WHITE PIGMENTS
Zinc White, Flake White.
Zinc, or Chinese, White is an oxide of zinc. This pigment is quite permanent and should be used always when a lasting white is needed. Unfortunately this white does not photograph its true value, so for process work it is best not to use this.
Flake White is prepared from lead carbonate and hydrate, and may be used for process work in place of zinc white. It, however, should not be used for work that is required to be lasting, as when used as a water-colour it soon turns black. As, however, it has more body than zinc white, it photographs better. A white is sometimes prepared for process work from barium sulphate. This is permanent, but does not work quite so well from the brush.
CHAPTER XV
COLOURS: THEIR PREPARATION AND USE
It is practically needless to say that the colours used for illuminating are water-colours. These are sold by the artists’ colourmen, ready prepared, in three different forms, viz., in cakes, pans, and tubes. These consist of powder colour ground with gum arabic, or senegal (a brown variety of the same gum), to which a portion of honey and glycerine is added.
The best prepared colours are undoubtedly those sold in the form of cakes, as they are the purest. The other forms contain a considerable amount of glycerine, which does not improve the colour, but enables them to be kept moist for quite a long time—a greater advantage to the artists’ colourman than to the artist.
Tube colours contain more glycerine than those sold in pans. The great advantage, however, that tube colours possess is their convenience. A small quantity of clean colour can be squeezed out and the cap replaced on the tube, thus keeping the rest of the colour free from dust. The admixture of so much glycerine with the colour, however, often prevents it from drying quite flat when used as body colour.
One word of warning may be useful here: gum should not be mixed with water-colours. This is often recommended in books on illumination, but it is not only unnecessary but it entirety spoils the appearance of the colour. There is always quite sufficient gum mixed with the colour, and there is nothing specially beautiful about the shiny appearance caused by an excess of gum in the colour.
Without a doubt the best colours for the illuminator to use are powder colours. They are mixed with gum arabic and water. Care should be taken to get the right quantity of gum mixed with the colour. If there is not sufficient to bind the colour it will rub off when dry, while, on the other hand, if there is too much, it will dry patchy, and if very much in excess it will present a shiny appearance. Experience will soon show the exact amount necessary.
One very great objection that is often urged against the use of powder colours is their inconvenience, but if these are prepared in the manner described below they should not be more inconvenient to use than the ordinary ready-prepared water-colours.
For illuminating, where the work is required to be lasting, none but permanent colours should be used; but when making designs which are for temporary use only it is foolish to use expensive colours like aureolin and cadmium yellow when the same effect can be obtained with the various shades of chrome yellow, which is much cheaper, although notoriously fugitive.
It is best to buy the colours ready ground. A china slab or a piece of plate glass may be used to mix the colours on, or the back of a large white plate might serve in lieu of these. When it is necessary to grind the colour a muller is used for this purpose. (See [Fig. 29].)
Slab & Muller.
Palette Knife.
Scraper.
Saucer, with Cover.
Method of taking Gum from Jar.
Fig. 29.
Gum arabic is prepared in a very simple manner for mixing with colours. Some pieces of this gum are placed in a wide-mouthed jar and covered with cold water. It should be given a stir occasionally, and the following day it will probably be dissolved. It may be strained through muslin if necessary. A few drops of carbolic acid added to it will prevent this solution from becoming sour. It is as well also to provide a loose-fitting cover for the jar to keep dust from the gum.
For mixing the colour a palette-knife is required. A little of the powder colour is placed on the slab and mixed with the palette-knife to a stiff paste with water and a little gum. A glass tube may be used to take the gum from the jar. If this tube is placed in the jar of gum, and the finger placed over the top of it, a small quantity of gum can be easily removed and may be dropped on to the slab by removing the finger. (See [Fig. 29].) This is a much better method than dipping the palette-knife into the gum, as this is very likely to get contaminated with the colour if this is done.
It is not advisable to mix the colour too thinly with water before adding the gum, as one of the effects of the gum is to make the colour flow much easier, and if there is a fair quantity of colour on the slab it is liable to flow over the edges.
After it has been well mixed up with the palette-knife it should be tested to see if it has sufficient gum in it. The student should take a clean brush and paint a small square with the colour on a piece of paper. When this is quite dry it is very easy to tell if it has the proper quantity of gum in it. As mentioned before, if it has too much the colour will look patchy or shiny. To find out if there is enough gum in it, take a small piece of rough paper and rub the patch of colour vigorously with it; if there is insufficient gum to bind the colour it will rub off on to the paper; if there is too much gum, more colour should be added; while, on the other hand, if there is not enough a little more should be mixed with it.
When painting a fresh square of colour for testing purposes it is essential that the brush should be thoroughly washed before painting the new patch. If this is not done the result will be that the colour will be mixed with that already in the brush, and the test will not be a true one. Another important thing is to see that the colour is well mixed with the gum, otherwise one is very liable to get one brush full of colour that is nearly all gum and another with insufficient gum in it.
When the colour is well mixed up with the right quantity of gum it should be thinned out with water and is then ready for use. It should be placed in little saucers, which may be obtained from any artists’ colourman. A small square of glass may be placed over the saucer to prevent the evaporation of the water from the colour, as, if left exposed to the air, this will soon dry quite hard. If it is desired to keep the colour moist for any considerable time, a small quantity of glycerine and honey should be added to it. The colour, however, does not work so well when used as body-colour if this is done.
The following is a good method of keeping body-colour in a convenient form. The colour should be painted on large pieces of glass or slabs of porcelain and allowed to get perfectly dry. It can then be scraped up in the form of a fine powder. An old chisel-knife, or a broken palette-knife, makes a good scraper. This powder requires only a little water to be added to it and the colour is ready for use. It dissolves very quickly in water to form an easy-flowing colour, much superior to colour that has glycerine and honey added to it to keep it moist. Especially is this the case when working on vellum. It dries with a dull, velvet-like surface which shows in strong contrast to brightly burnished gold. If the colour, when scraped up, is not very finely divided it should be rubbed up, in its dry state, on the slab, with the palette-knife or muller, until it is quite fine, as the finer the powder the more quickly will it dissolve.
A complete set of colours for illuminating may be prepared in this way and put into small bottles until required. No gum should be added when using them, as each small grain of colour has its own portion of gum which binds it to the surface on which it is painted.
When it is required to use any of the colours prepared in this way, a small quantity of the powder should be placed in a small saucer and a little water added. It should then be worked up with the finger-tip until it is fluid enough to work well with the brush.
Colours prepared in this way work very well also in the pen, vermilion especially working very well indeed. It is not advisable to use a brush to mix the colour up with, as this method not only quickly spoils a brush, but also it does not mix the colour up nearly so well as the finger-tip.
If a little colour is left in the saucer after using it, it can easily be moistened up again with a little water. It is not, however, advisable to mix up much more than is required, as it dries rather hard and requires soaking some little time if a considerable quantity is left to dry.
When mixing colours in this way it is as well to label carefully the bottles in which the colour is stored. If this is not done, one is very liable to mistake a fugitive colour for a permanent one, and vice versâ. Cadmium yellow may easily be mistaken for chrome yellow, and crimson Lake for permanent crimson.
CHAPTER XVI
THE GILDING METHODS OF THE MIDDLE AGES
The most casual observer cannot fail to notice the gilding that is such a prominent feature of the MSS. of the mediæval period. Brightly burnished gold, which appears as if it had been laid and burnished quite recently, although centuries have passed since the work was completed, cannot fail to impress and arouse one’s curiosity as to the gilding methods employed when this work was produced.
Some of the old MSS. that treat of painting and the preparation of colours give also some information concerning the various methods of gilding, and our knowledge of these methods is chiefly derived from these MSS.
Dr. A. P. Laurie has made careful examination of the different forms of gilding employed in illuminated MSS., and in his book, “Pigments and Mediums of the Old Masters” says that gold was used in three distinct forms: as gold-leaf laid on the surface, and in the form of gold paint, prepared by grinding leaf-gold to powder; the other method seems to have been a paint made of rounded granules of gold. He suggests that this gold was probably obtained from river washings, and that the only preparation has been to sift out the finer grains. He says, further, that when it is examined under the microscope this form of gold paint is easily distinguished from that prepared from leaf-gold, which presents the appearance of little particles of gold with sharp corners and edges, while this shows rounded granules.
The art of gold-beating is of very great antiquity. Pliny, in his “Natural History,” states that one ounce of gold was made into 750 leaves, each leaf being four fingers square. This is about three times as thick as the ordinary gold-leaf of the present day. It is very difficult to form any idea as to when and where it originated. Some think that it arose amongst Oriental peoples. It certainly has been practised amongst these since quite remote periods. Some of the coffins of the Egyptian mummies have gilding on them evidently done with gold-leaf in a similar way to modern methods. Some of the books of gold-leaf used by the ancient Egyptians are in existence to-day, there being one at the Louvre in Paris.
Pliny says, “Gold-leaf is laid over marble, etc., with white of egg, on wood with glue properly composed; they call it leucophoron.” In another place he states that leucophoron is composed of sinopia (a red earth colour), light sil (yellow ochre), and melinum (a white earth). Evidently this was mixed with size to form a ground upon which to lay the leaf.
The Lucca MS., of the eighth century, gives instructions how to prepare gold for writing by reducing the metal to a fine powder to form a gold paint.
The following recipe is from the “Mappæ Clavicula,” a MS. of the twelfth century: “If you wish to write in gold, take powder of gold and moisten it with size, made from the very same parchment on which you have to write; and with the gold and size near to the fire; and, when the writing shall be dry, burnish with a very smooth stone, or with the tooth of a wild boar. Item, if then you wish to make a robe or a picture, you may apply gold to the parchment, as I have above directed, and shade with ink or with indigo, and heighten with orpiment.”
Parchment size is prepared by boiling parchment or vellum cuttings with just enough water to cover them for about two hours. The size is then poured off and sets in a firm jelly when quite cold. When required for use a small portion is placed in a jar, which is put into a basin of hot water, the size then quickly becoming liquid.
In the writings of Theophilus, of about the same period, he gives a good deal of information concerning the mediæval methods of gilding. In Chapter XXIV. he gives directions for hammering out gold-leaf. The next chapter, which is quoted, explains how the leaf is laid on. “In laying on gold, take the clear part of the white of egg, which is beat up without water, and then with a pencil paint lightly over the place in which the gold is to be placed, and, the handle of the same pencil being wetted in your mouth, touch one corner of the cut leaf, and so elevating it, lay it on with the greatest quickness, and spread it even with a brush. And at that moment you must beware of a current of air and refrain from breathing, because if you blow you lose the leaf and with difficulty recover it. When this is laid on and dried, superpose another upon it, if you wish, in the same manner, and a third likewise, if it is necessary, that you may be able to polish it more brightly with a tooth or a stone.”
Evidently this was the general method of gilding, for he states that the leaf can be laid in the same manner on a wall or ceiling.
In Chapter XXX. he describes the method of grinding gold for books. This is done by first filing the gold very finely and then gradually grinding it until it is an extremely fine powder. In the next chapter, which is entitled, “How Gold and Silver are Laid in Books,” the method of applying the gold is given. This is as follows: “Afterwards take pure minium and add to it a third part of cinnabar, grinding it upon a stone with water. Which being carefully ground, beat up the clear of the white of an egg, in summer with water, in winter without water, and when it is clear, put the minium into a horn and pour the clear upon it, and stir it a little with a piece of wood put into it, and with a pencil fill up all places with it upon which you wish to lay gold. Then place a little pot with glue over the fire, and when it is liquefied, pour it into the shell of gold and wash it with it. When you have poured which into another shell, in which the purifying is kept, again pour in warm glue, and, holding it in the palm of the left hand, stir it carefully with the pencil, and lay it on where you wish thick or thin, so, however, that there be little glue, because, should it exceed, it blackens the gold and does not receive a polish. But after it has dried, polish it with a tooth or bloodstone carefully filed and polished, upon a smooth and shining horn tablet. But should it happen, through negligence of the glue not being well cooked, that the gold pulverises in rubbing, or rises on account of too great thickness, have near some old clear of egg beat up without water, and directly with a pencil paint slightly and quickly with it over the gold; when it is dry, again rub it with the tooth or stone. Lay in this manner silver, brass, and copper in their place, and polish them.”
In this early period this form of gilding was certainly used a good deal, but soon after this the raised gilding, which was produced by laying the leaf on a raising made of gesso, was in general use. A number of different recipes have been found. Probably the most important, however, are those given by Cennino Cennini in the early part of the fifteenth century. Chapter CLVII. is entitled, “How You Must do Miniature-Painting and Put Gold on Parchment.” It is quoted in full. “First, if you would paint miniatures you must draw with a leaden style figures, foliage, letters, or whatever you please, on parchment, that is to say in books; then with a pen you must make the delicate permanent outline of what you have designed. Then you must have a paint that is a sort of gesso, called asiso, and it is made in this manner; namely, a little gesso sottile and a little biacca, never more of this than equals a third part of the gesso; then take a little candy, less than the biacca; grind these ingredients very finely with clear water, collect them together, and let them dry without sun. When you wish to use some to put on gold, cut off a piece as large as you have need of, and temper it with the white of an egg, well beaten, as I have taught you. Temper this mixture with it; let it dry; then take your gold, and either breathing on it or not, as you please, you can put it on; and the gold being laid on, take the tooth or burnishing-stone and burnish it, but hold under the parchment a firm tablet of good wood, very smooth. And you must know that you may write letters with a pen and this asiso, or lay a ground of it, or whatever you please—it is most excellent. But before you lay the gold on it, see whether it is needful to scrape or level it with the point of a knife, or clean it in any way, for your brush sometimes puts more on in one place than in another. Always beware of this.”
The next chapter is also quoted, as it gives another method of laying gold on parchment. “If you would like another kind of asiso—but this is not so good, but may be used for putting on gold grounds, though not to write with—take gesso sottile, and a third part biacca, a fourth part Armenian bole, with a little sugar; grind all these very finely with the white of an egg; lay on the ground in the usual manner, and let it dry; then with the point of a knife scrape and clean the gesso. Put the previously mentioned tablet under the parchment, or a very flat stone, and burnish it; and should it by chance not burnish well when you put on the gold, wet the gesso with clean water with a small minever brush, and when it is dry burnish it.”
Gesso sottile was plaster of Paris that had been thoroughly slaked by long soaking in water so that it had lost all its setting properties. As mentioned in a previous chapter, biacca was white lead. The white of egg is prepared by beating it thoroughly to a thick froth and letting it stand one night to clear itself. Armenian bole is a red earth colour which seems to have been used a great deal to give colour to the ground for gilding. In some of the MSS. where the gold has been slightly rubbed off, the red colour of the raising preparation plainly indicates that is one of the ingredients used.
In Chapter CLX. instructions are given on “How to Grind Gold and Silver, and How to Temper Them to Make Foliage and Embellishments.” Evidently in this case the gold was prepared by grinding the leaf-gold—not, as was the case in the earlier descriptions, by first filing the metal and gradually reducing it to a fine powder.
The powder gold was, however, generally used only for painting in fine gold lines and heightening miniatures, although in the latter part of the fifteenth century matt gold grounds were often used as borders round miniatures, etc.
The raised gilding was, however, used more often, and the various recipes given in the different MSS. are generally very similar to those given by Cennino. Sometimes chalk or pipe-clay is used instead of gesso, and occasionally parchment size or fish-glue is recommended as a medium for mixing it with.
Endeavouring to work from these recipes is no easy matter, and the student is not advised to waste too much time in experimenting in this direction. Although there is a certain amount of fascination in trying the various preparations and methods, there is so much that is important that should claim the attention of the student that it is hardly profitable for him to spend a lot of time trying to work from these old formulas when it might be better employed.
One cannot help being interested, however, in these old recipes and directions for applying gold to vellum.
CHAPTER XVII
THE USE OF GOLD
Gilding, in illuminated work, is done with either gold-leaf or shell gold. Gold-leaf is the metal that has been beaten out into thin sheets, and shell gold the same ground up and mixed with gum and honey. Shell gold is so called on account of the fact that it is sold in small shells ready for use.
The student is especially warned against using any of the varieties of gold paint for work that is desired to be permanent. These are mixed up with powdered bronze, and, in course of time, will turn black.
Shell gold is painted on in the same way that other colours are. A small brush should be used, so as not to waste any more than is absolutely necessary. It is also essential that quite clean water should be used, to ensure the gold being as bright as possible, as if the water is contaminated with colour it will dull the gold when mixed with it. The great disadvantages of shell gold are lack of brilliance and also the expense. It is, however, very useful for putting in very fine lines, which are difficult when using gold-leaf.
The use of gold-leaf for gilding purposes has been known since quite an early period. Some of the early manuscripts were written with gold and silver letters on purple vellum. Silver-leaf is prepared in a similar manner to gold-leaf; unfortunately, however, it quickly turns black when exposed to the air. The best substitute for silver-leaf is undoubtedly platinum, although it is very expensive. Aluminium leaf is sometimes used, but it is rather too thick for fine work. Sometimes aluminium paint is used where silver work is required. This, however, has the same objection as shell gold in lacking brilliance.
Without a doubt the use of leaf, raised and burnished, is the ideal method of gilding. If the student examines any of the old MSS. of the best periods he is bound to be struck with the brilliance of the raised gold, and he will notice how superior are the results to any produced by means of gold paint. Gold-leaf gilding, even if it is unburnished, is infinitely more brilliant than either gold paint or shell gold. Some difficulty may at first be experienced in handling the leaf, as, being so thin, it has an unpleasant habit of blowing about. It is sold in books containing twenty-five leaves. It is best to get that known as “double fine gold,” specially prepared for illuminating. For large masses of gold, a thicker leaf may be used, known as “quadruple.”
The student should be careful to use only the best gold-leaf. Some of the cheap foreign leaf is very poor in quality. He should be careful also to avoid the leaf known as “Dutch metal,” which is not gold at all.
A gilder’s cushion should be obtained with a knife and tip. (See [Fig. 30].) The cushion is generally about nine inches by six in size, and is made by stretching a piece of soft leather over a piece of board slightly padded. A piece of parchment is fastened on one end, which acts as a shield to prevent currents of air from blowing the leaf about. The student should be extremely careful to prevent touching the surface of the cushion with his fingers, as, if it becomes greasy in the slightest degree, he will experience trouble through the leaf sticking to it.
Guilder’s Cushion
Guilder’s Tip
Agate Burnisher
Guilder’s Knife
Camel Hair Mop
Fig. 30.
The best way for the beginner to learn how to handle the gold-leaf is to get an experienced gilder to show him how to use the cushion. If this is not possible he ought, by carefully following the directions given here, to be able to manage the leaf after a little practice.
The best way is to take the book of gold-leaf and open it very carefully. It is then turned over so that the leaf rests on the cushion. The back of the book is then gently tapped with the finger-tips; if it is then carefully lifted up the leaf will be found lying upon the surface of the cushion. If it is not lying quite flat and even, it may easily be smoothed by blowing gently on the centre of it. It is as well, however, not to be too vigorous, or the result may be to crumple the leaf up worse than before.
The student should be careful not to touch the leaf with his fingers, otherwise it will stick to them and the whole leaf will probably be spoiled. He should also avoid breathing upon the surface of the leaf, or it will probably roll up in a hopeless tangle, or else go floating off into the air, as the slightest puff of wind tends to do this.
It is hardly necessary to point out that it is not wise to attempt handling gold-leaf for the first time with the doors and windows open, as the slightest draught will carry the leaf with it.
The gilder’s knife must not be sharpened, as, if this is done, the result will be that instead of cutting the leaf it will probably tear it and cut the cushion. One important thing to remember is that the fingers should be kept from touching the blade, otherwise the leaf will stick to it owing to the slight amount of grease left on it. Also if the blade is allowed to get rusty it is liable to tear the leaf instead of cutting it properly. The knife should be kept clean, and the edge should occasionally be burnished with the back of a pen-knife, or something similar, to remove any roughness that may prevent it from giving a clean cut. If it is found that the leaf sticks to the blade of the knife, it is because there is a slight amount of grease on it; this may be removed by rubbing the knife on a board with a little powdered bath brick.
The leaf is cut by placing the knife carefully down on to the surface of the leaf, and moving it backwards and forwards with a sawing movement. The knife should be pressed down firmly on the cushion when cutting, and great care should be taken not to rumple the leaf in so doing.
It is as well not to endeavour to be too economical when cutting the leaf up. A piece of leaf should be cut large enough to cover the part that it is required to gild. If the student tries to be too exact in cutting, he is very liable to cut the piece too small, and then other pieces have to be cut to patch the parts not covered with the leaf. When this is the case, apart from the extra time taken up, it is false economy, as more leaf is required than if a slightly larger piece was cut at first.
After the leaf is cut, it is conveyed from the cushion to the work by means of the gilder’s tip. (See [Fig. 30].) This is a kind of brush made by fixing a thin layer of hair between two pieces of card, which are pasted or glued together. This tip is used by first rubbing it on the skin or hair, and then placing it on the piece of leaf, which will then adhere to it. It can then be carried and placed in position where it is needed. The reason that the gold adheres to the tip is because by rubbing it on the skin or hair the tip becomes slightly greasy and attracts the leaf.
If any leaf is left on the cushion after finishing the gilding, it should be carefully replaced in the book. This may be done by putting the top of the blade of the knife down flat on the cushion and pushing it under the centre of the leaf. By this means the leaf may be lifted and carried to the book. The tip should not be used for this purpose, or some difficulty may be experienced in inducing the leaf to leave this for the book. When pushing the knife under the leaf, however, it should be pressed firmly on the cushion, otherwise the result will be to crumple the leaf and spoil it.
For dusting the loose leaf away after gilding, a large camel-hair mop similar to that shown in Fig. 30 is useful.
For burnishing the gold, an agate burnisher is required. The best shape is shown in [Fig. 30].
For commercial work it is hardly worth while using gold-leaf, and bronze powder is recommended instead. A method of using this will be explained later when dealing with commercial work.
CHAPTER XVIII
ILLUMINATION WITH GOLD AND COLOURS
The best material for the illuminator to work upon is undoubtedly vellum. No paper has ever been made that is equal to it. The chief drawback that this material has is, of course, the expense. Parchment is cheaper, but not nearly so nice.
In selecting vellum for illuminating, the ordinary thick kind, generally known as illuminators’ vellum, is to be avoided. This presents too much the appearance of shiny cardboard, the surface being much too hard and horny. This kind is prepared calf-skin, and it is most objectionable to work upon. A very fine vellum, known as “Roman Vellum”—probably prepared lamb-skin—has an ideal writing surface. It is perhaps best to get a slightly heavier vellum if it is intended to cover it with a lot of heavy work.
A very curious statement has found its way into a number of books on illumination to the effect that it is impossible to remove pencil-marks from the surface of vellum. It has been stated that all attempts to remove a pencil-mark with rubber or bread result only in producing a greasy smudge. The present writer has worked on a considerable quantity of vellum, but he has never come across any from which he has experienced any difficulty in removing pencil-marks. Of course it is not advisable to use a very soft pencil, such as a 4 or 6B, very freely on a piece of vellum, especially if it is at all inclined to be greasy. The use of carbon-paper is often recommended for transferring a design to vellum, but, generally speaking, the use of this material is not desirable. It is generally somewhat greasy, and it certainly is difficult to remove these marks from the surface of the vellum. The best way is to cultivate the habit of working straight away on to the vellum. Work that is carried out in this manner is generally characterised as having more vitality and displaying more freedom than when it is traced off from another drawing.
Some of the fine hand-made papers, specially prepared for writing and illuminating, make excellent substitutes for vellum, although, of course, paper is never as durable as vellum. Cold tea makes a very good and quite harmless stain with which the paper can be tinted a similar shade to vellum. When tinting the paper with tea, it is best not to use too strong tea for this purpose, otherwise the result may not be altogether satisfactory. The paper should be carefully fastened to a board with drawing-pins. A broad, flat camel-hair brush is useful for washing the tint on, care being taken to get this quite even. If the paper is needed to be used for a MS. book, both sides should be tinted, but this is hardly necessary if one side only of the paper is to be worked upon.
When using paper for large, important work it is best to stretch it before commencing to work upon it. This is done by damping it freely until it becomes quite limp. The margin is then coated with paste for about half an inch all round. It is then stuck on to the drawing-board by means of this pasted margin while the paper is still wet. Care should be taken that the pasted margin dries hard before the rest of the paper begins to dry, otherwise, when the paper starts to contract, it will come away from the board. This is obviated by re-damping the centre of the paper, so that the margin has a chance of becoming firmly attached to the board before the paper begins to pull.
The beginner is not advised to attempt to stretch vellum in this manner. It requires considerable experience to stretch vellum satisfactorily, and it is quite easy to spoil a large sheet in an unsuccessful attempt at stretching it. The best way is to fasten it to the drawing-board with plenty of drawing-pins. If the sheet of vellum is placed in a damp place for some little time before pinning it on to the drawing-board, or placed for a short time between damp blotting-paper, it will, if stretched tightly on the board with the drawing-pins while it is slightly damp, be found to be stretched quite well enough for all practical purposes when dry.
Perhaps it would be as well here to have a word to say about brushes. The best kind for the illuminator are red sables. These are made both in quills and with metal ferrules. Some prefer one kind and some the other. Two or three of the smaller sizes should be selected, with a larger one for bolder work. The student will soon find out which size is most convenient for him to use. The present writer uses a No. 1, metal ferrule, for most of his work, using a larger brush for filling in broad masses of colour and larger work. To ensure getting the best service out of brushes they should be taken care of. After using, they should be carefully washed by shaking vigorously in a jar of clean water. Brushes soon spoil if they are put away dirty. The colour gets between the hairs and prevents the brush from coming to a point. If the colour dries in the brush it is very difficult to get it quite clean afterwards. One would think it was hardly necessary to state that brushes should not be placed so that they are resting on their points, but they are often left in this way by careless people. When a brush has been used for Indian ink it will be found that washing in ordinary water will be insufficient to clean it. In this case soap and water may be used, carefully washing the soap out afterwards with clean water.
Vellum is generally pounced before working upon it. A very good pounce may be prepared by mixing equal parts, by measure, of pumice powder and french chalk. When pouncing vellum it should be spread out flat on a board covered with a sheet of clean paper. The pounce is sprinkled over it and rubbed in with the palm of the hand. Care should be taken not to pounce too long, or the vellum will be roughened and spoiled. After the vellum has been well pounced, the pounce is shaken off and the vellum carefully dusted with a soft handkerchief.
If the surface of vellum is examined very carefully it will be noticed that one side is different from the other. The side which was originally the hair side of the skin is rougher than the flesh side. The smoother side is nicer for writing upon, although, when using one side of the vellum only, it is not advisable for the beginner to use the flesh side, as it is so difficult to make an erasure on this side, without spoiling the skin. Of course, it is much better to endeavour to avoid making mistakes, but still it is almost impossible to prevent them occasionally. When it is necessary to make an erasure a very sharp knife should be employed with the least possible pressure. For erasures on the flesh side of the vellum the kind of rubber known as kneaded rubber is very useful. This erases very slowly, but at the same time very efficiently. When using a knife for erasures on vellum it is essential that it should be extremely sharp and that scarcely any pressure be put on it. It is best, however, to avoid the use of the knife on the flesh side of vellum.
A simple but effective style of illumination is shown in [Fig. 31]. This is based, to a large extent, on pen-work. The block of the initial P may be blue, with the centre red. The initial itself is of raised gold, as also are the buds and centres of the small flowers in the surrounding decoration. The fine scroll-work may be in black or brown, the decoration on the initial being white.
Fig. 31.
After the lettering is completed, the decoration should be drawn in carefully with pencil. The scroll-work may then be drawn in with the pen. The page should then be carefully cleaned with a piece of soft rubber, removing all pencil-marks that will not be covered with colour. The next step is the gilding. Various preparations are sold by different artists’ colourmen for this purpose. When buying gold-size, however, the student should see that he gets the kind specially prepared for illuminating. There are many varieties on the market, some of which are useless on vellum. For example, it would be foolish to try and gild on vellum with oil gold-size or japanners’ gold-size. Also the different kinds of water gold-size, used by decorators and picture-frame gilders, are difficult to use on vellum, as the gold is laid by flooding the surface of the size with water and then applying the leaf. The result of this is to cockle the vellum in a most unpleasant fashion.
Most dealers sell raising preparation and water gold-size. The raising preparation is generally sold in two distinct forms by different makers, one in the form of a thick paint and the other a thick jelly, which requires heating to liquefy ready for use. The former kind will be found the most satisfactory.
A small ichneumon brush may be used for applying the raising preparation. Before filling in the parts that it is desired to raise it is not a bad plan to roughen the surface of the vellum slightly in these parts. This will help to prevent the raising from scaling off when it dries.
Difficulty is often experienced through air-bubbles in the raising preparation. In drying, of course, these show as tiny holes. In this case prevention is better than cure. These bubbles are generally introduced into the preparation by means of the brush. The brush being full of air is used to stir the preparation, and the air leaves the brush in the form of bubbles, which mix with the raising preparation. The best way to use the raising preparation is to take a small quantity out of the bottle and place it in a small saucer. It should then be carefully worked up with the finger-tip with a little water until it is about the consistency of cream. It is much better to use the finger-tip to mix it up with rather than a brush. Using a brush for this purpose is a fruitful source of air-bubbles, besides spoiling the brush. Before using the brush to lay on the preparation with it should be shaken vigorously in water and squeezed out, thus displacing the air and preventing the formation of bubbles. All the parts that it is desired to gild should be given a fairly substantial coating. It should be almost dropped from the brush. It is not desirable to raise it too high, or the effect will be somewhat tawdry. The student should use the work of the mediæval artist as his guide in this direction. When this is all filled in, the work is placed in a room free from dust for the raising to dry firm and hard. The surface is then scraped carefully with a knife until it is quite smooth, all little irregularities being removed.
It is then given a coat of water gold-size, and when this appears dry on the surface it is breathed upon until it becomes tacky. The leaf is then cut to size and laid on at once, pressed down with cotton-wool and left to dry. The superfluous gold is then brushed away with a camel-hair mop. On the following day it may be burnished. If the burnisher does not work freely on the surface, its action may be facilitated by rubbing the surface of the gold with a soft cloth that has been slightly smeared with beeswax.
When using the water gold-size it is most important that this should be kept free from dust, and especially small hairs and pieces of fluff that often float about in the air. It is impossible to gild successfully if the size is full of these. After painting on the size it should not be allowed to get thoroughly dry before laying the leaf—it should only appear dry on the surface. If it is allowed to get properly dry it will be next to impossible to make it tacky by breathing upon it.
It is just possible that after the gilding has been done it will be noticed that the gold-leaf has adhered to the surface of the vellum in parts where it was not intended. Brushing the surface with the camel-hair mop is not sufficient to remove this. It, however, can generally be cleaned by means of kneaded rubber. There is no need to use any friction; if it is pressed on the parts and lifted again it will pick up the leaf from the vellum. Care should be taken, however, to avoid touching the surface of the raised gold, as it is very liable to spoil the appearance of it.
After the gilding is completed, the colouring should be proceeded with. The large masses of colour are laid in first, then the white lining on the colour, and finally the outline. If the surface of the vellum is at all inclined to be greasy it may be advisable to use a little oxgall with the colour.
The various other suggestions shown in [Fig. 31] practically explain themselves; (b) and (c) are different methods of spacing the decoration. Two more initials are shown, also the construction of the decoration and other suggestive details.
Illuminated Altar Tablet.
CHAPTER XIX
THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION
The style of decoration suggested in the previous chapter was based, to a large extent, on pen-work. The examples indicated in [Fig. 32] show a further development, in which brush-work plays a more prominent part.
A suggestion for an illuminated version of the Twenty-third Psalm is shown in (d). The decoration here may appear somewhat stiff, but it is difficult to show in black and white the effect that colour gives. This simple and somewhat severe type of decoration is, however, much easier for the beginner than the freer kind of ornament.
It is rather difficult to suggest in writing the exact colouring, as so much depends on the various shades used to form the general colour scheme. Possibly the following notes may be useful to the student as indicating roughly the colours that may be used.
Fig. 32.
The writing is in black with the capital letters in red. The background of the initial and border, viz., the parts indicated by horizontal shading, should be blue. This colour should be neither too dark nor too light, also it should not tend towards either purple or green. The student should take special note of the blues used by the mediæval artists. The large initial T should be painted in a warm shade of red, not quite so vivid as vermilion, nor yet a cool crimson. The centre of this initial and also the centres of the blossoms, with the background of the small circles formed by the stems, are of raised burnished gold, as also are the small buds in the line work. The stems should be painted in a neutral tint and may be heightened up in places with touches of clean bright colour. The leaves may be green shaded with a lighter tint of the same colour. The flowers might be a pale creamy tint with the centres shaded with orange. The scroll-work on the colour may be painted either in white or in a lighter tint of the background colour upon which it is painted. The initial T may be treated in this way, and also shaded with a darker red.
In (e) an arrangement is shown for a page with the border completely surrounding it. Some endeavour should be made to get good pattern with the masses of gold and colour. In the page suggested in (f) the decoration is formed down one side, springing from the initial P. The initial B that is shown here is in raised gold, the flowers in the centre also being in gold, as well as the berries in the pen-work springing from the letter. The background of the letter is blue and red—blue where the shading is indicated by horizontal strokes and red where vertical strokes are used.
A study of plant form is very useful to the illuminator. The decoration used by the mediæval artist was practically all based on natural forms, and some of the best advice that can be given to the modern illuminator is that he should study nature. In doing this the student should remember that the object is primarily decoration and not representation. He should not degrade this art into a mere realistic rendering of sprays of flowers, insects, etc., but rather aim at producing decoration as the direct result of his study of nature. As an example, some of the ivy-leaf decoration that was so much used during the fourteenth century is shown here. The importance of study from nature cannot be emphasized too strongly. Drawing from plant-form is one of the best exercises the illuminator can have. Possibly a few hints on this important study will be of service to the student.
In the first place, when drawing a plant, or indeed any natural object, one should be careful to avoid drawing it like drawing a map, i.e., without realising that it is form. If this is persisted in, the result will be that the drawing will be lacking in vitality, besides being not nearly so intelligible. If the endeavour be made to keep constantly before the mind the fact that it is form that one is drawing, and everything is carefully reasoned out before attempting to draw it, the finished drawing will not only have far more life in it, but it will also be much easier to understand.
One should also strive to draw with feeling; there is a great difference between a living plant and an artificial reproduction of it. The drawings of plants and flowers made by some students remind one of paper flowers and foliage, as they are drawn in such a hard and severe manner. A natural leaf is a thing of beauty, there is nothing rigid or stiff about it, but one that is cut out of paper is dead and unyielding in every respect and is absolutely devoid of all feeling. One should get all the life and feeling possible into one’s drawing, and this comes from plenty of practice in careful and thoughtful drawing from nature.
When making plant studies for one’s own use in design there is no need to limit oneself by making outline drawings in pen and ink, as when they are intended to be reproduced by means of line-blocks. The aim of the artist should be to make the drawing as much as possible like the original. It is not advisable to go in for sketchy effects; everything should be made perfectly intelligible so that it is possible to understand every detail of the drawing.
Of course, some parts of the plant should be painted in colours, so as to form a record of the actual colours, but for general drawing a soft black-lead pencil, such as a 3 or 4B, is very useful. One should be careful to observe all the details, such as the way the branches attach themselves to the main stem, also the manner in which the leaves and flowers arrange themselves. The feeling of unity which runs throughout the whole of the plant should be carefully noted, how there is a distinct relationship between every leaf and bud with the main stem.
There is no need to confine one’s nature study to actual plant-drawing. If one’s powers of perception are trained to observe, there is a great deal to be learned from a walk in the country. Attention should be given to the pattern that abounds everywhere in nature; flowery banks and hedgerows are rich in suggestion. The meadow spangled with buttercups and daisies is a delightful example. A field of barley when it is just beginning to change colour offers a wealth of possibilities both in pattern and colour. Then take trees, their different structure and foliage. No two species of trees are exactly alike in the arrangement of foliage, etc. One should not, however, give too much attention to detail to the neglect of considering things as a whole. For example, a tree as a whole should be noted, attention being given to the way in which the trunk springs from the ground and the general massing of the branches and foliage.
The use of a sketch-book for noting things down is very useful, but too much reliance should not be placed on this. If one’s powers of perception are trained to observe, the memory will be stored with an abundance of suggestions and ideas from the study of nature that has been going on almost unconsciously day by day.
Fig. 33.
As well as nature study, the student should also make careful study of some of the best illuminated work of the mediæval period, especially on the lines indicated in the chapter on the Initial Letter. The use of a note-book will prove to be very serviceable for this purpose. Quick sketches of the arrangement of the pages, as suggested in [Fig. 33], should help the student very much in arranging the decoration of the page. Of course, the drawing of details is also useful, as by carefully copying some of the initials and decoration he is able to gain some experience of the mediæval artists’ methods of working.
A Roll of Honour.
By kind permission of
Miss Harrison, of
Little Waltham Hall.
Possibly it may be as well to say a few words about miniature painting in connection with illumination. As has often been explained, the term “miniature” when used with reference to illuminated MSS. must not be confounded with the modern idea of miniature painting, i.e., painting on a small scale in a minute fashion, as the word “miniature” is derived from the Latin word minium, the red pigment used in the decoration of MSS., therefore the original meaning is writing or painting with minium. There is also no reason at all why miniatures, when painted on vellum and used in conjunction with illumination, should be stippled and worked up in the minute fashion that is usual with the ordinary miniatures on ivory.
It is not advisable to paint these in a similar way to the ordinary water-colour painting. It is very difficult to paint on vellum in this way. Undoubtedly the best way is to paint fairly direct, using body colour. The miniatures should be nicely finished without any excessive laboured finish produced by stippling or other similar methods.
A miniature should always be treated as part of the decoration, and not as a picture added to it. If the student examines carefully the best work of the mediæval period he will notice that it is practically impossible to separate the miniature from the rest of the decoration. A strong feeling of unity runs throughout the whole. The greater part of modern work, however, differs in this respect. The miniature is often quite good, so also is the decoration, but they are independent of each other. It would be quite possible to replace the miniature by another totally different. The ideal that he should endeavour to attain to is to make the miniature with the rest of the decoration form one harmonious whole.
Although the miniature should be essentially decorative, there is no need to make it too rigid and conventional. A fair amount of sketching from nature will go a good way towards preventing this. It is not a bad plan for the student to practise making small quick sketches in oils from nature, treating the subject broadly and going for colour. This will help him very much in painting his miniatures in a direct fashion, and, if this is combined with plenty of careful drawing, it should enable him to develop his style of decoration considerably.
With regard to the decoration as a whole, it has often been said that it is impossible to teach one how to design, but that it is possible to direct one in the right way; and there is no better method than that suggested above, viz., a study of nature combined with good examples of work that has been done in the past.
Illuminated Altar Tablet.
When designing, it is a great mistake to strive after originality. The way to be original is to be natural and do the work in the best way that one is able. If the artist does this he is certain to be original, as he cannot help himself. If he strives after originality the work produced will be of an unhealthy type, and will show signs of affectation which will be anything but pleasant.
Imitating someone else is equally foolish, as an imitation can never be equal to the real thing. Art is worth nothing unless it springs spontaneously from the joy of working, without any concentration on its æsthetic aspects. Therefore the thing for the modern illuminator to do is not to imitate either ancient or modern artists, but simply seek to do his best, giving the best workmanship that he is capable of. There are untold possibilities in the future for the development of schools of illumination as great as any of those that have existed in the past.
There are quite a number of different ways in which illumination might be used in the present day. Perhaps it might be useful to suggest a few of these.
The Illuminated Address and the Illuminated MS. Book are so important that separate chapters have been devoted to these.
One of the most important things that illumination can be used for is for the service of the Church.
Altar tablets offer plenty of scope for the modern illuminator. They should, of course, be on vellum and be framed quite simply.
Service Books, such as the Communion Service, also provide another application for illumination. Books should be written in sections. (See [Chapter 25] on the Illuminated MS. Book.) A Service Book may either be fairly elaborate or may be written simply in black and red. It is as well to use red for the Rubrics, so as to make a distinction between these and the rest of the text.
The Marriage Service is another thing that may well be written out in good script and illuminated. This should have the size of the pages on the small side, as in this case it would be for the use of a private person and not for the clergy.
Texts for churches, the Creed, Commandments, etc., are also subjects suitable for illumination. These should be bold and distinct.
Permanent Notices in churches and other buildings would be much more attractive if, instead of the usual printed form being used, they were executed with beautiful lettering, preferably with a reed pen, and possibly illuminated. These should, however, not be overburdened with decoration, as it is necessary that they should be as distinct as possible. Black and burnished gold makes a very effective combination.
Another use to which illumination might be utilised is Family Trees and Pedigrees. These are likely to give plenty of opportunities for the illuminator, as good decoration may easily be formed with coats of arms and other symbols.
Many other things will probably suggest themselves to the artist as subjects suitable for illumination.
A Church Porch Text.
CHAPTER XX
THE ILLUMINATED ADDRESS
The illuminated address is the form which most modern illumination takes. The greater number of these cannot, even by the widest stretch of imagination, be called works of art. Not only are they generally executed with vivid and crude colour schemes, but also the style of decoration is usually extremely bad. Some of the letters are painfully contorted. Others are represented as if they were solid blocks throwing shadows, and are drawn in false perspective. Meaningless flourishes abound. Occasionally a little bit of decoration, that has been copied from some mediæval work, is introduced. This, however, is mixed up with a lot of straggling ornament which it is impossible to conceive as having been produced by any artist of the Middle Ages.
One can quite understand how this is so when one considers how so much of the work is done. Illuminated addresses are often executed by people who have had practically no training at all. One can scarcely complain if they are in bad taste when such is the case. If one has had a good grounding by studying the work of the ancient illuminators it is practically impossible to produce this type of work. Therefore, before attempting to work in a modern style, the student should make a careful study of the work of the mediæval period.
When one receives an enquiry regarding an illuminated address, a definite understanding is necessary as to the form which the address is to take. Those generally employed are the Framed Address, the Book form, and the Vellum Scroll. (See [Fig. 34], a, b, c.)
Fig. 34.
One should be able and willing to give advice and help in the matter of wording. It is advisable to guard against the usual foolish and somewhat bombastic manner of wording testimonials. The first or third person is generally employed, but it would be much better if it took the form of an ordinary letter expressing appreciation and good wishes. Whichever form is employed, care should be taken that these are not confused in any way.
It is a good plan to make, first of all, a careful copy of the wording, and get it checked with the original before commencing to work. This will prevent mistakes being made. Then the artist should find out if any coats of arms, etc., are needed to be introduced into the decoration. The approximate size is then decided, and the whole is roughed out in pencil on detail paper to find the exact spacing of the lettering and decoration.
The form that the address should take depends on the matter to be introduced. If, for example, 500 names are required to be appended, a framed testimonial is clearly out of the question. For the same reason one in the form of a scroll is useless. The only practical method is to do it in book form.
When executing an address in this manner, the best way is to write it in sections composed of two folded sheets. After the work is completed, the whole is carefully bound by an experienced binder. Another method is to write it in a blank album, but, if this is done, care should be taken that the paper is of good quality and suitable for writing and illuminating. The paper of which these albums are generally made is unfortunately rather poor in quality.
If the scroll form is employed, it is best that large masses of raised gold should not be used in the decoration, owing to the likelihood of this cracking when the vellum is rolled. When completed, the scroll is generally enclosed in a cylindrical case or a metal casket. Of course, the latter, if made by a good craftsman, is much to be preferred.
For a framed testimonial the best kind of frame is undoubtedly a black one, as this serves well to show up the brilliance of the gold and colours. It is also a good plan to frame it with a cut mount, so that the vellum does not touch the glass.
A word of warning is possibly needed here. When having illuminated work on vellum framed, it is most important that the frame-maker should not be allowed to mount it. If he does this he is almost certain to spoil the work, as, when the back of the vellum is damped, the moisture soaks through and softens the raising preparation, thus spoiling the raised gold work; also the chances are that the vellum will be spoiled at the same time. It is very annoying, after spending a considerable time on the work, to find it completely ruined by an unsuccessful attempt to mount it.
If a list of names is wanted at the end of an address it should be ascertained if signatures are needed or a carefully-written list of names. If signatures are required, it is best to get these before completing the decoration. Lines should be ruled faintly with a sharply-pointed H.B. pencil to act as a guide for the various writers. The signatures should all be written under the artist’s personal supervision. It is a great mistake to allow the work to leave one’s hands before it is properly finished. If it is carried here and there by various people it is very liable to become soiled, to say nothing of mistakes made and signatures written in ink of various shades. A good fluid Indian ink, the same as that which the lettering is written with, should be provided. A number of pens of different styles should be to hand, with paper for the subscribers to try the pens on before signing the actual address.
Signatures certainly have a more sentimental value than a mere list of names. A neatly-written list of names, however, looks much better and is more in keeping with the decoration. It is best to place the names in alphabetical order.
If the names are to be put in by the artist, he should first of all, as mentioned before in the case of the wording, make a copy of these and get it carefully checked before writing them in.
It is very usual to include coats-of-arms in the decoration. When this is done, great care should be taken that these are blazoned in the correct colours, and also that they are properly drawn. A good handbook on Heraldry should be consulted. The illuminator should have, at any rate, an elementary knowledge of this subject, as he is so often called upon to make use of it.
After he has carefully ascertained by means of the rough drawing the measurements and spacing, he should start work straight away on the vellum. It is not necessary to go into details as to how to set about this. Explanations have already been given, in a previous chapter, concerning how to set out an illuminated page.
In the case of a beginner who has not sufficient confidence in himself to work direct on the vellum, the first drawing may be made on a sheet of tracing paper. If this is pinned over a piece of white paper it is quite easy to work upon. When the drawing is completed, the tracing paper should be reversed, and the whole of the decoration should be traced on the back of it with a finely-pointed H.B. pencil. This is referring to the decoration only. The lettering should in any case be written straightway on to the vellum, after the necessary measurements and calculations have been made.
After the whole of the decoration has been traced through the tracing paper should be carefully placed in position on the vellum. It should be fastened with drawing-pins down one side. The traced decoration can then be easily transferred to the vellum by rubbing the back of the tracing paper with a burnisher or paper-knife. Care should be taken that the paper does not shift about during this process. It should be held firmly, lifting it up occasionally to see if a clear impression is being made.
It is just possible that the illuminator may be asked to submit a rough sketch. He should bear in mind that the object of this is to give some idea of the finished work. This should be executed in a bold fashion on cartridge paper with a soft pencil. A few words may be written in the script that he intends to use, and it is as well to finish a small portion of the decoration in colours. This should enable his client to understand something of what the finished work will be.
A simple but very effective form of address is that having a coat-of-arms at the top, with the matter in plain lettering with a fine initial, as indicated in (d). A still simpler form might consist of a nice piece of lettering with a plain initial either in raised gold or vermilion, omitting the coat-of-arms at the top.
CHAPTER XXI
THE VARIOUS METHODS OF REPRODUCTION
It is essential that the artist who does work for reproduction should have some knowledge of the different methods employed. A lack of knowledge in this respect is responsible for a large number of drawings made which are quite unsuitable for the purpose. It is not necessary that the student should be able to reproduce his own work by the various methods used, but he should be familiar, in a slight degree, with the processes used.
For black-and-white work, the two processes largely used by publishers in magazines, etc., are known as Line Process and Half-Tone. The former is used for the reproduction of pen-drawings, and the latter for tone drawings.
The line process is the most useful for the class of work that the illuminator is likely to do. In this case the method of procedure is briefly as follows: The drawing is made with good black ink on white paper. It is then photographed. A piece of polished zinc is given a thin film of fish-glue in which some bichromate of potash has been dissolved. The effect of the bichromate is to make the fish-glue insoluble when it has been exposed to the light. The zinc plate is dried rapidly in a subdued light, and is then exposed behind the negative. The light, penetrating through the clear parts of the negative, renders these insoluble. The zinc is then given a thin coating of soft, greasy ink with a roller. It is then placed in a dish of water to develop. The effect of the water is to dissolve the fish-glue that has been protected, and is therefore still soluble. This leaves the design on the surface of the zinc in ink. While the ink is still tacky, it is dusted over with resin. This is fused over a stove, and the background of the zinc is etched away in an acid bath, leaving the design standing in relief.
This is, briefly, an outline of the process of making a line block. Of course, it must be understood that many details are omitted in this description. These, however, although most important to the block-maker, are not necessarily essential to the artist. The chief thing that he should be careful to ensure is that his drawings should be executed with an absolutely black line on white paper. By this means he will have done his part to help the block-maker to obtain a clear negative, which is unquestionably vital to the production of a successful process block. Drawings executed with a weak, washy kind of ink on yellow-toned paper do not give the block-maker a chance. The thing, then, for the artist to remember is to see that his drawing consists of firm black lines on a white surface, with no half-tones, unless these are produced by means of lines.
For drawings executed in tone, the other method, known as the half-tone process, is used. In this case the drawing is photographed with a glass screen in front of the negative. This screen is ruled with fine lines in such a manner that the tints of the original are broken up into dots. The print is obtained on the metal, and the block is made in a somewhat similar manner to that of a line block. In etching, the metal is bitten away round the edges of the various dots more or less, according to the strength of these. This gives a similar effect of light and shade to the original. An examination, with a magnifying-glass, of any reproduction of a photograph or tone-drawing in any of the magazines of the present day will show this quite plainly.
When working for this process, drawings should be rather more vigorous than are required in the finished production. The reason for this is that the photograph generally softens down everything, so it is as well to forestall this by making the original stronger.
It is also important that the half-tones in the drawing should not tend towards being a bluish grey, as blue does not photograph well. The result of a reproduction from a drawing of this kind would be that the half-tones would be much weaker than in the original.
In colour reproduction, a method largely used is that known as the three-colour process. This is a development of the half-tone process. In this case, however, the drawing is photographed three times in succession on different plates. In each case a colour filter is placed in front of the lens, which allows only the red, yellow, or blue rays to pass through. By this means the three negatives obtained are records of the red, yellow, and blue used in the drawing. Three blocks are made, and are printed in red, yellow, and blue ink respectively, superimposed over each other. This, if carefully done, gives a fairly faithful reproduction of the original. Sometimes an extra block is used, and in the case of the reproduction of illuminated work, a special block is used to print the gold. It can easily be understood why this is necessary, as, when printed from the three blocks only, this comes out as a colour in the printing.
When working for this form of reproduction there is no need to limit oneself in the number of colours used. Work that has been executed with about twenty different colours can be reproduced as easily as that in which only four or five colours are used.
As in half-tone, the work should be stronger and more vigorous than is needed in the finished reproduction. The colours also should be bright and clear, and the modelling should be strongly accentuated, as this process has a tendency towards flattening everything. If the original appears flat and washed-out in treatment, it will certainly look much worse when reproduced.
Another process, largely used for commercial work, is lithography. This is quite different from any of the previously mentioned processes. In all these the blocks are in relief, and are printed in a typographic press. For the general form of lithography, a species of limestone is used. This process depends on the absorption of grease by this stone, and on the mutual antipathy of grease and water. The design is drawn on the surface of the stone with a greasy ink. The grease is absorbed by the stone. The stone is then damped all over; the greasy ink of the design repels the water, but where there is no design the surface of the stone becomes wet. An ink-roller is then passed over the stone while it is still damp. As this printing ink is of a greasy nature, it will leave the roller only for the lines of the design, which remain quite dry. The moist surface of the stone repels the ink. After the stone has been inked up, a print is obtained in a lithographic press.
For general work the surface of the stone is highly polished, but for the reproduction of chalk drawings and for shading purposes it is given a grain.
Zinc and aluminium plates are often used as substitutes for stone. These, although not as good as stone, have the advantages of being cheaper and more portable.
Colour printing by this process is known as chromo-lithography. A separate stone is used to print each colour. A careful tracing is first made of the outline of the drawing, and this is transferred to the surface of the stone. This forms the key-stone from which the other colour stones are prepared. When it is desired to print gold, the stone is rolled up with a very sticky kind of ink. A print is obtained in this medium, and while this is still tacky it is dusted over with powdered bronze, which adheres to the print and gives the effect of gilding to some extent. For very special work real gold is occasionally employed instead of bronze powder.
It can easily be understood that the larger number of colours used, the more costly this process is. Students often wonder why designs are sometimes not accepted by firms who use this process. Very often one of the most important reasons is that too many colours are employed. If a design is shown that can be produced with a striking effect with two or three printings only, it will certainly be considered before one requiring ten or twelve.
Lithography is used for the greater bulk of commercial work, such as posters, labels, Christmas cards, etc.
The great thing to remember when doing work for reproduction by chromo-lithography is to get a good effect with as few colours as possible. There is no need in this case to make the drawing more vigorous than is required, as the lithographer will endeavour to get exactly the same effect as in the original.
The student who is ignorant as to the different methods of reproduction employed should at any rate, after paying a little attention to the descriptions given, avoid making designs that are almost impossible to reproduce satisfactorily. The object of this chapter is not to teach the student how to reproduce his drawings by means of the processes described. The only reasons for dealing with the subject are to enable him to produce workable designs, and at the same time to give him an added interest in his work by an elementary knowledge of the methods of reproduction.
Designs for Christmas Cards.
By kind permission of
Messrs. Raphael Tuck & Sons, Ltd.
CHAPTER XXII
CHRISTMAS CARDS
In the application of illumination for purposes of reproduction, designing for Christmas cards occupies a prominent place. Although these are not all necessarily of the illuminated type, a great number are of this kind. All varieties have lettering as an important part of the design. There is plenty of scope for the illuminator in this direction. If he can produce effective designs that can be easily printed, and are likely to be saleable when reproduced, publishers of Christmas cards will always be pleased to see his work.
When designing, there is no necessity for using permanent colours, as the original is seldom kept after it has been printed. The same thing applies to the use of gold-leaf for gilding. This can be done with bronze powder. Gold paint can be readily made by mixing the powdered bronze to a stiff paste with gum-water, then thinning it out with water so that it flows freely from the brush. Care should be taken to get the right amount of gum in it, as if there is too much it will present a shiny appearance and will turn black quickly. If, on the other hand, there is not enough to bind the particles of bronze together, it will rub off when touched. The best way is to test before proceeding with the work, by painting on a small piece of paper and noting the effect when dry.
When it is desired to produce raised gold, this also can be done with bronze powder. For this purpose some raising preparation, of the kind sold in the form of a thick paint, should be used. A little should be placed in a small saucer, and a drop of honey added to it with some water. It should then be carefully rubbed up with the finger until it is about the same consistency as cream. Care should be taken not to add too much honey, otherwise the raising will not dry at all, but will remain a sticky mass.
The parts that are intended to be raised should be filled in with this, in the same manner as described for leaf-gilding in a previous chapter. After this has become dry on the surface, it should be breathed upon until it becomes tacky. The bronze powder is then dusted over it with a small piece of cotton-wool. After leaving for a little while, the superfluous bronze is dusted off with a clean piece of cotton-wool. Any parts where the bronze powder has not attached itself can generally be covered by again breathing upon the surface and applying the bronze. No attempt should be made to burnish gilding done in this way.
Christmas cards are nearly always produced by means of chromo-lithography, as described in the previous chapter. Occasionally they are produced by means of line and three-colour blocks, but, generally speaking, chromo-lithography is the process employed.
Cover.
First page.
A Christmas Card.
By kind permission of
Messrs. Raphael Tuck & Sons, Ltd.
When about to make a design, the student should endeavour to visualise the completed design before commencing work. If he cultivates this habit he will find it much better than worrying a design into existence—a method very often employed.
It is a good plan, when setting out to design, to ask oneself a series of questions: “How is it to be reproduced?” “What style of design is needed?” “What is the general taste of the buyers of this kind of thing?” etc. If one asks oneself a number of similar questions to these, it should, at any rate, be the means of ensuring that the design is suited to its purpose.
A very common fault in designing Christmas cards is making them too heavy in treatment. It is essential that the finish should be light and dainty.
Designs may be either for the complete card or merely for the outside cover. Several suggestions are shown in [Fig. 35]. Of course, it will be understood that these are only rough sketches. They do not pretend to be designs.
The one represented by (a) is for the general type of illuminated design. This is for the outside cover only: a short greeting with an illuminated initial and decoration. When selecting words for this purpose, one should be careful to choose something not too trite. On the other hand, it is as well to avoid using some copyright quotation.
The designer must be up-to-date: he must not expect to sell his designs if he gets his ideas from Christmas cards that were published twenty years ago.
There are no special sizes to work to, as cards of all shapes and sizes are produced. It is best, however, not to get them too large.
The style of card indicated in (b) is a very usual kind. The centre is left blank for a small picture, or a monogram, to be inserted.
If the artist is able to paint little landscapes or girls’ heads, he could insert them himself as shown in (c). He should, however, avoid getting these heavy or crude in colour.
Fig. 35.
The designer will always find that he is much more likely to sell his designs if they represent new ideas. The publisher is always on the look-out for something new.
For example, the idea might be a small booklet containing a brief anthology on “Happiness,” or some other like subject.
If a small booklet is designed, it is as well to remember that all the pages should not be fully illuminated. The cover and the opening page might be illuminated in gold and colours, while the rest might be in black and red only. If the booklet was executed with all its pages fully illuminated it would probably be rejected on the score of expense of reproduction. It is little things like this which, if taken into consideration, would prevent a good number of the disappointing refusals that are so often received.
Fig. 36.
A very attractive form of card is shown in (d). This has a cover design, a greeting with a space for name, and a quotation. When a card of this type is designed it should be arranged as shown in [Fig. 36]. By this means the card, when opened out, has the design all on the same side of the paper, and is much more convenient. Some may be made upright and others oblong in shape, as in [Fig. 36].
The prices paid for Christmas card designs may be anything from 10s. 6d. to £3 3s. Of course, higher prices than these are often paid for good work, when there is a demand for the work of the designer. A good average price for a design, however, is £1 1s.
It is a mistake to mark designs at a low figure, with the idea that the publisher will be more likely to take them. This is quite a wrong impression, as, if the publisher wants the designs, he will not be slow to make an offer if the price is too high; while, on the other hand, if they are not suitable for his purpose, he would not take them as a gift.
When sending designs, it is as well not to write long letters of explanation. Letters should be as brief and pointed as possible.
Apart from designing for publishers, the illuminator ought to be able to produce a series of hand-written Christmas cards. There ought to be a demand for cards well written in fine script on nice hand-made paper. A little simple decoration might be added in colour, and the modern illuminator ought to be able to produce these quite quickly, and therefore cheaply.
Designs for Programme and Progressive Whist Card.
Invitation cards for select parties are amongst numerous other things that suggest themselves for production in this manner. Of course, for large gatherings, where a good number of invitations are sent out, writing them by hand is out of the question. But when this is the case, one copy could be nicely written in black and a zinc line block made from this. The edition could then be printed off. An invitation card written in well-formed lettering would make a pleasant change from the usual type of card.
Possibly a number of other opportunities will suggest themselves where fine pen-formed lettering might be substituted in place of the ordinary style of thing.
CHAPTER XXIII
LETTERING FOR COMMERCIAL PURPOSES
An Attractive Advertisement.
By kind permission of
Messrs. Benn Bros, Ltd.
The ability to produce good lettering is of the utmost importance to the artist employed in commercial work. The list of things that require lettering seems almost endless. To mention just a few, there are posters, catalogue covers, showcards, labels, boxes, packages, displayed advertisements, calendars, title-pages, book covers, magazine covers, letter headings, maps, diagrams, etc. This list might be extended considerably and yet not include all the many things for which lettering is absolutely necessary.
Design for Booklet Cover.
By kind permission
of the House of Vanheems
and Messrs. Clarke
& Sherwell, Ltd.
In fact, when one begins to consider the number of things that require lettering of some description, one begins to realise how essential it is that the artist should be able to produce good and well-spaced lettering.
As mentioned before in an earlier chapter, there is nothing like having plenty of practice with the reed and quill pen to help the student towards ability to mass and arrange lettering in the best possible way. The difference between the lettering done by one who has had plenty of practice with the reed or quill, and one who has had no experience in this direction, is most noticeable. The one is able to design with words, while the other is concerned only with the shapes of the letters. To be able to produce well-arranged lettering it is necessary to be able to design with words, and familiarity with the reed or quill gives this facility better than any other training. No matter how the letters are formed afterwards, the experience gained in massing letters together in this way to form words will be found to be of great service.
The arrangement of letters to form words is of the utmost importance; in fact it might be said to be as essential a factor as the formation of the individual letters.
A well-arranged inscription often adds greatly to the finish of a drawing, and with the latter it often happens that it is incomplete without a heading or title of some description. But this, if badly done, may completely spoil the appearance of the drawing.
A Handbook Cover.
Maps and diagrams require a simple form of lettering that is distinct and at the same time can be written in a fairly quick manner. The style of Roman lettering, formed with simple pen-strokes, shown in a previous chapter, might be used for this purpose; or the simple pen-formed italics might be used. For writing these a sharply-cut quill pen is required.
Fig. 37.
In [Fig. 37] an alphabet is shown which is formed with all strokes of equal thickness. This is a very useful kind of lettering for illustrations, maps, and diagrams. It has one distinct advantage: that is, it can be written with the same pen that the drawing is made with. If this style of lettering is used, however, it is as well to make sure that all the strokes are of equal thickness. It should not look like quill-pen writing badly done. This type of lettering may be upright or slanting. Until the student is quite familiar with this lettering two lines may be used. The writing should be done very carefully and the words should be well spaced. This kind of lettering should be used only for names on maps, notes on diagrams, or references under illustrations. When a title is needed for an illustration, or a heading is required, carefully-drawn Roman lettering should be used. Each letter should be exact in finish, and at the same time there should be good arrangement.
For poster work it is essential that the lettering should be bold and decisive. For hand-written posters, that need to be produced quickly, the Roman alphabet, formed with simple pen-strokes, given in a previous chapter, will be found useful. A large reed pen should be used for this purpose. By using red and black inks very effective hand-written notices may be produced. If the poster is to be displayed out-of-doors, waterproof inks only should be used for writing it with. However, this will be dealt with in the next chapter.
A Design for a Certificate.
BY SIDNEY FARNSWORTH.
By kind permission of the
National Institute for the Blind,
and the Byron Studios.
For lettering on a poster that is to be reproduced, a good strong Roman type of lettering is the best. The type shown in [Fig. 38] is a very suitable kind. It must be strong, bold, and well displayed. The principal words must show up strongly defined. For this, and, indeed, all kinds of commercial design, the lettering must be firm and exact to a nicety. The looseness that is suited to illumination will not do for this kind of work. The little accidental turns and twists, which are one of the charms of illuminated work, would be entirely out of place in commercial work, which must be firm and strong in every detail. Penscript is not used to any large extent. The greater part of the lettering used in commercial design is carefully drawn in an extremely accurate manner.
Fig. 38.
When lettering a poster, some endeavour should be made to get a certain amount of display in the lettering. For example, if the object is to advertise “Brown’s Tea,” or “Smith’s Cocoa,” great prominence must be given to these words. The lettering should be so arranged that it is practically impossible to avoid seeing the name of the commodity that is being advertised.
Two Designs for Labels.
Another important thing when lettering advertisements is to see that each letter is quite distinct. For example, C must not be mistaken for a G, and vice versâ.
For good arrangement in lettering the mistake should not be made of taking type as a model, as, owing to each type letter being in the form of a block, it is impossible to space it with the same facility that is possible with writing. Note the examples given in [Fig. 22].
A Design for a Letter Heading.
One or two further hints may be useful. It is never advisable to put two upright strokes too closely together. Also in the case of round letters, such as O, C, G, etc., these should project slightly over the line, otherwise they will appear smaller than the other letters. This should, however, be very slight, as it is easy to overdo this kind of thing.
When lettering a diagram, if possible keep all the lettering the same way, so that there is no need to turn the page round to read it. This is, of course, not always possible, but if it is at all practicable it is quite the best thing to do.
It is never wise to jumble a number of different styles of lettering together in one inscription, as is sometimes done. The practice of this kind of thing tends to make the lettering less readable, besides making it look somewhat freakish. Sometimes the use of two styles of lettering together, such as an upright form of Roman lettering and an italic, helps to emphasize certain words; but when a variety of different forms is used the only result is to make the lettering look confused.
For the greater part of commercial work a form of Roman lettering is used. The student who intends to practise this kind of work should study some of the best modern work. He will have no difficulty in getting plenty of examples.
When designing a cover for a magazine, one of the first things to be taken into consideration is how to make it stand out in a striking manner so that it will be noticed on the bookstall.
A Design for a Music-cover.
Designs for magazine covers may be roughly divided into two classes, viz., those which occupy the whole of the cover, and those where the design is in the form of a heading. In any case, however, it is best that the title should be prominently arranged at the top of the cover, so that it can readily be seen when the magazine is placed on the bookstall, and is generally in that position partly covered through other magazines and books overlapping it. The great thing to remember is that the object of each design for a magazine cover should be to make it stand out distinct from all the other magazines on the stall, so that it can be recognised in an instant.
A Design for a Bookplate.
One important piece of advice in this kind of work is to avoid making the lettering look freakish by forming some of the letters quite tiny and others excessively large in the same word. This is one of the most prominent signs of the amateur.
CHAPTER XXIV
HAND-WRITTEN POSTERS, ETC.
It is very useful at times to be able to produce quickly a hand-written poster. It is not always desirable to have printed ones, especially when one or two copies are all that are required, and a hand-written poster can be very effective even if it is produced hurriedly. It is, however, very essential that these should be written as quickly as possible, as the price that the writer would have to charge for a poster that he had spent a whole day in writing would make it quite prohibitive. Therefore speed of production is an important factor that must be considered in connection with the hand-written poster.
It is well to remember that a poster must attract attention. Unless there is something arresting about it, comparatively few people will stop and read it, however well it may be written. Of course all posters do not depend upon the lettering alone to attract, but in any case the lettering should be distinct and prominent. However, the type of poster described here is composed of lettering alone, and so depends entirely on the display of this to catch the eye.
An Attractive Piece of Lettering.
By kind permission of
Messrs. Marshall & Snelgrove, Ltd.
A poster that is written comparatively badly may attract attention much more than one that is written well but without any display, because the badly-written poster may have something striking about it that compels attention. The thing to aim at is to make the poster prominent without annoying people by offending their artistic susceptibilities.
Fig. 39.
The following is a good method of quickly writing a poster. A sheet of paper is ruled, in the manner shown in [Fig. 39], with a soft black-lead pencil. The lines should be ruled lightly and fairly closely together. If the poster is to be written on thin paper, it is not a bad plan to rule these lines boldly in ink on another sheet, so that if this is placed under the paper upon which the poster is to be written these lines will show through quite plainly enough to act as a guide to the writer. It is a good practice to have a number of sheets of various sizes ruled out, so that when a poster is required of a given size one of these can be utilised and the poster written quickly.
The lettering may be roughly sketched in either with a soft black-lead pencil or a piece of charcoal. It may then be written straight away with the pen or brush. When the lettering is quite dry the pencil-marks may be cleaned off with bread or soft rubber, or if charcoal has been used this may be dusted off quite easily; the poster is then complete.
As is plainly obvious, the poster shown in [Fig. 40] is produced by means of the pen. The best type of pen for poster-writing is undoubtedly the reed pen, especially if the writing is needed to be fairly large. When this form of pen is used it is advisable to cut it with a fairly long slit; this will ensure the pen working much easier.
When writing with black and red inks, one pen should be kept for black and the other for red. If this is not done, the pen should be carefully washed after it has been used for black ink before using red ink, otherwise the black left in the pen will mix with the red and make the colour dirty. Undoubtedly the best way is, as already mentioned, to use a separate pen for each colour.
Fig. 40.
As most posters have to be exposed to the weather it is well to use only fixed inks. Fixed inks are generally prepared by being mixed with shellac which is dissolved in a solution of borax. Ordinary water-colours may, however, be made waterproof quite easily by the following method. A saturated solution is made of some bichromate of potash, and a few drops of this solution are added to the colour just before using it. As this chemical makes a bright orange solution it will alter some colours slightly, but for blacks and reds it will not be noticeable. This chemical has the property of making glue, size, or gum insoluble when it is mixed with them, after exposure to the light, and, as water-colours are mixed with gum, it has the same effect in this case. If, therefore, the poster be exposed to the light of the sun for a short period after it has been written, the colour quickly becomes insoluble and therefore waterproof. The best way is to mix as much colour as will be required in a small saucer, adding the bichromate solution. It is quite easy to understand that if any of this colour dries in the saucer it will have to be thrown away, as the light quickly affects it when dry and it will be quite useless owing to its insolubility. Possibly it will be noticed that a yellow stain will show on the back of the poster when the bichromate has penetrated. As, however, in this case one side only of the paper is used, this will not matter in the least.
Larger posters may be written with the brush (see [Fig. 41]), or partly with the pen and partly with the brush. A brush that is very suitable for quick writing is a Japanese brush like the one illustrated in [Fig. 41]. This can be used almost in the same manner as the pen, and it is possible to write very quickly with it.
Fig. 41.
Design for a Menu.
By kind permission
of Messrs. Marshall
& Snelgrove, Ltd.
For very careful writing the best brush is the kind known as a sable writer. This is a sable brush with rather long hair. Practice is necessary before the student becomes expert in the use of it, but it will be found that the long sweeping curves of the round letters, as also the straight strokes of the other letters, may be formed much more easily with this type of brush than with the ordinary kind used for painting.
Writers are generally in quills, so perhaps a word may be useful here with regard to the method of fixing a quill brush on a handle. It is not wise to take the quill as it comes from the shop and push it on to a stick. The quill is very liable to split if pushed on too tightly, while, on the other hand, if it is not fixed securely it will drop off, probably whilst doing some important work, and will almost certainly spoil it if it falls off when well charged with colour. The proper way to fix a quill brush is, first of all, to soak the brush well until the quill becomes quite soft. The stick is then carefully tapered with a sharp knife until it exactly fits the quill. Then, while the quill is still soft, it is carefully fitted on to the stick. The result of this method is that when the quill gets dry and hard it will be found to be fitted quite tightly on to the stick, and will certainly not fall off; while, at the same time, there is no danger of splitting the quill.
When writing posters in black and red, the red should be used to give emphasis to words that are important. For example, in the specimen shown, the word “CONCERT” may be in red; also the place, date, and time may well be written in this colour to make them more conspicuous. A simple border may be added composed of some slight decoration formed with direct brush strokes if so desired. This may be either in one or two colours.
Fig. 42.
Large notices that are required to be lasting may be written on canvas, using oil-colours.
Some examples of window-tickets are shown in [Fig. 42]. These may be written with the quill pen. The use of black and red is very effective for these, but any colours may be used. It might be a good idea to write a quantity of tickets according to a special colour scheme for a particular window display. This, however, could best be done by working in conjunction with the one who is responsible for dressing the window. Some tickets might be written in white on a dark background. It will be found that, for use in the pen, colours that have been mixed with gum and water without any addition of honey or glycerine will flow much better than ordinary water-colours. When these are used they tend to clog the pen. There is no necessity in this case to fix the colours as they will not be exposed to the weather, so therefore will not need to be waterproof.
Fig. 43.
If the student has become familiar with the use of the quill pen he should be able to write these fairly quickly and therefore cheaply. The use of simple decoration formed with the same pen that the lettering has been done with may be employed, but this should not be overdone.
In [Fig. 43] an example is given of a show-card that has been written with the pen in a simple, straightforward fashion. A simple border has been added which may be quickly and easily formed with the pen or brush. For writing small show-cards the quill pen may be used, but for larger ones the reed pen will be more serviceable.
CHAPTER XXV
THE ILLUMINATED MS. BOOK
In the Middle Ages the illuminated MS. book occupied a very prominent position. The printing-press was not then in existence, so the manuscript book was without a rival. To-day the printing-press is to the forefront and the manuscript book is practically unheard of. There is, nevertheless, no reason why the art of illumination should not be practised in the same manner as was formerly the case. It is true that beautiful books are produced by the printer, but there ought also to be a demand for books beautiful, written and illuminated by artists of the present day. An illuminated manuscript has many advantages over the printed book, one of which is the fact that it is unique instead of being one of many. There is no need to enumerate the many other advantages that the manuscript book possesses.
The best material upon which to write a manuscript book is undoubtedly vellum, although fine hand-made paper may be substituted if it is not desirable to go to the expense of procuring vellum for this purpose. A paper that is soft and flexible should be selected in preference to one that is hard and stiff. Anything approaching cardboard should be avoided.
Frontispiece of Illuminated MS. of Blake’s “Songs of Innocence.”
BY SIDNEY FARNSWORTH.
The first thing to decide in writing a manuscript book is the size of the page. After this is settled, the size of the lettering should be taken into consideration. If the manuscript is to be on vellum this should be bought ready cut to the size required. It is much cheaper to buy vellum in this way than to buy the skin and cut it for oneself. The reason for this is because the manufacturer can cut up a more or less imperfect skin into small pieces, but when a whole skin is required this must be perfect in every respect.
The best vellum for manuscript books is the kind known as Roman vellum, a very soft and flexible kind of vellum. For title-pages, and any other pages which are likely to be covered with elaborate work, a slightly heavier vellum may be advisable.
For general purposes a good size for the page is 10 in. by 7½ in., i.e., the vellum sheets should be cut 10 in. by 15 in. It is as well to leave a slight margin for drawing-pins in addition to this. One of these sheets should be ruled out, as shown in (a), [Fig. 44], with a sharply-pointed H.B. pencil. The lines should be ruled very lightly so that they may be erased with the slightest possible touch of the rubber. After one sheet has been carefully ruled out in this manner, the others can be marked out in a similar fashion by pricking through.
Manuscript books are generally written in eight-page sections, formed by folding one sheet within the other, as in (b).
The proportion of the margins may vary according to circumstances, but it is best to make them fairly wide. The inside margin is made smaller than the outside one, because the two inner margins come together, thus forming a wide margin between the two pages of lettering. It should, however, be made wider than half the size of the outside margin, to allow for the folding of the leaves when the book is bound. A good arrangement for the commencement of a MS. book is shown in [Fig. 44] (b), (c), or (d). The title is written on page 1. Pages 2 and 3 are blanks. The frontispiece and title-page occupy pages 4 and 5. Page 6 is another blank, and the manuscript starts on page 7. The title may be written simply in red, or red and black. This should not be written quite in the centre of the page, a larger space should be left at the bottom, as if this is equal with the top it will look as if a larger space had been left at the top.
Fig. 44.
For the frontispiece a miniature may be used, illustrating some passage in the book; or a coat-of-arms or some symbol may be worked in surrounded by decoration. The title-page should have the title and the author’s name, but the artist should not put his name here. When he has finished the MS. he may write at the end a colophon, stating his name, and when and where the book was written. It is best when writing out the manuscript to leave the title-page and frontispiece until the rest of the matter has been written.
Title-Page of Illuminated MS. of Blake’s “Songs of Innocence.”
BY SIDNEY FARNSWORTH.
No elaborate planning of pages is necessary. A good number of pages should be ruled out with lines ready for writing, and the manuscript should be written straight away with the quill pen. Spaces are left for initial letters, miniatures, etc., as the writer feels they are fitting and necessary. The student should be very careful to write out the pages in the proper order, as it is very easy to make mistakes by writing on the wrong pages. For example, if he is not careful he is very liable, after having written the second page of a section, to go on writing on page 7, instead of page 3, which is on another sheet of vellum folded inside the first. A good method for avoiding this is to number the pages lightly in pencil with large figures at the head of each page.
When writing out the words, the vellum should be fastened to the drawing-board with drawing-pins, a pad formed with several sheets of blotting-paper being placed under the vellum to ensure easy writing. If possible, place the copy just above the writing level, where it can easily be seen.
If it is necessary to find out how many pages the manuscript is likely to run into, a rough calculation can easily be made by ruling out a sheet of paper and lightly pencilling in a page of the writing. It will then be an easy matter to count up the number of words to form an estimate of the number of pages required.
The student should always, before commencing to write, read through the matter and decide what initials he will have, also whether he will have any miniatures, etc. In fact, he ought to be able, before he commences work, to visualise the whole of the manuscript completed. If his mental image of the finished book is a grand one he will be inspired to do his utmost to make the actual one as much like the one in his imagination as possible.
After the writing has been done, the initial letters, borders, etc., may be drawn lightly with pencil. After this, the next stage is the gilding. Before this is done, however, the vellum should be carefully fastened tightly to the drawing-board with a large number of drawing-pins to prevent it from cockling.
When the gold has been laid and burnished, the colouring is proceeded with, and the page is finished.
The colophon is written at the end, a blank page being left between it and the last page of writing. This should be in quite simple lettering without any ostentatious show of decoration. The wording may be as follows: “This book, written out by me —— in ——, for ——, was finished on the —— day of ——, Anno Domini, 19—.”
Of course, there is no need to word the colophon always in this manner. This is merely a form suggested. In the case of a book where several have taken part in the work, mention should be made of this. It is not a bad plan also to include the name of the binder, in the event of the book being bound by a good craftsman. Some examples of colophons are shown in [Fig. 45].
It is a mistake to make all the pages elaborate in style; in fact it is best to make the majority of them quite simple in treatment, with here and there one that is more ornate in character.
Fig. 45.
The writing is the principal thing in the book, therefore nothing must be added that will in any way detract from this. If the addition of decoration has this effect it would be much better to leave the writing quite plain. It is impossible to lay down any rules to govern the use of decoration in the manuscript book. It is largely a matter of feeling one’s way. If the decoration is well-considered and suited to the words it will help, rather than detract from, the lettering.
It should be remembered that the primary object of a book is to be read. If the book fails in this respect it will also most certainly fail from the standpoint of beauty. One of the first essentials of anything that lays claim to beauty is that it shall serve its purpose. Therefore care should be taken that nothing be done that will, in any way, tend to make the book less readable.
The decoration should be strongly influenced by the subject-matter of the book. Some illuminators appear to have one idea only with regard to illumination. No matter what the words are, the same kind of decoration is used. They seem to make no distinction whether the subject is a mediæval romance or something quite modern. This is a great mistake, and shows a lack of thought and imagination on the part of the artist. The ideas expressed in the words should also be felt in the decoration; in fact, the book when completed should form one harmonious whole.
When miniatures are introduced these also should harmonise with the decoration. It is not advisable to make these resemble small water-colour paintings that have no connection with the rest of the ornament. On the other hand, these should not be drawn in too conventional a manner. They should be essentially decorative in treatment, and careful study from nature should prevent the student from making these too hard and rigid in character. Complete unity should run throughout all the work.
Two Pages from the Illuminated MS. of Blake’s “Songs of Innocence.”
BY SIDNEY FARNSWORTH.
Even in the writing itself it is possible to express something. For example, some prose looks best if written with a fairly heavy massed writing, whilst other of a lighter character seems to be best if written with the lettering less heavy and more loosely arranged. Poetry generally seems to require to be written with a lighter type of letter and with the lines of lettering wider apart. It is, however, not wise to lay down hard and fast rules with regard to this: one should be able to feel what is the best thing to do.
When writing the MS., and, indeed, right through every stage, absolute quiet is necessary to concentrate one’s mind on the work. One should endeavour to give it one’s undivided attention.
A test as to whether an artist has succeeded is to observe, when the book is shown to anyone, whether the words are noticed at all, or if the decoration only is admired without any apprehension as to what the words are about. If the latter is the case, then, to some extent, the artist has failed. A manuscript that has been illuminated in the right spirit should enable the reader to understand and appreciate the words better.
After the MS. is completed it should be carefully bound by an experienced binder. It is as well to choose a good craftsman for this purpose, and one who has had some experience in binding manuscripts containing raised gold, as it is very easy for a binder to spoil the manuscript if he is not accustomed to handling work of this kind. To make the whole thing a success it is necessary that the binder should be an artist as well as the illuminator.
A simple method of binding MSS. in limp vellum, without special appliances, is described in the next chapter.
CHAPTER XXVI
A SIMPLE METHOD OF BINDING MSS.
The method of binding described in this chapter is not intended to take the place of proper binding in leather. However, it is sometimes useful to be able to put the MS. in a cover when it is not desirable or convenient to go to the expense of having the book bound in the usual way. Binding with stiff boards is an art that requires considerable experience as well as skilled training, but there is no reason why MSS. should not be bound in limp vellum in the manner described here. No special appliances are needed for this method, and the writer should be able to complete his MSS. by binding them without any difficulty if the directions given here are carefully followed.
Two additional sections of plain paper or vellum should be made, to serve as end-papers, one at each end of the book. If the MS. is on vellum, the end-papers should be of the same material, but if on paper the end-papers should be made of paper of the same kind as that used for the rest of the book.
Four strips of binder’s vellum should then be cut, these being about 3/8 in. wide and four inches long. The sections should be knocked up quite squarely, and should be marked on the back with a soft black-lead pencil in the manner shown in [Fig. 46], using a square to get the lines accurate. The sections should all be marked quite distinctly so that each section shows the divisions quite plainly. This gives the position of the four strips of vellum and the kettle-stitches at each end. The mark for the kettle-stitch should be about ½ in. from each end, although sometimes at the bottom a little more than this is allowed. The position of the vellum strips should be in the same proportion as given in [Fig. 46].
Fig. 46.
When ready to sew the sections, take the four vellum strips and fold each one about 1½ in. or 1¾ in. at right angles from each end, according to the thickness of the book. Then take a drawing-board and place on the edge of it the first section face downwards, with the four strips placed in position with their shorter ends underneath. Get a needle, threaded with good silk or unbleached thread, and insert it at the top kettle-stitch mark from the outside, bringing it out again at the first mark for the vellum strip. Bring the thread round the strip and re-insert the needle on the other side, bringing it out again and round the next strip, and so on until it comes out at the bottom kettle-stitch. When this is done it should have the effect, shown in [Fig. 46], of a continuous thread passing in and out and round the vellum strips. Now take the next section and place it in position and sew in the same manner, continuing with the same thread but in the reverse manner. Upon coming to the loose end, where the needle was first inserted, this should be tied up with it. Then add another section, going backwards and forwards, adding section by section until the whole is completed. Each kettle-stitch is linked up as shown in [Fig. 46], and it is a good plan also to link up the threads that cross over the vellum strips in the same manner.
To keep the sections in position while stitching, a small paper-weight is useful. The thread should be drawn fairly tightly, a fresh needleful of thread being tied on to the end of the other when it is exhausted, and when the stitching is completed the end should be carefully tied up with the last kettle-stitch. The back may then be covered with thin glue and lined with a piece of thin leather or tough paper, and the MS. is then ready for covering. (See [Fig. 49].)
A piece of binding vellum is cut for the cover and marked with a folder on the underside, as shown in [Fig. 47]. The two lines marked down the centre represent the thickness of the sections. The two spaces on either side, exclusive of margins, should be slightly larger than the size of the sides of the book. The wide margin that extends all the way round may be approximately 1½ in., while the additional narrow margin on two sides may be ¼ in. in width. The corners should be cut along the dotted lines with a sharp knife.
Vellum Cover
Fig. 47.
The cover is then folded up in the manner shown in [Fig. 48]. It is as well to stick the edges down with a little stiff quick-drying paste. The two narrow margins should be marked with the folder and folded over to form two flaps on the fore-edge of the book. All these folds should be made very carefully so as to ensure them being quite even. Some people find it best to make a cover of stiff paper first, and, when this fits correctly, they make the vellum cover exactly the same size. It is possible by this method to avoid spoiling the vellum through cutting it so that it does not fit.
Cover ready for binding the MS.
Fig. 48.
The next thing to do is to mark the places on the inside of the cover for the vellum strips to be laced through. These should be made about ¾ in. from the creases of the back. Another mark should be made about 3/8 in. away from the first mark. If the book is now placed in the cover it will be quite an easy matter to mark exactly where the vellum strips intersect these lines, and slits may be cut with a sharp knife in the cover in the places marked with dotted lines in [Fig. 48].
The vellum strips may now be laced through these slits and the ends stuck down with strong paste. Some pieces of good silk ribbon may be attached to the top and bottom strips and laced through the cover, leaving the ends to tie, or the book may be left without these.
The two outside end-papers may then be pasted down on to the inside of the vellum cover. This will cover up the ends of the vellum strips. It is, however, essential that for all this a quick-drying paste should be used and not one that is very liquid, as this would quickly strike through and cockle the vellum. The end-papers should be pasted down very neatly and then the book should be placed under pressure until it is quite dry. One or two heavy books make a very good press for this purpose.
MS. ready for insertion
in Cover.
Finished Volume.
Fig. 49.
When the book is quite dry the decoration of the cover may be proceeded with. The title may be written on it with quite plain lettering or it may be decorated in a more elaborate fashion. It is better not to use raised gold, as it is very liable to get damaged on the cover of the book. However, some very good effects can be obtained with flat gilding. The vellum strips that are laced through the cover offer scope for decoration. If it is desirable to write the title on the back of the book it is better to do this before the book is bound, as it is rather a difficult matter to write here when the book has been bound.
If it is desired to do so, the cover may be made of thin card or stout paper in this way and then have a cover of vellum folded over it. If this is done, the vellum strips will, of course, be covered up on the outside, as well as the inside, of the cover.
Generally the books most suitable for this style of binding are small ones, although larger MSS. are sometimes bound in this way.
The same remarks that were made with regard to the style of decoration in the MS. itself apply equally here. The subject of the book must decide, to a large extent, what style of ornament is to be used. For example, a volume of modern poetry will require quite different treatment to that of a mediæval romance.
It ought to be possible for the illuminator to make some very charming little volumes in this manner.
CHAPTER XXVII
THE ILLUMINATION OF THE PRINTED BOOK
As already mentioned in an earlier chapter, some of the early printed books were enriched with fine illuminated initials, borders, etc. These books were printed with spaces left for the artist to insert these, and this seems to have often been the custom during the early days of printing.
There ought to be a demand for books produced in this manner in the present day, and the modern illuminator should be able to do good work in this way.
When it is intended to apply illumination to the printed book, it is well that the book selected should be worthy of being illuminated, both with regard to subject-matter and also the way in which it is printed. It should be beautifully printed on good paper. Some choice editions have been printed on vellum, but these are few and far between. However, if possible, the book selected should be printed on good hand-made paper. The illuminator should carefully avoid so-called “art” papers, which have a clay surface and are by no means durable, besides being far from ideal for working upon. The book should be printed from good type, with nice wide margins so as to leave plenty of scope for decoration.
Fig. 50.
Illuminating a book after it has been bound is a rather difficult matter, so it is better to procure the sheets, if possible, before they have been bound. It is much more convenient to work upon them when they are unbound, as each page in turn can be fastened to the drawing-board in the usual way. A good edition of any book can generally be obtained from the publishers in sheets if application is made. In the case where it is possible only to work on the book after it has been bound, it is best to tie the pages back with a piece of narrow tape in the manner shown in [Fig. 50]. A piece of stout cardboard is placed at the back of the book, and the book is tied to this by means of the tapes. This not only prevents the pages from turning over, but also precludes the possibility of the book accidentally closing.
One thing is extremely important in connection with the illumination of the printed book, and that is that the decoration should be in keeping with the modern type used in printing. The book should not look as if the text ought to be written in Gothic script. The illuminator must endeavour to preserve a feeling of unity about the book. If the book is illuminated like a thirteenth-century missal, the ordinary Roman type will look out of place. It is hardly necessary to add that Gothic initials should not be used, as they would be entirely out of keeping with the type. A good form of Roman capital may be used instead.
If illustrations in the form of full-page plates form part of the book they may be mounted on good stout hand-made paper and have the titles nicely written underneath. For writing the titles under illustrations a simple form of Roman script should be used, so as to be as much in keeping with the type as possible. It is not advisable to add any decoration to the page on which the illustration is mounted. The inscription alone is sufficient and should be nicely written in well-formed writing.
For the title-page of the book this may either be substituted by one entirely done by hand, or the printed one may be slightly decorated. It is best not to make this too elaborate, especially if the printed one is used. In fact it may be best to leave it practically plain, but this is a point that must be decided by one’s own good taste.
The opening page may be made important by using a fine initial letter. By the use of body colours it is possible to paint this in on top of the printed letter. The first word, which is generally printed in capitals, may also be painted in the same way, either in gold or colours. The decoration should be suited to the subject-matter of the book and should not be carried to excess. It is much better for the decoration to be somewhat too simple in character than for it to look too ornate and crowded.
The decoration should be kept quite free in character and every endeavour should be made to prevent it from getting hard and severe. All the poetry and sweetness possible should be put into it.
Every page should not be covered with decoration; this should not be attempted. All the variety possible should be got by making some pages quite simple in treatment, others may be more elaborate, while some may be left quite plain. Too many heavy borders should not be introduced.
The use of illuminated tail-pieces affords a good opportunity for the illuminator to add to the interest of the page, and there is generally plenty of scope for these at the end of chapters, etc.
Generally speaking, the printed book should not be used for illuminating when it is possible to write out the words, as a manuscript book is certainly preferable to a printed one. But in cases where a book is too long to be written out, the application of illumination to typography is certainly a great advantage if judiciously used.
At the end of the book the illuminator may add his colophon, stating that the illumination in the book was executed by himself, and giving the date of its completion and other interesting details.
A complete edition of the works of a favourite poet is a good example for illumination in this manner. It would take far too much time, as well as being too costly, for the modern illuminator to write out a large volume of poetry, but it might be nicely printed and illuminated in this way. By these means a beautiful book might be produced that ought to appeal to the lover of choice books.
Doubtless there will be many books that will suggest themselves for treatment in this manner, although it is to be feared that a great many of the books written in the present day are hardly suitable for illumination. No one would dream of illuminating a treatise on surgery to-day, and yet even this was done in the Middle Ages. There is in the British Museum an illuminated MS. of a French treatise on surgery of the thirteenth century which is quite charming in style. This kind of thing is, however, quite impossible to-day. Still, there is quite a large number of books that are suitable in every way for illumination.
Service books for use in churches may well be made subjects for decoration in the form suggested here. These alone ought to offer plenty of scope for the modern illuminator. A service book beautifully printed on fine hand-made paper and illuminated should form an ideal gift for a church.
A well-printed edition of a favourite author, illuminated with fine initials and borders, might occasionally be substituted for the usual illuminated address. This would probably be appreciated very much more than the ordinary type of testimonial which is generally given. In this case an inscription may be written at the commencement of the book giving particulars concerning the presentation.
CHAPTER XXVIII
PRINTED BOOK DECORATION
There ought to be plenty of scope for the modern illuminator in printed book decoration. His training in writing and illumination ought to be of the greatest service to him when he is called upon to produce decoration for the purpose of printing with type.
Without a doubt, the ideal form of printed decoration is that produced by means of wood-blocks that have been engraved by the artist. If he is able to engrave blocks from his own designs it will be possible for him to get much more human interest in his work. As a direct method of artistic expression wood-engraving has merits far above that of the mechanical methods of reproduction. Wood-engraving is, however, so important as to require a separate treatise, it being quite impossible to deal with it here.
By far the greater part of printed book decoration is produced from line process blocks, and it is with this form of reproduction that it is intended to deal in this chapter.
One of the most important parts of the book, from the point of view of decoration, is undoubtedly the title-page. In [Fig. 51] some of the forms that this may take have been suggested. In making a design for reproduction by this process it is not advisable to make the drawing much larger than it is required to be when reproduced. The decoration loses much of its individual charm when it is reduced too much. A successful reproduction should represent the original drawing of the artist as nearly as possible, and if it is reduced a great deal there will probably be a considerable difference between the reproduction and the original.
Fig. 51.
In designing a title-page a great deal depends on the style of book it is intended for. A book on architecture or engineering would require quite different treatment from a volume of poetry.
A very simple form of title-page is suggested in [Fig. 51] (a). This consists of nicely-arranged lettering with a printer’s device or some symbolical ornament. If desired, the larger lettering may be drawn and the rest printed from good type well arranged. It is hardly necessary to add that the lettering should be in keeping with that used in the other part of the book.
A title-page with the lettering printed from type and suitable decoration added is a very satisfactory form.
The next one, shown in (b), is one where the lettering is enclosed within a border. This may be either quite simple or elaborate, as desired.
The style indicated in (c) is one in which the lettering is incorporated with the design. This is a form often employed for an elaborately decorated edition, such as a volume of poems.
The next one (d) is the pictorial type: nicely-arranged lettering with a picture in the centre. This may be either in line or colour, but generally it is in line, treated rather boldly. A woodcut illustration with red and black lettering makes a very effective title-page.
The last suggestion, given in (e), is for the double form of title-page. A good number of richly decorated volumes are of this form.
Another type that is often used is where the lettering is placed on a tablet, scroll, cartouche, or other ornamental device; or the page may be a combination of lettering, border, and illustration. Instead of a border that is rigidly defined it may have a border that is quite loose in character.
Possibly several other variations will suggest themselves to the artist.
Another important part of book decoration is the initial letter. As mentioned in the previous chapter on the illumination of the printed book, these should be of the Roman type. Gothic initials should never be employed with modern type. Above all, the initial letter should always be distinct. A puzzle is all right in its place, but this is not the place for it.
In [Fig. 52] some examples are given of bad forms for the student to avoid. It would have been easy to have filled quite a large number of pages with letters of this character. The letter A shown here is a type of initial that was very familiar in books about fifty years ago. Occasionally one sees it now, but not often. Most of these bad forms arise from a misconception as to the nature of the letter. A letter is simply a sign intended to convey a meaning to the reader; there is no reason why it should pretend to be something else. The sign may certainly be a thing of beauty, but surely making it look as if it is formed with branches like a rustic bridge is not making it beautiful.
Another bad type of letter is shown in the initial B. This form of letter is largely used by sign-writers even in the present day. In this case the letter is apparently conceived as a solid block, which is drawn in false perspective so that it may throw a meaningless shadow.
Types of Initials to avoid.
Fig. 52.
Sometimes the surface of the letter is broken up, as in the letter C. In the case of a stencilled letter, breaking the surface of the letter is, of course, unavoidable (although even in this case it would not be broken up like this example), but for a printed letter, where there is no necessity, it is extremely foolish.
The other C is another example sometimes seen, formed with a coil of rope.
Fig. 53.
The other shapes are all equally bad, and no one with a training in really good forms of lettering could possibly originate them. They all practically err in the same direction, i.e., in pretending to be something that they are not. It is curious that this tendency should so develop.
Another bad form of initial, not illustrated here, is that formed by contorting figures into shapes to represent various letters. All this sort of thing cannot be too severely censured.
It is far better to have initials quite simple in character rather than forms like these, which are absolutely debased in style. A fine form of Roman capital with little or no ornament added is much to be preferred.
In [Fig. 53] some elaborate examples are given showing how it is possible to produce striking initials without resorting to any of the devices illustrated in [Fig. 52].
The A and the T are examples of initials filled with decoration based on plant-form. This makes a very good style of letter.
One of the O’s has a decorative landscape placed in the centre. Of course, only the round letters can be treated in this fashion.
The other letter O has a fanciful style of decoration very suitable for the commencement of a fairy tale. In fact this initial was designed for that purpose, the story commencing in the usual way, “Once upon a time.”
In [Fig. 54] some suggestions are given for tail-pieces which are used to fill up when a chapter ends half-way down the page. These may be of various shapes, such as triangular, rectangular, lozenge-shaped, or irregular. They may consist merely of decoration or they may embody the words, “The End,” “Finis,” “Conclusion,” or “Here ends the story of——.”
A small decorative scene may be employed as suggested here. Another way often used, and also indicated here, is for the lettering to be separate, with a band of ornament beneath it.
Borders for illustrations should be in keeping with the style of the illustration.
Fig. 54.
Chapter headings may be either well-arranged lettering enclosed within a border, or the lettering may be placed on a scroll, cartouche, etc. Another form may be that in which a picture is incorporated with the decoration. Generally, chapter-headings are used more in magazines than in books. If one is designed for a special page in a magazine it should be definitely for that particular page.
When making a design that is to be reproduced in two colours, in which both colours are distinct—i.e., they do not overlap—the drawing should be made all in black. A sheet of tracing-paper is then pasted on the top edge at the back and folded over on the face of the drawing. The parts that are intended to be printed in the second colour should then be painted in with vermilion on the tracing-paper. This indicates to the block-maker the parts to cut out when making the blocks. The reason for doing this is because it is much easier to make the line-blocks from the drawing if it is all in black. Of course, this only applies when the two colours are quite distinct. When they overlap, the best way is to make two separate drawings in black. This can be done quite well by making a pencil drawing first, then painting in one colour in black on this drawing; the second colour is then painted on a piece of tracing-paper which is placed over this drawing for the time being. A small cross should be placed at each corner of the drawing and traced through on to the second one to act as register marks for the block-maker.
Generally speaking, all designs for book-decoration should be in line. The great disadvantage of the half-tone process is that the blocks cannot be printed well on a paper that has the slightest tendency towards being rough on the surface. The best results are undoubtedly produced when they are printed on art paper. Art paper is, however, far from durable, and should not be used for books that are required to be lasting. Apart from this, the half-tone process is not nearly so satisfactory as the line process. A good line block will give a fairly faithful reproduction of the original drawing without losing detail. This cannot be altogether claimed for the half-tone process. Three-colour process blocks, being a development of this, are open to the same objections. When the student has seen some of his work reproduced by these processes he will be able to appreciate the difference.
If colour is required in the decoration, a much more satisfactory form of colour reproduction is that produced from several line blocks, but, of course, if this process is used there must be no attempt at wash effects.
This chapter is intended to be merely suggestive of the developments in printed book-decoration that ought to be quite possible for the modern illuminator.
CHAPTER XXIX
CONCLUDING REMARKS
It may be as well again to emphasise the fact that it is imperative, if one desires to succeed in the art of illumination, that it should be taken up in a serious manner and not merely as a pleasant pastime. It is an art which is worthy of the best that time and careful study can give to it, and it may serve as useful a purpose in the present day as it has done in the past.
There is no royal road to success: this can only come through steadily plodding along the lines suggested. The methods of study that have been outlined in the previous chapters are the result of what the writer has learned in the hard but excellent school of experience.
Good, well-formed writing comes first and foremost, making use of the reed and quill pen in the formation of letters. The method of practice, commencing with simple pen-strokes, that is given in the early part of this book, ought to enable the student to produce good lettering if he works with the exercises in the manner suggested. After he has become familiar with the use of the pen in this way he will be able to study the various forms of lettering that were used in the past in a much more intelligent fashion than would be the case if he had no knowledge concerning the manner in which the letters were formed. He should continue this study on the lines suggested in [Chapter 6], and should not be content with the examples given here but should study the original manuscripts for himself.
Careful attention should be given to the way in which the lettering is arranged and the manner in which the letters and words are massed together. The student cannot have too much practice with the reed and quill pen.
The many good historical forms of Roman lettering should not be neglected. Roman lettering is, without doubt, the most useful form of lettering for general inscriptions, and it is necessary that the modern illuminator should be familiar with the beautiful forms of this style of lettering. He should note the general arrangement of these letters when used in inscriptions, etc. He will experience no difficulty in getting photographs of some of the important Latin inscriptions that were executed with letters of this style.
He should endeavour to form these letters in a direct manner with the pen and brush, and, if he has worked consistently with the quill and reed pen in the manner described, he will find that he will soon acquire dexterity in forming these letters. The practice that he gets through forming these letters with the brush will be most helpful to him when the time comes for him to make use of the brush for painting in decoration.
It is hoped that the very brief sketch that is given of the history of illumination may arouse some interest, so that the student will study this subject for himself, going into detail that is quite impossible here. Even if the whole of this volume had been devoted to the history of this art it would have been impossible in this limited space to deal with it in an efficient manner. The object of this short survey has been merely to act as an introduction to the study of this important subject.
Making use of a simple colour scheme such as red and black, as is suggested in [Chapter 12], is likely to act as an excellent training in taste. If the student starts straight away with a full array of colours, the chances are that the result may be anything but pleasant and agreeable. If he is able to produce good pattern with black and red, he will probably be able to do good work with gold and colours. However, if he cannot make good pattern with these, he will find it difficult to do it more successfully with less limited means.
The student will never regret the time spent in the study of the best work of the Middle Ages. By this means he is brought face to face with examples of the work of artists who were masters in this particular craft. The study of the best work that the mediæval artists have produced, combined with plenty of study from nature, is, without doubt, the finest training that the modern illuminator could possibly have. One would hesitate to recommend the one without the other, as the general tendency of the illuminator who neglects nature study, going to ancient examples only, is to produce weak imitations of mediæval work. If this is the case, there can be no opportunity for real living art. On the other hand, if the study of the best work of the mediæval period is neglected, he loses the benefit that may be gained by a close study of the methods of working employed by the artists of the Middle Ages. The same problems that confront him were before the mediæval artist, and, although there is no necessity for him to produce imitation thirteenth-and fourteenth-century illumination, he is able to build on the foundation that these artists have laid and help to carry forward the traditions of the craft in the best way that he is able.
That there are abundant ways in the present day in which the modern illuminator may make use of his craft has been amply exemplified in the preceding pages. The work of the craftsman, of course, stands first and foremost, but it must be remembered that the machine has come to stay, and the artist must endeavour to realise something of the great possibilities that there are in this direction. Although the product of the machine can never equal that of handcraft, there is no reason why, if there is intelligent co-operation between the artist and the manufacturer, the greater part of the work produced should not be infinitely superior in character than is so often the case.
There are numerous ways in which the machine is employed in which it would be quite impossible adequately to deal with the matter from a craftsman’s standpoint. To mention just one branch alone: Christmas cards and calendars. It would be quite impossible to do all these by hand, and yet it is certainly desirable that they should be done in the best possible taste and in as efficient a manner as possible. It is here that the opportunity for the properly trained artist arises, and, if he gives of his best workmanship, the finished production should be all the better through his influence.
This is surely a sufficient excuse for dealing with the various developments of illumination commercially.
Book decoration, both in connection with MS. book and the printed book, is, however, the thing most in keeping with the true spirit of illumination. Illumination seems to be bound up with book production, and, if the modern collector could only see that a fine illuminated manuscript was a work of art as desirable as a picture for a permanent possession, there ought to be a fair demand for the work of the modern illuminator.
The illuminated MS. book is, without doubt, the ideal work for the illuminator, and it seems a pity that there should not be a greater demand than there is at the present time. Certainly an illuminated manuscript book, specially written, would be much better for a presentation than the average illuminated testimonial, and it would probably meet with far more appreciation.
No one would be so foolish as to wish to do away with the printed book, as this has now become a necessity, but surely the manuscript book should not be altogether a thing of the past!
Some people are of the opinion that it is a waste of time producing illuminated manuscripts in the present day. Still, is time ever wasted in producing beautiful workmanship? Surely not. The time spent in the production of any real work of art is never wasted.
Poetry, when mixed up with commercial matter and obviously printed by commercial methods, loses considerably because the surroundings are uncongenial. However, the illuminated manuscript enhances it by presenting it in an artistic form.
Probably nothing offers a better opportunity for the illuminator, as a subject for an illuminated volume, than poetry. The illuminated rendering seems to give it an extra quality. The antiquity of the illuminated book, and the fact that it was a means of presenting the romances of the Middle Ages, makes it the natural vehicle for the poetic message.
Its value for liturgical purposes is also of importance, and certainly it has been more generally used for this purpose than any other in the past. Probably the reason why it is so suited to this is owing to the conservative nature of liturgy demanding antique associations.
No doubt, like most other hand methods of production, the demand for this must necessarily be limited, as the modern craze for cheapness renders the price impossible to any large extent. Therefore it can never be expected to enter into competition with the printed book. Also printing has now become a separate art—at least, the style of lettering and decoration owes little or nothing to the illuminated manuscript as was the case with the earliest European printed books. The art of printing has, however, developed considerably since those times, and, the character now being totally different, consequently there is no reason why the printed book should be an imitation of the manuscript.
Illumination and printing should both develop along their special lines, the developments of both depending on the exigencies of the materials employed. Thus, in relation to the printed book, the printing process should be developed to get the best results possible.
Probably the ideal printed book would have the decoration printed from wood-blocks engraved by the artist himself. If the decoration and illustrations take the form of reproductions of drawings there can never be the same life and vitality as when the whole is the direct creation of the artist.
Of course, this is mentioned merely as an ideal of what the printed book should be. In practice, however, one is not always able to work up to this standard. Reproduction by means of line blocks is probably one of the best forms of process work that can be employed in book decoration.
Any peculiar qualities that the form of press or machine used is able to give should be used to advantage. The printer should seize every opportunity which occurs that may help to render his work more effective.
Although it is not desirable that the printer should imitate the work of the illuminator, there is certainly no reason why they should not work together as suggested in Chapter XXVII, the illuminator adding illuminated initials, borders, and other decoration so that the completed volume represents the work of the printer and the illuminator. This was often done in the early days of printing, and there is surely the possibility of good work being done in this way at the present time.
There certainly ought to be plenty of opportunities for the illuminator even in the present day. It is, however, of the utmost importance that he should be able to produce high-class workmanship. Weak, amateurish efforts have no commercial value. To attain perfection patient and sincere effort is required.
CHAPTER XXX
NOTES ON BOOKS
In this the closing chapter of this book it may be as well to suggest a few books that might be useful for further study. It is not intended, by any means, to give anything like a complete bibliography on this subject, but merely to refer to a few of the books that the writer has found to be of service to him. Some of the books mentioned may possibly be out of print, but copies may be seen in most of the larger public libraries.
The following books treat the subject of illumination broadly from the historical standpoint: English Illuminated MSS., by Sir E. M. Thompson, Illuminated MSS. in Classical and Mediæval Times, by J. H. Middleton, and Illuminated Manuscripts, by J. A. Herbert. Another most useful book for the student is the Historical Introduction to the Collection of Illuminated Letters and Borders in the National Art Library, by John W. Bradley.
Reproductions of some of the illuminated MSS. in the British Museum have been published by the Museum authorities. Illuminated Manuscripts in the British Museum, by G. F. Warner, contains a series of plates beautifully reproduced in gold and colours. These give as nearly as possible in a reproduction some idea of what the originals are like. Three sets of fifty collotype plates, Reproductions of Illuminated Manuscripts, are also published of the illuminated MSS. in the British Museum. A Guide to the Manuscripts in the British Museum also contains a number of half-tone reproductions, and The Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts, Part 2, Miniatures, Leaves, and Cuttings, published by the authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum, has a good number of illustrations. The series of excellent photographic facsimiles published by the Palæographical Society are also most useful for reference.
For students who wish to give special attention to the work of any particular schools of illumination, such as the Byzantine, Celtic, or Winchester Schools, the following books are recommended:
Byzantine School.—For a general history of Byzantine art, Byzantine Art, by O. M. Dalton, and Manuel d’Art Byzantine, by Ch. Diehl. Both of these writers deal with illuminated manuscripts as well as other branches of Byzantine art. For a work dealing exclusively with Byzantine MSS. the Histoire de l’Art Byzantin considere ... dans le Miniatures, by M. Kondakoff, may be recommended.
Celtic School.—Early Christian Art in Ireland, by Margaret M. Stokes, is a very useful book. Other helpful books are The Fine Arts and Civilization of Ancient Ireland, by Henry O’Niell, and Celtic Art in Pagan and Christian Times, by J. Romilly Allen. An Enquiry into the Art of the Illuminated Manuscripts of the Middle Ages. I. Celtic Illuminated Manuscripts, by Johann Adolf Bruun, deals with the Celtic MSS. in a fairly comprehensive manner. This book is illustrated with reproductions from some of the manuscripts referred to. Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish Manuscripts, by J. O. Westwood, contains a number of chromo-lithographic reproductions of these manuscripts. The Book of Kells, recently published by the publishers of The Studio, contains a large number of the pages and initials from this well-known manuscript which have been reproduced by means of the three-colour process. The Introduction to this volume has been written by Sir Edward Sullivan.
Winchester School.—An account of one of the most important manuscripts of this school, viz., the famous Benedictional of Æthelwold, is given in Vol. I. of the Bibliographical Decameron, by Dr. Dibdin; also Dr. Waagen gives a description of it in Vol. III. of Treasures of Art in Great Britain. In Vol. XXIV. of the Archælogia, pages 1–117, there is also A Dissertation on St. Æthelwold’s Benedictional, by John Gage Rokewood. This is illustrated with thirty-two plates of reproductions of the pages of this manuscript. The same writer gives, in pages 118–136, A Description of a Benedictional or Pontifical, called Benedictionarius Roberti Archiepiscopi. Thus two of the most famous of all the Winchester MSS. are here described in a most careful and painstaking fashion.
Lettering, especially in its application to illumination, is dealt with very thoroughly in Writing and Illuminating and Lettering, by Edward Johnston. This book is well illustrated with diagrams, and the instructions given on how to cut and use the reed and quill pen are very clear. It is a very useful book for the student. Other books on the subject of lettering that will be found to be of service are Lettering in Ornament, and Alphabets, Old and New, by Lewis F. Day, also Alphabets, by Edward F. Strange. For those who wish to study lettering from the standpoint of palæography, Greek and Latin Palæography, by Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, is a good introductory work on this subject.
The following books may be of interest to the student who is desirous of further information concerning the colours and methods of working employed by the mediæval artist: Mrs. Merrifield’s Ancient Practice of Painting, the Schedula Diversarum Artium of Theophilus, and The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini. Mrs. Merrifield’s book contains a number of translations of the early manuscripts that describe the technical methods employed by the mediæval artists. The treatise of Theophilus has been translated into English by R. Hendrie, and the best translation of Cennini’s book is that by Mrs. Herringham. Materials of the Painter’s Craft, and Processes, Pigments, and Vehicles, by Dr. A. P. Laurie, are books that deal with this subject in a very interesting and helpful manner.
As the study of Heraldry is very important to the illuminator, the following books are mentioned: Complete Guide to Heraldry, by A. C. Fox-Davies, English Heraldry, by Charles Boutell, and Heraldry, by W. H. St. John Hope. The Stall Plates of the Garter, 1348–1485, also by W. H. St. John Hope.
Didron’s Iconography of Christian Art, and Emblems of the Saints, by F. C. Husenbeth, are books that are most useful to the illuminator when doing work that is ecclesiastical in character.
* * * * *
The list of books that is detailed here is necessarily incomplete, but the student will find that by studying these he will be referred to others, and so will be able to continue the study.
INDEX
- Address, illuminated, [171–7]
- Advertisement, design for, [192]
- Advertisements, lettering for, [72], [192], [196–9]
- Air bubbles in raising preparation, [158]
- Alcuin Bibles, [89]
- Alfred the Great, [90]
- Alizarin crimson, [127]
- Alphabet, its development, [32]
- the Roman, [32], [70–83]
- from the Book of Kells, [66]
- Alphabets for study, [60–9]
- Altar tablets, [169]
- Aluminium leaf, [147]
- paint, [147]
- Ambrosian Iliad, [85]
- Anglo-Celtic illumination, [87], [102]
- Armenian Bole, [143–4]
- Arsenic, sulphide of, [115]
- Art paper, [232]
- Arzica, [120], [121]
- Athelstan’s Psalter, [90]
- Æthelwold, Benedictional of, [91]
- Aureolin, [124]
- Azurite, [115]
- Azzuro della magna, [121]
- oltre marino, [121]
- Babylonian characters, [25]
- Backgrounds, diaper, [95]
- Barium sulphate, [130]
- Beauty, [222]
- Bedford Book of Hours, [98]
- Benedictional of Æthelwold, [91]
- Biacca, [121], [142]
- Bianco Sangiovanni, [121]
- Bible of Robert de Bello, [95]
- Bible History, moralised, [95]
- Bichromate of potash, [208]
- Binding MSS., a simple method of, [225–231]
- Black pigments, [129]
- Blocks, line, [178–9]
- half-tone, [180]
- three-colour, [180–1]
- Blood, dragon’s, [116], [120]
- Blue pigments, [127]
- Body-colours, [135]
- Bole, Armenian, [143], [144]
- Book, the illuminated MS., [216–24]
- printed, illumination of, [232–37]
- printed, decoration of, [238–47]
- Book-hands, the study of, [60–9]
- Bookplate, [201]
- Borders, [245]
- Bridget, St., [87]
- British Museum publications, [106]
- Bronze gilding, [185–6]
- powder, [146]
- Brown pigments, [129]
- Brushes, [154], [155]
- Brush-formed lettering, [73], [110], [111], [208–12]
- Bubbles in raising preparation, [158]
- Building up letters, [71], [109–11]
- Burnisher, agate, [148], [151]
- Burnt sienna, [127]
- Burnt umber, [129]
- Byzantine illumination, [85–6]
- Cadmium yellows, [124]
- Calligraphy, its development, [23]
- Cambrensis, Giraldus, [87]
- Camel-hair mop, [148], [151]
- Capitals, square, [33]
- rustic, [33]
- Capital letters, [65], [66], [67], [110]
- Carbolic acid, [133]
- Carlovingian illumination, [89]
- writing, [40]
- Carmine, [127]
- Celtic and Anglo-Celtic illumination, [87], [102]
- Cennino Cennini, [120], [142]
- Cerulean Blue, [127]
- Ceruse, [118]
- Chalk, [115], [121]
- Chapter headings, [245]
- Charlemagne, [39], [89]
- Charta Pergamena, [30]
- Charter, Golden, [91]
- China slab, [132]
- Chinese vermilion, [126]
- Christmas cards, [185–191]
- Chrome yellows, [124], [125]
- Chromium oxide, [128]
- Chromo-lithography, [182]
- Cinabrese, [120]
- Cinnabar, [116], [120]
- Classical illumination, [84]
- Clay as writing material, [24]
- Clothlet tints, [122]
- Cobalt blue, [127]
- Cobalt violet, [128]
- Cobalt yellow, [124]
- Cochineal, [127]
- Cold tea for tinting paper, [153]
- Colophon, the, [221]
- Colours used by the mediæval illuminator, [115–122]
- their composition and permanence, [123–30]
- cake, [131]
- tube, [131]
- powder, [132]
- body, [135]
- their preparation and use, [131–7]
- Columba, St., [88]
- Commercial design, lettering for, [192–202]
- Compass, proportional, [68]
- Concluding remarks, [248–55]
- Copper blues and greens, [115], [118], [121], [122]
- Crimson, alizarin, [127]
- lake, [127]
- Cursive writing, [32]
- Cutting the pen, [42], [43]
- Cyperus papyrus, [28]
- Decoration, [156], [161–6], [222], [234]
- of printed book, [238–47]
- Designs in two colours, [246]
- Designing, [187]
- Designing a magazine cover, [200–2]
- Diagrams, lettering for, [195]
- Diaper backgrounds, [95]
- Dioscorides, The, [85]
- Dividers, spring, [107]
- Dragon’s blood, [116], [120]
- Durham Book, [37], [88], [102]
- Durrow, Book of, [88]
- Dutch metal, [147]
- Earth colours, [115]
- Edgar, Golden Charter of, [91]
- Egg, white of, [118–9]
- used for gilding, [139], [140], [141], [143]
- yolk, [119]
- Egyptian hieroglyphics, [27]
- writing materials, [27], [28]
- Eighth-century writing, [38], [39]
- Emerald green, [128]
- Eraclius, [119]
- Erasures, [152–3]
- Eumenes II., king of Pergamus, [30]
- Exercises in the use of the pen, [45]
- Family trees, [170]
- Fifteenth-century illumination, and later, [97–100]
- writing, [41], [79], [80]
- Fifth-century writing, [33–5]
- Figures, pen-formed, [57]
- Fish-glue for mixing with colours, [117]
- Fixed inks, [206], [208]
- Flake white, [130]
- Forming words and sentences, [54–9]
- Fourteenth-century illumination, [96]
- writing, [65]
- Fourth-century writing, [33]
- Framing illuminated work, [174]
- Gamboge, [125]
- Garcinia Cambogia, [125]
- Genesis of Vienna Library, [85–6]
- Codex in British Museum, [86]
- Gesso Sottile, [142–4]
- Giallorino, [120–1]
- Gilding methods of the Middle Ages, [138–145]
- raised, [142], [147], [157–60]
- bronze, [185–6]
- Gilder’s cushion, [147–8]
- knife, [148–50]
- tip, [148], [150–1]
- Giraldus Cambrensis, [87]
- Glycerine in colours, [131]
- Gold, the use of, [136–51]
- leaf, [139], [146–7]
- handling it, [148–9]
- shell, [146]
- paint, [146], [185]
- grinding, [141], [144]
- Gold size and raising preparation, [158–9]
- Gold-beating, its antiquity, [139]
- Golden Charter of King Edgar, [91]
- Gospels, The Lindisfarne, [37], [88], [102]
- Green pigments, [128]
- Gum, for mixing colours, [133]
- Half-tone blocks, [180]
- Half-uncials, [36]
- Irish, [36]
- English, [37]
- Handwriting, ordinary, [24]
- Harleian Psalter, [91]
- Heraldry, [175]
- Hiberno-Saxon illumination, [102]
- Hieroglyphic and hieratic characters, [27]
- Holding the pen, [44–6]
- Honey, mixed with colours, [131]
- in raising preparation, [186]
- I, THE LETTER, [59]
- Ichneumon brush, [158]
- Iliad, Ambrosian, [85]
- Illumination, the study of, [23], [166], [248–51]
- classical and Byzantine, [84–6]
- Celtic and Anglo-Celtic, [87–9], [102]
- Carlovingian, [89]
- Winchester, [89–92]
- twelfth-century, [93–4]
- thirteenth-century, [94–6]
- fourteenth-century, [96–7]
- fifteenth-century, [97–9]
- Italian, [99]
- in black and red, [107–14]
- with gold and colours, [152–60]
- the further development of, [161–70]
- Illuminated MS. book, [216–24]
- Illustrations, lettering under, [234]
- Indaco baccadeo, [121]
- Indian ink, [129]
- Indigo, [116], [121]
- Influence of the tool, [23–31]
- Initial letter, [101–6]
- Ink, [44]
- classical, [117]
- mediæval, [119]
- Invitation cards, [190]
- Isidore, St., [28]
- Ivory black, [129]
- J, THE LETTER, [59]
- Japanese brush, [208–9]
- Jehan le Bègue, MS. of, [119]
- Joshua Rotulus, [86]
- Kells, Book of, [88], [101]
- Kermes, [116]
- Kildare, Book of, [87]
- Kneaded rubber, [160]
- Knife for cutting the pen, [46]
- Labels, designs for, [198]
- Lakes, [116], [119]
- Lampblack, [129]
- Lapis Lazuli, [127]
- Laurie, Dr. A. P., [138]
- Lead, white, [121], [130]
- Leaf, gold, [139], [146–7]
- Lens, magnifying, [68]
- Letter, the initial, [101–6]
- Letters, pen-formed, [48–53]
- brush-formed, [73], [110–1], [208–9]
- building up, [73], [110–1]
- capital, [65–7], [110]
- Lettering, Roman, [70–83]
- for advertisements, [72], [192], [196–9]
- for commercial design, [192–202]
- Leucophoron, [139]
- Lighting of work, [50]
- Lindisfarne Gospels, [37], [88], [102]
- Line blocks, [178–9]
- Lithography, [181–2]
- Liturgical purposes, the value of illumination for, [169–70], [253]
- Lombardic writing, [38–9]
- Lucca MS., [117], [139]
- Machine, the, [251]
- Madder, purple, [128]
- rose, [127]
- scarlet, [127]
- Magazine covers, designing, [200–2]
- Magnifying lens, [68]
- Majuscule writing, [32]
- Manuscript books, illuminated, [216–24]
- Mappæ Clavicula, [117], [140]
- Maps and diagrams, lettering for, [195]
- Marriage Service, [170]
- Mary’s Psalter, [96]
- Mastery of the tool, [42]
- Menu, design for, [210–11]
- Merovingian writing, [39–40]
- Merrifield, Mrs., [119]
- Metaphrastes, Simeon, [86]
- Method of setting out page, [107–8]
- Miniature painting, [91], [100], [167–8], [222]
- Minium, [118]
- Minuscule writing, [38]
- Mixed uncials, [35]
- Muller for grinding colours, [133]
- Murex, [116]
- Ninth-century writing, [37]
- Naples yellow, [125]
- Natural History, Pliny’s, [115–6]
- Nature study, [163–6]
- New blue, [128]
- Note-heading, [199]
- Notices, [170]
- Ochre, yellow, [125]
- “Old English,” [65]
- Opus Anglicum, [90]
- Originality, [168–9]
- Orpiment, [115], [119], [122]
- Oxgall, [160]
- P, THE LETTER, [53]
- Pad for writing upon, [48]
- Page, method of setting out, [107–8]
- Palæography, [33]
- Palette knife, [133–4]
- Paper, [44], [153]
- art, [232]
- stretching, [154]
- Papyrus, [28]
- Parchment, derivation of the word, [30]
- tinting, [122]
- size, [140]
- Pattern, simple, [113–4]
- Pedigrees, [170]
- Pen, holding the, [44–6]
- cutting the, [42–3]
- exercises in the use of the, [45]
- the reed, [27–8], [42]
- the quill, first mention of, [28]
- -strokes, [45]
- -formed letters, [48–53]
- figures, [57]
- -wiper, [46]
- Pencils, [107], [152–3]
- Pezzuole colours, [122]
- Philippo de Maizières, Epistle of, [105]
- Phœnician alphabet, [32]
- Pigments, blue, [127]
- brown, [129]
- black, [129]
- green, [128]
- red, [125]
- white, [129]
- yellow, [124]
- Planning out MS. book, [217–20]
- Plant drawing, [163–5]
- Plaster of Paris, [144]
- Platinum leaf, [147]
- Pliny, [115–6]
- Plum-tree gum, [117–8]
- Poetry, illumination of, [223], [253]
- Posters, lettering for, [197]
- hand-written, [203–13]
- Potash, bichromate of, [208]
- Pounce for vellum, [155]
- Powder colours, [132]
- Practise in writing, [52]
- Preparing colours, [131–7]
- Printed book, the ideal, [254]
- the illumination of, [232–7]
- the decoration of, [238–47]
- Printing and illumination, [254]
- Process blocks, [178–81]
- work, white for, [130]
- Proportional compass, [68]
- Psalter, Athelstan’s, [90]
- Queen Mary’s, [96]
- of Westminster Abbey, [94]
- Harleian, [91]
- Pumice powder, [155]
- Queen Mary’s Psalter, [96]
- Quill pen, the earliest allusion to it, [28]
- cutting it, [42–3]
- Rabula MS., [86]
- Raised gilding, [142], [147], [157–60]
- Raising preparation, [158–9]
- Raw sienna, [125]
- umber, [129]
- Red and black, the use of, [107–14], [250]
- Red pigments, [125]
- Reed pens, [27–8], [42]
- Reproduction, the various methods of, [178–84]
- Risalgallo Realgar, [121]
- Roman bronze pens, [28]
- lettering, [70–83]
- made with simple pen-strokes, [73–4]
- Rose madder, [127]
- Rubber, kneaded, [160]
- Rustic capitals, [33]
- S, THE LETTER, [57–8]
- Sable writer, [83], [212]
- Saffron, [121–2]
- St. Bridget, [87]
- Columba, [88]
- Isidore, [28]
- Swithin, [90]
- Salt green, [118]
- Sap of Iris, [118]
- Saucers for colour, [135]
- Scarlet madder, [127]
- Schedula Diversarum Artium, [117]
- Scraper, [133], [135]
- Scriptoria, the two Winchester, [90]
- Sections for MS. books, [217]
- Sepia, [129]
- Service books, [169]
- Service, Marriage, [170]
- Set square, [107–8]
- Setting out page, [107–8]
- Seventh-century writing, [36]
- Sewing sections, [226–7]
- Show-cards, [214–5]
- Sienna, burnt, [127]
- raw, [125]
- Silver leaf, [147]
- Simeon Metaphrastes, [86]
- Sinopia, [120]
- Sixteenth-century writing, [83]
- Size and raising preparation, [158–9]
- parchment, [140]
- Sketch book, the use of a, [166]
- Skins of animals as writing material, [28]
- Slope for writing, [49]
- Somme le Roi, [95]
- Spacing words and letters, [57]
- Spanish green, [118]
- Spring dividers, [107]
- for pen, [43]
- Square capitals, [33]
- Stretching paper, [154]
- vellum, [154]
- Stylus, the use of the, [25–6]
- Success in illumination, [248]
- Tablets, writing, [28]
- Tail-pieces, illuminated, [235]
- printed, [244–5]
- Tea, for tinting paper, [153]
- Tee square, [107–8]
- Tenth-century writing, [38], [62]
- Texts for churches, [170]
- Theophilus, [117]
- Theophrastus, [115]
- Thirteenth-century illumination, [94]
- writing, [41], [64]
- Three-colour blocks, [180–1]
- Tinting parchment, [122]
- Title-page, [234], [238–40]
- Tool, the influence of the, [23–31]
- the mastery of the, [42]
- Trajan column, [76]
- Tube colours, [131]
- Turkey quill, [44]
- Twelfth-century illumination, [93–4]
- writing, [41], [63]
- U, THE LETTER, [59]
- Ultramarine, [121], [127–8]
- ash, [128]
- French, [128]
- Umber, burnt, [129]
- raw, [129]
- Uncials, [34]
- mixed, [35]
- half-, [36]
- Irish, [36]
- English, [37]
- V, THE LETTER, [59]
- Vandyke brown, [129]
- Vellum, [152–6], [216–7]
- limp, binding MSS. with, [225–31]
- reputed origin of, [28]
- Verde azzuro, [121]
- Verde terra, [115]
- Verderame, [121]
- Verdigris, [118], [121]
- Vermilion, [117], [119], [125–7]
- Vienna Genesis, [85–6]
- Violet, cobalt, [128]
- Virgil MS. in the Vatican, [85]
- Viridian, [128]
- Visigothic writing, [39]
- Vitruvius, [115]
- Wedge-shaped Characters, [25]
- Westminster Abbey, Psalter of, [94]
- White of egg, [118–9]
- used for gilding, [139–41], [143]
- White lead, [121], [130]
- White pigments, [129–30]
- Winchester School of Illumination, [90]
- Window tickets, [213]
- Wood-engraving, [238]
- Words, forming, [54–9]
- Workmanship, good, [255]
- Writer, sable, [83], [212]
- Writing, beautiful, the foundation of true illumination, [23–4], [248]
- expression in the, [223]
- majuscule, [32]
- cursive, [32]
- minuscule, [38]
- Lombardic, [38–9]
- Visigothic, [39]
- Merovingian, [39–40]
- Carlovingian, [40]
- fourth-century, [33]
- fifth-century, [33–5]
- seventh-century, [36]
- eighth and ninth-century, [38–9]
- tenth-century, [38], [62]
- twelfth-century, [41], [63]
- thirteenth-century, [41], [64]
- fourteenth-century, [65]
- fifteenth-century, [41], [79–80]
- sixteenth-century, [83]
- Yellow pigments, [124]
- Yolk of egg, [119]
- Zafferano, [121]
- Zinc white, [129–30]
PRINTED BY THE ANCHOR PRESS, LTD., TIPTREE, ESSEX, ENGLAND.
Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced quotation marks retained.
Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.
Index not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.
All “facing” references in the List of Illustrations, and all “Facing page” information in the captions of illustrations have been deleted. The illustrations in this eBook have been placed between paragraphs near their original locations.
“An Illuminated Address”, listed in the [List of Illustrations], was not found in this book.