernise some of the letters, such as the “g” and the “n,” when writing with this alphabet.
In [Fig. 12] some very beautiful alphabets are shown which are excellent in every way as examples for study. These are all formed with quite simple strokes made with the slanted-cut pen. The one shown in (c) is a free rendering of the letters used in the famous “Benedictional of Æthelwold.” As the “s” and the “t” given here are liable to be somewhat unreadable, additional forms of these letters are suggested.
The example given in (d) is taken from a tenth-century Psalter, now in the British Museum. This MS. is a very beautiful example of the English writing of this period. The writing of this century should be very carefully studied. The student should not be content with merely working from the letters given here, but should study some of the MSS. of this period for himself, noting carefully the spacing and the arrangement of the lettering.
Fig. 12.
The next alphabet (e) is taken from an Italian twelfth-century MS. This is slightly stiffer in character than the preceding one, and the writing tends to become more compressed. However, the lettering still retains its round character. It is easy to mass the letters together when using this alphabet.
The letters in [Fig. 13] are still more compressed in character. The alphabet shown in (f) is taken from a late twelfth-century MS. of the French School. It is a very good form of lettering and will well repay careful study.
Fig. 13.
The next one (g) is a typical example of the style of lettering largely employed in the thirteenth century. Although the letters are shown here as large as in the preceding example, the lettering generally was much smaller. If the student examines carefully any of the thirteenth century MSS. he will notice this to be the case. He should practise using this alphabet in the same way, cutting his pen so that he is able to form the small letters quite easily. He will probably experience difficulty in producing writing as small as the mediæval scribe was able to do, as this comes only from a great amount of practice, but he should be able to write quite easily with the lines of lettering not more than 3/16 in. apart.
The alphabet that follows this (h) is from a fourteenth century MS. It will be noticed that the letters here are much more angular, and they conform more to what is popularly known as “Old English.” This form of writing can be quite easily formed with the slanted-cut pen.
There is no need to employ a fine pen for putting in the thin strokes, as is so often the case, as the complete letter may be formed with the same pen if it is cut with a nice chisel point. It is most important that the student should form the whole of the letter with the same pen, without any touching up afterwards. The practice of forming letters roughly and shaping them up afterwards with a fine pen tends to cultivate most unworkmanlike habits and cannot be too severely censored. Also letters formed in this manner are always lacking in character and vitality. If the student has become familiar with cutting and handling the pen he ought to be able to form any of the letters given here without the slightest difficulty.
The alphabets of capital letters given in [Fig. 14] will be useful as initials, etc., in connection with the small letters. It is quite obvious that these letters are not formed with simple pen-strokes in the same manner as the small letters are. These are built up with a series of strokes, the body of the letter being then filled in with either pen or brush. This method of building the letters up with pen-strokes will be described in detail in a later chapter.
Fig. 14.
The first alphabet given here (i), is based on the capital letters used in the famous Book of Kells. These will serve well as initials when using the Irish half-uncial characters for writing with. A good many of the letters are given in a variety of forms. Some of these are shown here and are liable to be somewhat unreadable if used in the present day. For example, the Irish O is shaped more like D, and may as well be used instead of this letter, which is not very distinct in character. The letter G would be hardly recognisable if used in the Irish form, so a simplified letter has been suggested. Some slight modifications have also been suggested in the letters N and P. By raising the cross-bar in N it conforms more to the modern shape of this letter. It is necessary to simplify the Irish P, as this letter resembles the letter R more than anything else.
The next alphabet, shown in (j), is based on capitals used in the tenth century, a somewhat stiff and severe type of letter.
The last one (k) shows the type of capital used in the eleventh century.
Some further alphabets will be given later on, when dealing with illumination.
The student should not content himself merely with forming the letters given here, but should study the subject for himself. He should, if possible, examine some of the illuminated MSS. exhibited in the various museums in London and elsewhere. He is specially recommended to study the MSS. produced between the tenth and thirteenth centuries. If he cannot possibly study the actual MSS. he should experience no difficulty in obtaining reproductions of them. The British Museum publishes an excellent series of collotype plates of a good number of their choicest illuminated MSS., as well as some splendidly reproduced in gold and colours. It will be found that a fair amount of time given to the study of these old MSS. will well repay in the end. The way the letters are massed together should be carefully noted, as well as the formation of the individual letters. He should note also the freedom displayed, the letters not being cramped in any way.
When studying lettering from photographs, or photographic reproductions, the proportional compass is extremely useful for measuring the exact size of the letters. The exact size of the page is nearly always given, and it is quite a simple matter to adjust the compass so that, when the measurement is taken with the smaller end, the exact size of the lettering can be marked off with the opposite end. This instrument is most useful when used in this manner, as it is difficult to gauge the exact size of the lettering from the measurements of the page. It is also always advisable to know, if at all possible, the exact size of the lettering in the original when studying a reproduction of a MS.
When examining MSS. in glass cases, when it is not convenient to have them taken out, a magnifying lens of about five or six inches focus is very useful for analysing the construction of fine lettering. This depth of focus enables the lens to be used through the glass without the necessity of having the case opened.
The student should seize every opportunity that may arise to examine some of the best work of the mediæval period.
For the present he should confine his attention to the lettering. The decoration will be considered later on, but, as this springs from the lettering, it is essential that sufficient attention should be given to the foundation before attempting to build upon it. He should also, when opportunity arise, examine some of the best modern work in this direction.
CHAPTER VII
ROMAN LETTERING
The Roman alphabet is certainly one of the most beautiful of all the alphabets that we possess. It is, however, strictly speaking, not a pen-formed alphabet. The fine forms of the Roman capitals, as exemplified in the well-known inscription on the Trajan Column, were most certainly the result of the evolution of chisel forms. The pen-formed letters that came after were evolved from these Roman capitals.
At first the type of letter used was practically the same as the chisel form. Writing with this type of letter must have been extremely slow work, compared with the simpler pen-forms that came into use later. It is impossible to write, in the true sense of the word, when using Roman letters. Although in the case of the early square-capital writing these letters were constructed in a fairly simple fashion with a slanted-cut pen, it is very difficult to write with any speed in this manner and at the same time produce a well-finished letter. For general purposes it is better to form the letters as shown in [Fig. 15].
These are constructed in quite a different way from the types already shown, the difference being that while they were formed with simple pen-strokes as in ordinary handwriting, these are built up.
Fig. 15.
For the purpose of illumination, Roman lettering is not by any means ideal. It is much better to select a true pen-formed alphabet; but for modern usage, such as the various branches of commercial work, Roman lettering is used a great deal. It possesses one very great advantage, that is, its legibility. As the man in the street has his daily newspaper printed in a form of Roman lettering, he is therefore more familiar with this type than any other. The greater bulk of the commercial art of the present day aims to attract the attention of this individual, so that it is necessary that it should be just what he can understand. To letter a popular advertisement in a late Gothic lettering would be foolish in the extreme, as he would, in all probability, experience difficulty in deciphering it. The thing to aim at, in this case, is to do it so that he cannot help seeing it. The most important thing, in the eyes of the advertiser, is not so much the design of the poster as the goods advertised, and the lettering calling attention to these must be clear, distinct, and prominent. Lettering, therefore, that is based on the Roman type is best for this kind of work.
Illumination, in general, appeals to a different type of individual. Something is required that is away from the ordinary. Also as illumination is so inseparably bound up with writing, it is almost essential that a true pen-formed lettering should be used.
The Roman capitals, as shown in [Fig. 15], are based, to a great extent, on those used in the Trajan Column inscription. It will be found that the more practice that one has in forming letters with simple pen-strokes, as already shown, the easier it will be to form the letters by building them up, as in this case.
For general purposes the easiest way to form Roman letters is with a pen cut with a medium point and a fairly long slit. The outward strokes should be made first, then the ones that come inside the letter. The serifs are then added, the outline filled in, and the letter is complete. The lower-case letters given are a type that may be used in conjunction with the capitals. Apart from the utility of this alphabet, the student will find that forming these letters in this way will be extremely good practice. He should also practise forming them with a brush. For this purpose he should use a small, but firm, sable water-colour brush. Construct the letters in exactly the same manner as when using the pen. After a good amount of practice in this way he will be surprised at the dexterity he is acquiring with the use of the brush. Then, using a larger brush, he should endeavour to form large letters in this way. This will be extremely useful for writing large notices and announcements.
For work where very accurate lettering is required, such as high-class commercial art, title-pages, etc., the outlines of the letters should be produced by means of tee-square, set-square, and compasses. The serifs also should be carefully drawn. In this case it is not wise to go straight ahead with the pen, without drawing first carefully in pencil.
The letters given in [Fig. 16] are a type of Roman lettering made with simple direct strokes of the pen. These will no doubt be useful, as they may be very easily and quickly written. They should be very helpful for writing quickly announcements, notices, etc.
A few notes may be useful to the student with regard to the characteristics of the various Roman capitals.
Fig. 16.
The letter A is sometimes pointed at the top, being generally formed in this manner in inscriptions, but for pen- and brush-formed lettering it is preferable to finish it in the way shown in [Fig. 15]. It should be noticed that in the letter B the top part forms an angle with the upright, while the bottom part curves into the stem. The same thing applies to D, E, and L. The serifs on the lower limbs of E and L should point outwards, while the serifs on the other limbs of E are quite straight. This also applies to F. It is best to make the cross-bar in H form angles with the uprights rather than curving into them. The form of the letter J may be varied, the tail may be curved round, but it is as well to avoid the ugly shape that is in general use. The tail may project below the line considerably, if it is felt to be necessary, but care should be taken not to exaggerate this too much. The same thing applies to the tail of the next letter, K. In the letter M the two outside strokes occasionally spread outwards, and in the form used in inscriptions the top serifs are missing. These, however are generally added to the pen- or brush-formed letter. The same thing applies to the letter N. The letter O is not quite a circle; it is sometimes made in the tilted form, i.e., as formed with the slanted-cut pen; when this is the case all the corresponding curved letters should be treated in the same way. The curve of P does not always touch the upright stem below. The tail of the Q may be lengthened occasionally, as also is the case in the letter R. The letter S often leans slightly forward, but this tendency should not be accentuated too much. The top part of this letter should be made slightly smaller than the lower part; this applies also to all letters similarly divided in the middle. In the letter T the top generally forms angles with the centre stem instead of curving into it. For general writing the curved type of U should be used in preference to the V which is used in Latin inscriptions. W is formed by crossing two V’s.
The student is strongly advised to study some of the best historical examples of Roman lettering. Some of these are detailed in the next chapter.
CHAPTER VIII
SOME HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF ROMAN LETTERING
The examples given in this chapter do not pretend to be, in any way, a complete series of alphabets of Roman lettering. To go into this matter properly would require far more space than is available here. If, however, sufficient interest is aroused to encourage the student to study the subject for himself, it will be worth while dealing briefly with the subject here.
One of the most important alphabets is that used in the inscription on the base of the Trajan Column (circa 114 A.D.). To help the student to form these letters in their proper proportions, each letter has been enclosed in a square (See [Figs. 17–22]). This should be a great help in determining the correct form of the different letters. For example, take the letter O; this is not quite a circle, as is shown plainly by placing the letter in a square. In the case of the W, as this is larger than the other letters, this has been placed in two squares.
As the alphabet from this inscription is incomplete, suitable forms have been suggested for H, K, Y, and Z. Also additional letters have been given for J, U, and W, which are necessary in modern usage.
The Trajan Column.
This alphabet is extremely beautiful, and for important inscriptions it is hardly possible to find a better model. The student is advised to make a careful study of this alphabet.
Fig. 17.
When using this alphabet for writing an inscription it is not a bad plan to make a small cardboard gauge giving the width of the different letters in proportion to the height decided upon. A small gauge like this is very easily constructed and should be a great help in quickly spacing the letters. For example, it may be noted that the letters C, D, G, H, K, M, N, O, Q, U and Z nearly fill the square, while A, R, T, V come next in size. B, X, and Y are slightly narrower, while the letter P is a shade less than these. L and S are still slightly less in width, and E and F are the most narrow of all the letters, excepting, of course, I and J. If these various widths are marked on the edge of a small strip of card it ought to be quite an easy matter to space these letters quickly.
Fig. 18.
The first alphabet shown in [Fig. 20] (a) is a free rendering from a thirteenth-century inscription in the Church of St. Ursula, Cologne. As the alphabet was incomplete it has been completed, so that it may be used without any difficulty arising through any of the letters being missing.
Fig. 19.
The next one is from an inscription of the early part of the fourteenth century (b).
A late fifteenth-century alphabet is given in (c), which is taken from an inscription in niello on a silver plaque fitted to a reliquary. This is Italian and is dated 1496.
Fig. 20.
The alphabets of capitals and minuscules shown in [Fig. 21] are of special interest to the illuminator. These are based on the writing used in a late fifteenth-century illuminated MS. now in the British Museum, St. Augustine’s “City of God” (Add. MS. 15246). These letters are formed with quite simple strokes of the pen. In this MS. the f-shaped minuscule s is used. In the alphabet given here this has been substituted by one more in keeping with the modern type of letter, and several letters have been added to make the alphabet complete. The student is strongly advised to study the lettering in this MS. for himself. It makes a very effective script if written fairly small with a crisply-cut pen.
Fig. 21.
Some further alphabets are shown in [Fig. 22]. The lettering from which the alphabet is taken that is shown in (a) is from a title-page from “Utopia et Mori et Erasmi Epigrammata,” dated 1518. It has woodcut borders and title-pages by Holbein. This style of letter is used throughout the book for headings, etc. It is undoubtedly a very fine type of letter and is worthy of careful study. As has been the case in the other alphabets, this alphabet has been completed by adding letters of approximate form to supply the missing ones.
Fig. 22.
The next alphabet, given in (b), is taken from an inscription in marble on the monument of the Marchese Spinetta Malaspina (d. 1352), relating to its re-erection in the Church of San Giovanni in Sacco at Verona in 1536.
The last one shown here, in (c), is from an inscription on the marble monument of Filippo Decio (d. 1535), in the Campo Santo, Pisa, by Stagio Stagi (d. 1563).
Of course, numerous other examples might be given, but sufficient have been shown to enable the student to study the subject further if he so desires. There are numbers of reproductions from old inscriptions and MSS. easily obtainable.
In studying these alphabets the student will find that it is not a bad plan, after forming the letters with a pen as described in the preceding chapter, to use a brush as also suggested there. He should then endeavour to form them fairly large, working straight away with the brush. A good brush for this purpose is a sable “writer,” such as is commonly used by sign-writers. Dexterity with this type of brush is to a great extent merely a matter of practice. In fact, as has been insisted on repeatedly throughout this book, practice, and plenty of it, will do more than anything else towards making the student efficient.
When studying this subject further the student should note especially the manner in which the letters are arranged in the various inscriptions, as a great deal depends upon the arrangement of the letters and words.
CHAPTER IX
A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ILLUMINATION
(1) From the Fourth to the Eleventh Century
Perhaps it would be as well, before dealing with the practical side of illumination, to give a brief sketch of the history of this art in Europe. It will not be possible to do more than give just a very short outline of the history here. The modern illuminator should, however, know something of the history of illumination. It is not intended to deal with any but vellum MSS. Possibly it may be claimed that some of the Egyptian Papyrii are illuminated MSS., but these have little in common with the illuminated work of the Middle Ages, and it is with this that this short review is chiefly concerned.
THE LINDISFARNE GOSPELS.
By kind permission of
the British Museum.