CHAPTER XXXVIII.

MINERAL VEINS.

Werner's doctrine that mineral veins were fissures filled from above — Veins of segregation — Ordinary metalliferous veins or lodes — Their frequent coincidence with faults — Proofs that they originated in fissures in solid rock — Veins shifting other veins — Polishing of their walls — Shells and pebbles in lodes — Evidence of the successive enlargement and re-opening of veins — Fournet's observations in Auvergne — Dimensions of veins — Why some alternately swell out and contract — Filling of lodes by sublimation from below — Chemical and electrical action — Relative age of the precious metals — Copper and lead veins in Ireland older than Cornish tin — Lead vein in lias, Glamorganshire — Gold in Russia — Connection of hot springs and mineral veins — Concluding remarks.

The manner in which metallic substances are distributed through the earth's crust, and more especially the phenomena of those nearly vertical and tabular masses of ore called mineral veins, from which the larger part of the precious metals used by man are obtained,—these are subjects of the highest practical importance to the miner, and of no less theoretical interest to the geologist.

The views entertained respecting metalliferous veins have been modified, or, rather, have undergone an almost complete revolution, since the middle of the last century, when Werner, as director of the School of Mines, at Freiberg in Saxony, first attempted to generalize the facts then known. He taught that mineral veins had originally been open fissures which were gradually filled up with crystalline and metallic matter, and that many of them, after being once filled, had been again enlarged or re-opened. He also pointed out that veins thus formed are not all referable to one era, but are of various geological dates.

Such opinions, although slightly hinted at by earlier writers, had never before been generally received, and their announcement by one of high authority and great experience constituted an era in the science. Nevertheless, I have shown, when tracing, in another work, the history and progress of geology, that Werner was far behind some of his predecessors in his theory of the volcanic rocks, and less enlightened than his contemporary, Dr. Hutton, in his speculations as to the origin of granite.[489-A] According to him, the plutonic formations, as well as the crystalline schists, were substances precipitated from a chaotic fluid in some primeval or nascent condition of the planet; and the metals, therefore, being closely connected with them, had partaken, according to him, of a like mysterious origin. He also held that the trap rocks were aqueous deposits, and that dikes of porphyry, greenstone, and basalt, were fissures filled with their several contents from above. Hence he naturally inferred that mineral veins had derived their component materials from an incumbent ocean, rather than from a subterranean source; that these materials had been first dissolved in the waters above, instead of having risen up by sublimation from lakes and seas of igneous matter below.

In proportion as the hypothesis of a primeval fluid, or "chaotic menstruum," was abandoned, in reference to the plutonic formations, and when all geologists had come to be of one mind as to the true relation of the volcanic and trappean rocks, reasonable hopes began to be entertained that the phenomena of mineral veins might be explained by known causes, or by chemical, thermal, and electrical agency still at work in the interior of the earth. The grounds of this conclusion will be better understood when the geological facts brought to light by mining operations have been described and explained.

On different kinds of mineral veins.—Every geologist is familiarly acquainted with those veins of quartz which abound in hypogene strata, forming lenticular masses of limited extent. They are sometimes observed, also, in sandstones and shales. Veins of carbonate of lime are equally common in fossiliferous rocks, especially in limestones. Such veins appear to have once been chinks or small cavities, caused, like cracks in clay, by the shrinking of the mass, which has consolidated from a fluid state, or has simply contracted its dimensions in passing from a higher to a lower temperature. Siliceous, calcareous, and occasionally metallic matters, have sometimes found their way simultaneously into such empty spaces, by infiltration from the surrounding rocks, or by segregation, as it is often termed. Mixed with hot water and steam, metallic ores may have permeated a pasty matrix until they reached those receptacles formed by shrinkage, and thus gave rise to that irregular assemblage of veins, called by the Germans a "stockwerk," in allusion to the different floors on which the mining operations are in such cases carried on.

The more ordinary or regular veins are usually worked in vertical shafts, and have evidently been fissures produced by mechanical violence. They traverse all kinds of rocks, both hypogene and fossiliferous, and extend downwards to indefinite or unknown depths. We may assume that they correspond with such rents as we see caused from time to time by the shock of an earthquake. Metalliferous veins, referable to such agency, are occasionally a few inches wide, but more commonly 3 or 4 feet. They hold their course continuously in a certain prevailing direction for miles or leagues, passing through rocks varying in mineral composition.

Vertical sections of the mine of Huel Peever, Redruth, Cornwall.

That metalliferous veins were fissures.—As some intelligent miners, after an attentive study of metalliferous veins, have been unable to reconcile many of their characteristics with the hypothesis of fissures, I shall begin by stating the evidence in its favour. The most striking fact perhaps which can be adduced in its support is, the coincidence of a considerable proportion of mineral veins with faults, or those dislocations of rocks which are indisputably due to mechanical force, as above explained ([p. 62.]). There are even proofs in almost every mining district of a succession of faults, by which the opposite walls of rents, now the receptacles of metallic substances, have suffered displacement. Thus, for example, suppose a a, [fig. 513.], to be a tin lode in Cornwall, the term lode being applied to veins containing metallic ores. This lode, running east and west, is a yard wide, and is shifted by a copper lode (b b), of similar width.

The first fissure (a a) has been filled with various materials, partly of chemical origin, such as quartz, fluor-spar, peroxide of tin, sulphuret of copper, arsenical pyrites, bismuth, and sulphuret of nickel, and partly of mechanical origin, comprising clay and angular fragments or detritus of the intersected rocks. The plates of quartz and the ores are, in some places, parallel to the vertical sides or walls of the vein, being divided from each other by alternating layers of clay, or other earthy matter. Occasionally the metallic ores are disseminated in detached masses among the veinstones.

It is clear that, after the gradual introduction of the tin and other substances, the second rent (b b) was produced by another fracture accompanied by a displacement of the rocks along the plane of b b. This new opening was then filled with minerals, some of them resembling those in a a, as fluor-spar (or fluate of lime) and quartz; others different, the copper being plentiful and the tin wanting or very scarce.

We must next suppose the shock of a third earthquake to occur, breaking asunder all the rocks along the line c c, [fig. 514.]; the fissure in this instance, being only 6 inches wide, and simply filled with clay, derived, probably, from the friction of the walls of the rent, or partly, perhaps, washed in from above. This new movement has heaved the rock in such a manner as to interrupt the continuity of the copper vein (b b), and, at the same time, to shift or heave laterally in the same direction a portion of the tin vein which had not previously been broken.

Again, in [fig. 515.] we see evidence of a fourth fissure (d d), also filled with clay, which has cut through the tin vein (a a), and has lifted it slightly upwards towards the south. The various changes here represented are not ideal, but are exhibited in a section obtained in working an old Cornish mine, long since abandoned, in the parish of Redruth, called Huel Peever, and described both by Mr. Williams and Mr. Carne.[491-A] The principal movement here referred to, or that of c c, [fig. 515.], extends through a space of no less than 84 feet; but in this, as in the case of the other three, it will be seen that the outline of the country above, or the geographical features of Cornwall, are not affected by any of the dislocations, a powerful denuding force having clearly been exerted subsequently to all the faults. (See above, [p. 69.]) It is commonly said in Cornwall, that there are eight distinct systems of veins which can in like manner be referred to as many successive movements or fractures; and the German miners of the Hartz Mountains speak also of eight systems of veins, referable to as many periods.

Besides the proofs of mechanical action already explained, the opposite walls of veins are frequently polished and striated, as if they had undergone great friction, and this even in cases where there has been no shift. We may attribute such rubbing to a vibratory motion known to accompany earthquakes, and to produce trituration on the opposite walls of rents. Similar movements have sometimes occurred in mineral veins which had been wholly or partially filled up; for included pieces of rock, detached from the sides, are found to be rounded, polished, and striated.

That a great many veins communicated originally with the surface of the country above, or with the bed of the sea, is proved by the occurrence in them of well rounded pebbles, agreeing with those in superficial alluviums, as in Auvergne and Saxony. In Bohemia, such pebbles have been met with at the depth of 180 fathoms. In Cornwall, Mr. Carne mentions true pebbles of quartz and slate in a tin lode of the Relistran Mine, at the depth of 600 feet below the surface. They were cemented by oxide of tin and bisulphuret of copper, and were traced over a space more than 12 feet long and as many wide.[492-A] Marine fossil shells, also, have been found at great depths, having probably been engulphed during submarine earthquakes. Thus, a gryphæa is stated by M. Virlet to have been met with in a lead-mine near Sémur, in France, and a madrepore in a compact vein of cinnabar in Hungary.[492-B]

When different sets or systems of veins occur in the same country, those which are supposed to be of contemporaneous origin, and which are filled with the same kind of metals, often maintain a general parallelism of direction. Thus, for example, both the tin and copper veins in Cornwall run nearly east and west, while the lead-veins run north and south; but there is no general law of direction common to different mining districts. The parallelism of the veins is another reason for regarding them as ordinary fissures, for we observe that contemporaneous trap dikes, admitted by all to be masses of melted matter which have filled rents, are often parallel. Assuming, then, that veins are simply fissures in which chemical and mechanical deposits have accumulated, we may next consider the proofs of their having been filled gradually and often during successive enlargements. I have already spoken of parallel layers of clay, quartz, and ore. Werner himself observed, in a vein near Gersdorff, in Saxony, no less than thirteen beds of different minerals, arranged with the utmost regularity on each side of the central layer. This layer was formed of two beds of calcareous spar, which had evidently lined the opposite walls of a vertical cavity. The thirteen beds followed each other in corresponding order, consisting of fluor-spar, heavy spar, galena, &c. In these cases, the central mass has been last formed, and the two plates which coat the outer walls of the rent on each side are the oldest of all. If they consist of crystalline precipitates, they may be explained by supposing the fissure to have remained unaltered in its dimensions, while a series of changes occurred in the nature of the solutions which rose up from below; but such a mode of deposition, in the case of many successive and parallel layers, appears to be exceptional.

If a veinstone consist of crystalline matter, the points of the crystals are always turned inwards, or towards the centre of the vein; in other words, they point in that direction where there was most space for the development of the crystals. Thus each new layer receives the impression of the crystals of the preceding layer, and imprints its crystals on the one which follows, until at length the whole of the vein is filled: the two layers which meet dovetail the points of their crystals the one into the other. But in Cornwall, some lodes occur where the vertical plates, or combs, as they are there called, exhibit crystals so dovetailed as to prove that the same fissure has been often enlarged. Sir H. De la Beche gives the following curious and instructive example ([fig. 516.]) from a copper-mine in granite, near Redruth.[493-A] Each of the plates or combs (a, b, c, d, e, f) are double, having the points of their crystals turned inwards along the axis of the comb. The sides or walls (2, 3, 4, 5, and 6) are parted by a thin covering of ochreous clay, so that each comb is readily separable from another by a moderate blow of the hammer. The breadth of each represents the whole width of the fissure at six successive periods, and the outer walls of the vein, where the first narrow rent was formed, consisted of the granitic surfaces 1 and 7.

Fig. 516.

Copper lode, near Redruth, enlarged at six successive periods.

A somewhat analogous interpretation is applicable to numbers of other cases, where clay, sand, or angular detritus, alternate with ores and veinstones. Thus, we may imagine the sides of a fissure to be encrusted with siliceous matter, as Von Buch observed, in Lancerote, the walls of a volcanic crater formed in 1731 to be traversed by an open rent in which hot vapours had deposited hydrate of silica, the incrustation nearly extending to the middle.[493-B] Such a vein may then be filled with clay or sand, and afterwards re-opened, the new rent dividing the argillaceous deposit, and allowing a quantity of rubbish to fall down. Various metals and spars may then be precipitated from aqueous solutions among the interstices of this heterogeneous mass.

That such changes have repeatedly occurred, is demonstrated by occasional cross-veins, implying the oblique fracture of previously formed chemical and mechanical deposits. Thus, for example, M. Fournet, in his description of some mines in Auvergne worked under his superintendence, observes, that the granite of that country was first penetrated by veins of granite, and then dislocated, so that open rents crossed both the granite and the granitic veins. Into such openings, quartz, accompanied by sulphurets of iron and arsenical pyrites, was introduced. Another convulsion then burst open the rocks along the old line of fracture, and the first set of deposits were cracked and often shattered, so that the new rent was filled, not only with angular fragments of the adjoining rocks, but with pieces of the older veinstones. Polished and striated surfaces on the sides or in the contents of the vein also attest the reality of these movements. A new period of repose then ensued, during which various sulphurets were introduced, together with hornstone quartz, by which angular fragments of the older quartz before mentioned were cemented into a breccia. This period was followed by other dilatations of the same veins, and other sets of mineral deposits, until, at last, pebbles of the basaltic lavas of Auvergne, derived from superficial alluviums, probably of Miocene or older Pliocene date, were swept into the veins. I have not space to enumerate all the changes minutely detailed by M. Fournet, but they are valuable, both to the miner and geologist, as showing how the supposed signs of violent catastrophes may be the monuments, not of one paroxysmal shock, but of reiterated movements.

Such repeated enlargement and re-opening of veins might have been anticipated, if we adopt the theory of fissures, and reflect how few of them have ever been sealed up entirely, and that a country with fissures only partially filled must naturally offer much feebler resistance along the old lines of fracture than any where else. It is quite otherwise in the case of dikes, where each opening has been the receptacle of one continuous and homogeneous mass of melted matter, the consolidation of which has taken place under considerable pressure. Trappean dikes can rarely fail to strengthen the rocks at the points where before they were weakest; and if the upheaving force is again exerted in the same direction, the crust of the earth will give way anywhere rather than at the precise points where the first rents were produced.

A large proportion of metalliferous veins have their opposite walls nearly parallel, and sometimes over a wide extent of country. There is a fine example of this in the celebrated vein of Andreasberg in the Hartz, which has been worked for a depth of 500 yards perpendicularly, and 200 horizontally, retaining almost every where a width of 3 feet. But many lodes in Cornwall and elsewhere are extremely variable in size, being 1 or 2 inches in one part, and then 8 or 10 feet in another, at the distance of a few fathoms, and then again narrowing as before. Such alternate swelling and contraction is so often characteristic as to require explanation. The walls of fissures in general, observes Sir H. De la Beche, are rarely perfect planes throughout their entire course, nor could we well expect them to be so, since they commonly pass through rocks of unequal hardness and different mineral composition. If, therefore, the opposite sides of such irregular fissures slide upon each other, that is to say, if there be a fault, as in the case of so many mineral veins, the parallelism of the opposite walls is at once entirely destroyed, as will be readily seen by studying the annexed diagrams.

Fig. 517.

Fig. 518.

Fig. 519.

Let a b, [fig. 517.], be a line of fracture traversing a rock, and let a b, [fig. 518.], represent the same line. Now, if we cut a piece of paper representing this line, and then move the lower portion of this cut paper sideways from a to a', taking care that the two pieces of paper still touch each other at the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, we obtain an irregular aperture at c, and isolated cavities at d d d, and when we compare such figures with nature we find that, with certain modifications, they represent the interior of faults and mineral veins. If, instead of sliding the cut paper to the right hand, we move the lower part towards the left, about the same distance that it was previously slid to the right, we obtain considerable variation in the cavities so produced, two long irregular open spaces, f f, [fig. 519.], being then formed. This will serve to show to what slight circumstances considerable variations in the character of the openings between unevenly fractured surfaces may be due, such surfaces being moved upon each other, so as to have numerous points of contact.

Fig. 520.

Most lodes are perpendicular to the horizon, or nearly so; but some of them have a considerable inclination or "hade," as it is termed, the angles of dip varying from 15° to 45°. The course of a vein is frequently very straight; but if tortuous, it is found to be choked up with clay, stones, and pebbles, at points where it departs most widely from verticality. Hence at places, such as a, [fig. 520.], the miner complains that the ores are "nipped," or greatly reduced in quantity, the space for their free deposition having been interfered with in consequence of the pre-occupancy of the lode by earthy materials. When lodes are many fathoms wide, they are usually filled for the most part with earthy matter, and fragments of rock, through which the ores are much disseminated. The metallic substances frequently coat or encircle detached pieces of rock, which our miners call "horses" or "riders." That we should find some mineral veins which split into branches is also natural, for we observe the same in regard to open fissures.

Chemical deposits in veins.—If we now turn from the mechanical to the chemical agencies which have been instrumental in the production of mineral veins, it may be remarked that those parts of fissures which were not choked up with the ruins of fractured rocks must always have been filled with water; and almost every vein has probably been the channel by which hot springs, so common in countries of volcanos and earthquakes, have made their way to the surface. For we know that the rents in which ores abound extend downwards to vast depths, where the temperature of the interior of the earth is more elevated. We also know that mineral veins are most metalliferous near the contact of plutonic and stratified formations, especially where the former send veins into the latter, a circumstance which indicates an original proximity of veins at their inferior extremity to igneous and heated rocks. It is moreover acknowledged that even those mineral and thermal springs which, in the present state of the globe, are far from volcanos, are nevertheless observed to burst out along great lines of upheaval and dislocation of rocks.[496-A] It is also ascertained that all the substances with which hot springs are impregnated agree with those discharged in a gaseous form from volcanos. Many of these bodies occur as veinstones; such as silex, carbonate of lime, sulphur, fluor-spar, sulphate of barytes, magnesia, oxide of iron, and others. I may add that, if veins have been filled with gaseous emanations from masses of melted matter, slowly cooling in the subterranean regions, the contraction of such masses as they pass from a plastic to a solid state would, according to the experiments of Deville on granite (a rock which may be taken as a standard), produce a reduction in volume amounting to 10 per cent. The slow crystallization, therefore, of such plutonic rocks supplies us with a force not only capable of rending open the incumbent rocks by causing a failure of support, but also of giving rise to faults whenever one portion of the earth's crust subsides slowly while another contiguous to it happens to rest on a different foundation, so as to remain unmoved.

Although we are led to infer, from the foregoing reasoning, that there has often been an intimate connection between metalliferous veins and hot springs holding mineral matter in solution, yet we must not on that account expect that the contents of hot springs and mineral veins would be identical. On the contrary, M. E. de Beaumont has judiciously observed that we ought to find in veins those substances which, being least soluble, are not discharged by hot springs,—or that class of simple and compound bodies which the thermal waters ascending from below would first precipitate on the walls of a fissure, as soon as their temperature began slightly to diminish. The higher they mount towards the surface, the more will they cool, till they acquire the average temperature of springs, being in that case chiefly charged with the most soluble substances, such as the alkalis, soda and potash. These are not met with in veins, although they enter so largely into the composition of granitic rocks.[496-B]

To a certain extent, therefore, the arrangement and distribution of metallic matter in veins may be referred to ordinary chemical action, or to those variations in temperature, which waters holding the ores in solution must undergo, as they rise upwards from great depths in the earth. But there are other phenomena which do not admit of the same simple explanation. Thus, for example, in Derbyshire, veins containing ores of lead, zinc, and copper, but chiefly lead, traverse alternate beds of limestone and greenstone. The ore is plentiful where the walls of the rent consist of limestone, but is reduced to a mere string when they are formed of greenstone, or "toadstone," as it is called provincially. Not that the original fissure is narrower where the greenstone occurs, but because more of the space is there filled with veinstones, and the waters at such points have not parted so freely with their metallic contents.

"Lodes in Cornwall," says Mr. Robert W. Fox, "are very much influenced in their metallic riches by the nature of the rock which they traverse, and they often change in this respect very suddenly, in passing from one rock to another. Thus many lodes which yield abundance of ore in granite, are unproductive in clay-slate, or killas, and vice versâ. The same observation applies to killas and the granitic porphyry called elvan. Sometimes, in the same continuous vein, the granite will contain copper, and the killas tin, or vice versâ."[497-A] Mr. Fox, after ascertaining the existence at present of electric currents in some of the metalliferous veins in Cornwall, has speculated on the probability of the same cause having acted originally on the sulphurets and muriates of copper, tin, iron, and zinc, dissolved in the hot water of fissures, so as to determine the peculiar mode of their distribution. After instituting experiments on this subject, he even endeavoured to account for the prevalence of an east and west direction in the principal Cornish lodes by their position at right angles to the earth's magnetism; but Mr. Henwood and other experienced miners have pointed out objections to the theory; and it must be owned that the direction of veins in different mining districts varies so entirely that it seems to depend on lines of fracture, rather than on the laws of voltaic electricity. Nevertheless, as different kinds of rock would be often in different electrical conditions, we may readily believe that electricity must often govern the arrangement of metallic precipitates in a rent.

"I have observed," says Mr. R. Fox, "that when the chloride of tin in solution is placed in the voltaic circuit, part of the tin is deposited in a metallic state at the negative pole, and part at the positive one, in the state of a peroxide, such as it occurs in our Cornish mines. This experiment may serve to explain why tin is found contiguous to, and intermixed with, copper ore, and likewise separated from it, in other parts of the same lode."[497-B]

Relative age of the different metals.—After duly reflecting on the facts above described, we cannot doubt that mineral veins, like eruptions of granite or trap, are referable to many distinct periods of the earth's history, although it may be more difficult to determine the precise age of veins; because they have often remained open for ages, and because, as we have seen, the same fissure, after having been once filled, has frequently been re-opened or enlarged. But besides this diversity of age, it has been supposed by some geologists that certain metals have been produced exclusively in earlier, others in more modern times,—that tin, for example, is of higher antiquity than copper, copper than lead or silver, and all of them more ancient than gold. I shall first point out that the facts once relied upon in support of some of these views are contradicted by later experience, and then consider how far any chronological order of arrangement can be recognized in the position of the precious and other metals in the earth's crust. In the first place, it is not true that veins in which tin abounds are the oldest lodes worked in Great Britain. The government survey of Ireland has demonstrated, that in Wexford veins of copper and lead (the latter as usual being argentiferous) are much older than the tin of Cornwall. In each of the two countries a very similar series of geological changes has occurred at two distinct epochs,—in Wexford, before the Devonian strata were deposited; in Cornwall, after the carboniferous epoch. To begin with the Irish mining district: We have granite in Wexford, traversed by granite veins, which veins also intrude themselves into the Silurian strata, the same Silurian rocks as well as the veins having been denuded before the Devonian beds were superimposed. Next we find, in the same county, that elvans, or straight dikes of porphyritic granite, have cut through the granite and the veins before mentioned, but have not penetrated the Devonian rocks. Subsequently to these elvans, veins of copper and lead were produced, being of a date certainly posterior to the Silurian, and anterior to the Devonian; for they do not enter the latter, and, what is still more decisive, streaks or layers of derivative copper have been found near Wexford in the Devonian, not far from points where mines of copper are worked in the Silurian strata.[498-A]

Although the precise age of such copper lodes cannot be defined, we may safely affirm that they were either filled at the close of the Silurian or commencement of the Devonian period. Besides copper, lead, and silver, there is some gold in these ancient or primary metalliferous veins. A few fragments also of tin found in Wicklow in the drift are supposed to have been derived from veins of the same age.[498-B]

Next, if we turn to Cornwall, we find there also the monuments of a very analogous sequence of events. First the granite was formed; then, about the same period, veins of fine-grained granite, often tortuous (see [fig. 496.], [p. 445.]), penetrating both the outer crust of granite and the adjoining fossiliferous or primary rocks, including the coal-measures; thirdly, elvans, holding their course straight through granite, granitic veins, and fossiliferous slates; fourthly, veins of tin also containing copper, the first of those eight systems of fissures of different ages already alluded to, [p. 491.] Here, then, the tin lodes are newer than the elvans. It has indeed been stated by some Cornish miners that the elvans are in some few instances posterior to the oldest tin-bearing lodes, but the observations of Sir H. De la Beche during the survey led him to an opposite conclusion, and he has shown how the cases referred to in corroboration can be otherwise interpreted.[499-A] We may, therefore, assert that the most ancient Cornish lodes are younger than the coal-measures of that part of England, and it follows that they are of a much later date than the Irish copper and lead of Wexford and some adjoining counties. How much later it is not so easy to declare, although probably they are not newer than the beginning of the Permian period, as no tin lodes have been discovered in any red sandstone of the Poikilitic group, which overlies the coal in the south-west of England.

There are lead veins in the Mendip hills which extend through the mountain limestone into the Permian or Dolomitic conglomerate, and others in Glamorganshire which enter the lias. Those worked near Frome, in Somersetshire, have been traced into the Inferior Oolite. In Bohemia, the rich veins of silver of Joachimsthal cut through basalt containing olivine, which overlies tertiary lignite, in which are leaves of dicotyledonous trees. This silver, therefore, is decidedly a tertiary formation. In regard to the age of the gold of the Ural Mountains, in Russia, which, like that of California, is obtained chiefly from auriferous alluvium, we can merely affirm that it occurs in veins of quartz in the schistose and granitic rocks of that chain. Sir R. Murchison observes, that no gold has yet been found in the Permian conglomerates which lie at the base of the Ural Mountains, although large quantities of iron and copper detritus are mixed with the rolled pebbles of these same Permian strata. Hence it seems that the Uralian quartz veins, containing gold and platinum, were not exposed to aqueous denudation during the Permian era. But we cannot feel sure, from any data yet before us, that such auriferous veins of quartz may not be as old as the tin lodes of Cornwall, in which, as well as the more ancient copper lodes of Ireland, some gold has been detected. We are also unable at present to assign to the gold veins of Brazil, Peru, or California, their respective geological dates. But, although enough is known to show that Ovid's line about the "Age of Gold," "Aurea prima sata est ætas," would, by no means, be an apt motto for a treatise on mining, it would be equally rash in the present state of our inquiries to affirm, as some have done, that gold was the last-formed of metals.

It has been remarked by M. de Beaumont, that lead and some other metals are found in dikes of basalt and greenstone, as well as in mineral veins connected with trap rocks, whereas tin is met with in granite and in veins associated with the granitic series. If this rule hold true generally, the geological position of tin in localities accessible to the miners will belong, for the most part, to rocks older than those bearing lead. The tin veins will be of higher relative antiquity for the same reason that the "underlying" igneous formations or granites which are visible to man are older, on the whole, than the overlying or trappean formations.

If different sets of fissures, originating simultaneously at different levels in the earth's crust, and communicating, some of them, with volcanic, others with heated plutonic masses, be filled with different metals, it will follow that those formed farthest from the surface will usually require the longest time before they can be exposed superficially. In order to bring them into view, or within reach of the miner, a greater amount of upheaval and denudation must take place in proportion as they have lain deeper when first formed. A considerable series of geological revolutions must intervene before any part of the fissure, which has been for ages in the proximity of the plutonic rocks, so as to receive the gases discharged from it when it was cooling, can emerge into the atmosphere. But I need not enlarge on this subject, as the reader will remember what was said in the 30th, 34th, and 37th chapters, on the chronology of the volcanic and hypogene formations.

Concluding Remarks.—The theory of the origin of the hypogene rocks, at a variety of successive periods, as expounded in two of the chapters just cited, and still more the doctrine that such rocks may be now in the daily course of formation, has made and still makes its way, but slowly, into favour. The disinclination to embrace it has arisen partly from an inherent obscurity in the very nature of the evidence of plutonic action when developed on a great scale, at particular periods. It has also sprung, in some degree, from extrinsic considerations; many geologists having been unwilling to believe the doctrine of the transmutation of fossiliferous into crystalline rocks, because they were desirous of finding proofs of a beginning, and of tracing back the history of our terraqueous system to times anterior to the creation of organic beings. But if these expectations have been disappointed, if we have found it impossible to assign a limit to that time throughout which it has pleased an Omnipotent and Eternal Being to manifest his creative power, we have at least succeeded beyond all hope in carrying back our researches to times antecedent to the existence of man. We can prove that man had a beginning, and that, all the species now contemporary with man, and many others which preceded, had also a beginning, and that, consequently, the present state of the organic world has not gone on from all eternity, as some philosophers have maintained.

It can be shown that the earth's surface has been remodelled again and again; mountain chains have been raised or sunk; valleys formed, filled up, and then re-excavated; sea and land have changed places; yet throughout all these revolutions, and the consequent alterations of local and general climate, animal and vegetable life has been sustained. This has been accomplished without violation of the laws now governing the organic creation, by which limits are assigned to the variability of species. The succession of living beings appears to have been continued not by the transmutation of species, but by the introduction into the earth from time to time of new plants and animals, and each assemblage of new species must have been admirably fitted for the new states of the globe as they arose, or they would not have increased and multiplied and endured for indefinite periods.[501-A]

Astronomy had been unable to establish the plurality of habitable worlds throughout space, however favourite a subject of conjecture and speculation; but geology, although it cannot prove that other planets are peopled with appropriate races of living beings, has demonstrated the truth of conclusions scarcely less wonderful,—the existence on our own planet of so many habitable surfaces, or worlds as they have been called, each distinct in time, and peopled with its peculiar races of aquatic and terrestrial beings.

The proofs now accumulated of the close analogy between extinct and recent species are such as to leave no doubt on the mind that the same harmony of parts and beauty of contrivance which we admire in the living creation, has equally characterized the organic world at remote periods. Thus as we increase our knowledge of the inexhaustible variety displayed in living nature, and admire the infinite wisdom and power which it displays, our admiration is multiplied by the reflection, that it is only the last of a great series of pre-existing creations, of which we cannot estimate the number or limit in times past.[501-B]

INDEX.

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

H.

I.

J.

K.

L.

M.

N.

O.

P.

Q.

R.

S.

T.

U.

V.

W.

Z.

London:

Spottiswoodes and Shaw,
New-street-Square.

[p.A]Albemarle Street,
July 5, 1851.

MR. MURRAY'S

List of Recent Works

HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE;

FROM 1815-1850. BY LUGIA CARLO FARINI.

TRANSLATED FROM THE ITALIAN

BY THE RIGHT HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P.

2 Vols. 8vo. 24s.

———♦———

THE EXPOSITION OF 1851;

OR, VIEWS OF THE INDUSTRY, THE SCIENCE, AND THE GOVERNMENT OF ENGLAND.

BY CHARLES BABBAGE, ESQ.,

Author of the "Economy of Manufactures and Machinery."

Second Edition, with an Appendix. 8vo. 6s. 6d.

———♦———

THE DOVECOTE AND THE AVIARY;

OR, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PIGEONS AND OTHER DOMESTIC BIRDS, WITH HINTS FOR THEIR MANAGEMENT.

BY THE REV. EDMUND SAUL DIXON, M.A.,

Author of "Ornamental and Domestic Poultry."

With Numerous Woodcuts. Fcap. 8vo. 7s. 6d.

———♦———

MEMOIR OF THE LIFE OF THE LATE BISHOP STANLEY.

PREFIXED TO A SELECTION FROM HIS ADDRESSES AND CHARGES.

BY THE REV. ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY, M.A.

8vo. 10s. 6d.

"The memoir is executed with feeling, and, as might be expected from the biographer of Dr. Arnold, with great skill. Mr. Stanley brings out into strong relief the more attractive parts of his father's character, and suggests the best defence—namely, the consistent uprightness and perfect sincerity of his motives—for the more questionable policy, on some memorable occasions, of the bishop."

Morning Chronicle.

———♦———[p.B]

A PASTORAL LETTER ON THE STATE OF THE CHURCH,

BY HENRY LORD BISHOP OF EXETER.

Eighth Edition. 8vo. 4s.

———♦———

THE ACTS OF THE SYNOD OF EXETER.

HOLDEN IN THE CHAPTER HOUSE OF THE CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF EXETER.

On June 25, 26, and 27, 1851.

8vo.

⁂ The Sermon may be had separately, price 1s.

———♦———

THE EVANGELICAL AND TRACTARIAN MOVEMENTS.

BY ARCHDEACON WILBERFORCE.

(A Charge delivered to and published by Request of the Clergy.)

8vo. 1s.

———♦———

A HISTORY OF ERASTIANISM.

BY ARCHDEACON WILBERFORCE.

16mo. 3s.

———♦———

CATHOLIC SAFEGUARDS

AGAINST THE ERRORS, CORRUPTIONS, AND NOVELTIES OF THE CHURCH OF ROME.

BEING DISCOURSES AND TRACTS SELECTED FROM THE WORKS OF EMINENT DIVINES OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND WHO LIVED DURING THE 17TH CENTURY; WITH PREFACE, RECORDS, AND A CAREFULLY COMPILED INDEX.

BY REV. JAMES BROGDEN, M.A.

3 Vols. 8vo. 36s.

———♦———

RECORDS OF THE SUPREMACY OF THE CROWN,

AND THE CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTIES OF THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND.

BY REV. JAMES BROGDEN.

8vo. 4s.

———♦———[p.C]

HORÆ ÆGYPTIACÆ;

OR, THE CHRONOLOGY OF ANCIENT EGYPT.

DISCOVERED FROM ASTRONOMICAL AND HIEROGLYPHIC RECORDS UPON ITS MONUMENTS INCLUDING MANY DATES FOUND IN COEVAL INSCRIPTIONS.

BY REGINALD STUART POOLE, ESQ.

With Plates. 8vo. 10s. 6d.

"The substance of Mr. Poole's valuable work appeared originally in a series of papers in this journal. Since their publication the author has devoted further time and attention to the subject; and it may safely be asserted that in their present amended and enlarged form, they are among the most important contributions that have yet been made to the study of Egyptian Chronology and history. We are indebted for the publication of the present valuable work to the liberality of the Duke of Northumberland, whose warm and generous support of literature and art deserves our grateful acknowledgments."

Literary Gazette.

———♦———

LAVENGRO;

THE SCHOLAR—THE GIPSY—AND THE PRIEST.

BY GEORGE BORROW, ESQ.

Author of "The Bible in Spain," "The Gipsies of Spain," &c. &c.

With a Portrait. 3 Vols. Post 8vo. 30s.

"We trust our extracts have exhibited enough of one at least of the many aspects of 'Lavengro' to convince the reader that neither is it a work to be read cursorily, nor to be handled easily, by any of the silver-fork school of critics. These volumes are indeed replete with life, with earnest sympathy for all genuine workers, with profound insight into the wants and wishes of the poor and uneducated, and a lofty disdain of the conventional 'shams' and pretensions which fetter the spirits or impede the energies of mankind. Nor is a feeling for the beautiful less conspicuous in its pages. A quiet market-town, environed by green meadows or bosomed in tufted trees; an old mercantile and ecclesiastical city, with a history stretching from the times of the Cæsars to the times of George III.; the treeless plain, the broad river, the holt, the dingle, the blacksmith's forge, are all in their turn sketched freely and vividly by Mr. Borrow's pencil. In his portraitures of ruder life he is unsurpassed; a dog-fight, a prize-fight, an ale-house kitchen, Greenwich Fair, a savage group of wandering tinkers, are delineated in words as Wilkie or Hogarth might have depicted them in colours. We are embarrassed by the riches spread before us.

"We have not touched upon the gipsy scenes in 'Lavengro' because in any work of Mr. Borrow's these will naturally be the first to draw the reader's attention. Neither have we aimed at abridging or forestalling any portions of a book which has a panoramic unity of its own, and of which scarcely a page is without its proper interest. If we have succeeded in persuading our readers to regard Mr. Borrow as partly an historian and partly as a poet, as well as to look for more in his volumes than mere excitement or amusement, our purpose is attained, and we may securely commend him to the goodly company he will find therein. 'Lavengro,' however, is not concluded; a fourth volume will explain and gather up much of what is now somewhat obscure and fragmentary, and impart a more definite character to the philological and physiological hints comprised in those now before us. Enough, indeed, and more than enough, is written to prove that the author possesses, in no ordinary measure, 'the vision and the faculty divine' for discerning and discriminating what is noble in man and what is beautiful in nature. We trust Mr. Borrow will speedily bring forth the remaining acts of his 'dream of adventure,' and with good heart and hope pursue his way rejoicing, regardless of the misconceptions or misrepresentations of critics who judge through a mist of conventionalities, and who themselves, whether travelled or untravelled, have not, like Lavengro, grappled with the deeper thoughts and veracities of human life."—Tait's Magazine.

———♦———[p.D]

ENGLAND IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY:

POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND INDUSTRIAL.

BY WILLIAM JOHNSTON, ESQ.

2 Vols. Post 8vo. 18s.

"This book is a somewhat undigested mass of valuable matter, interspersed occasionally with reflections of much interest and observations of considerable originality. The author is unquestionably a man of talent; he writes with vigour and smartness; he has taken pains in the collection of most of his materials; and his statistics are arranged with great care and managed with unusual skill. In this point he is much superior to his prototype and apparent master, Mr. Alison."

"Mr. Johnston's work is readable and well-written, abounding with information of many kinds."—Edinburgh Review.

———♦———

THE SAXON IN IRELAND:

BEING NOTES OF THE RAMBLES OF AN ENGLISHMAN IN THE WEST OF IRELAND IN SEARCH OF A SETTLEMENT.

With Map. Post 8vo. 9s. 6d.

"A valuable testimony to the capabilities of Ireland."—Observer.

"Let the intending emigrant devote a few hours to the perusal of this volume. The work possesses deeper interest than even could be claimed for it from its fascinating descriptions."—Illustrated News.

———♦———

SLEEP AND DREAMS:

TWO LECTURES DELIVERED AT THE BRISTOL LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTION.

BY JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, M.D.,

Consulting Physician to the Bristol General Hospital.

8vo. 2s. 6d.

———♦———

THE PALACES OF

NINEVEH AND PERSEPOLIS RESTORED.

AN ESSAY ON ANCIENT ASSYRIAN AND PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.

BY JAMES FERGUSSON ESQ.,

With Woodcuts. 8vo. 16s.

"This book contains many things of general interest relating to one of the most wonderful discoveries that has occurred in the history of the world. Mr. Fergusson writes very dispassionately. What he has said deserves serious consideration."—Gentleman's Magazine.

———♦———

SHALL WE KEEP THE CRYSTAL PALACE

AND HAVE RIDING AND WALKING IN ALL WEATHERS, AMONG FLOWERS, SCULPTURE, AND FOUNTAINS?

BY DENARIUS.

8vo. 6d.

———♦———[p.E]

MEMOIRS OF ROBERT PLUMER WARD.

WITH HIS CORRESPONDENCE, DIARIES, AND LITERARY REMAINS.

BY THE HON. EDMUND PHIPPS.

With Portrait. 2 Vols. 8vo. 28s.

"The most valuable portions of Mr. Ward's diary are its illustrations of the character of the Duke of Wellington. The great soldier, then in the flush of his military triumph, was also in the prime of his power and activity; and Mr. Ward gives us an insight into his business habits, his method of arguing public questions, his ready resource and never-tiring energy, which possesses occasionally a striking interest."—Examiner.

———♦———

THE MILITARY EVENTS IN ITALY, 1848-9.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN.

BY THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF ELLESMERE.

With a Map. Post 8vo. 9s.

"Military history is, as the Earl of Ellesmere declares, a rare article in English literature; and, therefore, he thought that the most authentic extant narrative of the operations implied in the title page of the present book, written by an impartial Swiss, would not be an unwelcome addition to the British library. His lordship has judged rightly; the work of which he has presented a version is a worthy labour, and the events to which it relates are of the last importance. It is written with judgment, and has been translated with care."—Morning Chronicle.

———♦———

A TRANSPORT VOYAGE TO THE MAURITIUS,

BY WAY OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE AND ST. HELENA.

BY THE AUTHOR OF "PADDIANA."

Post 8vo. 9s. 6d.

"This book reminds us of one of those pleasant fellows, whom one sometimes meets with in company, who has an anecdote or a story ready à propos of everything, whose fund of amusing tales is inexhaustible, and who rattling on from one thing to another, will keep a whole table in a roar, or a whole drawing-room in high glee. Even such is our author. He gossips on and on, telling now of one adventure, and then of another; his volume is a perfect chaos of racy reminiscences graphically told."—John Bull.

———♦———

ADMIRALTY MANUAL OF SCIENTIFIC ENQUIRY

FOR THE USE OF OFFICERS AND TRAVELLERS IN GENERAL.

BY PROFESSORS WHEWELL, AIRY, OWEN, SIR W. HOOKER, CAPT. BEECHEY, J. R. HAMILTON, ESQ., SIR JOHN HERSCHEL, &c.

EDITED BY SIR JOHN F. HERSCHEL, BART.

Second Edition. Post 8vo. 10s. 6d.

⁂ Published by Authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty.

———♦———[p.F]

LIVES OF THE CHIEF JUSTICES OF ENGLAND.

FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE DEATH OF LORD MANSFIELD.

BY LORD CHIEF JUSTICE CAMPBELL.

2 Vols. 8vo. 30s.

"There is, indeed, in Lord Campbell's works much instruction; his subjects have been so happily selected, that it was scarcely possible that there should not be. An eminent lawyer and statesman could not write the lives of great statesmen and lawyers without interweaving curious information, and suggesting valuable principles of judgment and useful practical maxims: but it is not for these that his works will be read. Their principal merit is their easy animated flow of interesting narrative. No one possesses better than Lord Campbell the art of telling a story: of passing over what is commonplace; of merely suggesting what may be inferred; of explaining what is obscure; and of placing in strong light the details of what is interesting."—Edinburgh Review.

———♦———

THE FORTY-FIVE.

BEING A NARRATIVE OF THE REBELLION IN SCOTLAND OF 1745;

BY LORD MAHON.

Post 8vo. 3s.

"This is a very comprehensive and lively sketch of the famous 'Rebellion' so vividly remembered, even after the lapse of a century, by the people of Scotland. The incidents of that unfortunate invasion from first to last, from the landing of Charles (July 25th) in Borrodale, with the 'seven men of Moidart,' to the fatal battle of Culloden (16th April, 1746), are minutely and faithfully recorded; but we have no doubt the reader will be most and mainly interested in the personal history and adventures of the Pretender himself. The character of the Prince is admirably drawn, and generously vindicated from the calumnies heaped upon him by his adversaries after his fall. It will perhaps surprise some to learn, that he was so illiterate as scarcely to be master of the most common elements of education. 'His letters,' says Lord Mahon, 'which I have seen among the Stuart papers, are written in a large, rude, rambling hand, like a schoolboy's. In spelling they are still more deficient.' We recommend Lord Mahon's narrative as a very agreeable sketch of a stirring and eventful period."—Edinburgh Advertiser.

———♦———

A HISTORY OF GREECE.

FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE END OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR.

BY GEORGE GROTE, ESQ.

Vols. I.-VIII. With Maps. 8vo. 16s. each.

———♦———[p.G]

KUGLER'S HANDBOOK ILLUSTRATED.

THE SCHOOLS OF PAINTING IN ITALY.

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN BY A LADY, AND EDITED WITH NOTES

BY SIR CHARLES LOCK EASTLAKE,

President of the Royal Academy.

A New Edition. 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 24s.

"We cannot leave this subject (Christian Art, its present state and its prospects), without reverting to Sir C. Eastlake's edition of Kugler's Handbook of Painting, not for the sake of reviewing it,—for it is a work now of established reputation,—but for the purpose of recommending it as being upon the whole by far the best manual we are acquainted with, for every one who, without the opportunity of foreign and particularly Italian travel, desires to make a real study of art. Its method, its chronological arrangement, and its generally judicious criticism, make it most instructive to a learner. We may add that the present edition is enlarged just where the former one needed enlargement, and the Handbook is now far more satisfactory as to the early religious schools than it was before. The edition is beautifully got up, and so profusely and judiciously illustrated by one hundred woodcuts drawn by Scharf, that it would be next to impossible to speak too highly in its praise, even were its matter less valuable and important than it is."—The Ecclesiastic.

———♦———

CHRISTIANITY IN CEYLON:

ITS INTRODUCTION AND PROGRESS UNDER THE PORTUGUESE, DUTCH, BRITISH, AND AMERICAN MISSIONS.

BY SIR JAMES EMERSON TENNENT, K.C.S., LL.D.

With Illustrations. 8vo. 14s.

"To those who take either a religious or a philosophical interest in the subject, Sir Emerson Tennent's volume may be safely recommended, as a clear, succinct, sensible, and flowing account. The work also possesses a living animation arising from the author's knowledge of the country and the people."—Spectator.

———♦———

THE LEXINGTON PAPERS.

THE COURTS OF LONDON AND VIENNA

IN THE 17TH CENTURY.

EXTRACTED FROM THE PRIVATE AND OFFICIAL CORRESPONDENCE OF LORD LEXINGTON, WHILE BRITISH MINISTER AT VIENNA, 1694-98.

EDITED BY THE HON. H. MANNERS SUTTON.

8vo. 14s.

———♦———

THE LAW AND PRACTICE OF NAVAL COURTS-MARTIAL.

BY WILLIAM HICKMAN, R.N.,

Late Secretary to Commodore Sir Charles Hotham, K.C.B.

8vo. 10s. 6d.

———♦———[p.H]

A MANUAL OF ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY;

OR, THE ANCIENT CHANGES OF THE EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS, AS ILLUSTRATED BY ITS GEOLOGICAL MONUMENTS.

BY SIR CHARLES LYELL, F.R.S., P.G.S.

Third Edition, thoroughly revised, and illustrated with 520 Woodcuts. 8vo. 12s.

"The production of one of our most eminent geologists in an age of many. Though styled a 'third edition,' it is in reality a new book. This could not be otherwise if the task were well done; for the science of which Sir Charles Lyell treats is assuming new aspects every year. It is continually advancing and ever growing. As it advances, its steps become firmer and surer; as it grows, its framework becomes more compact, and its organization more perfect. They who take up the hammer to follow it must toil with unflagging tread to keep pace with its onward progress. If they lag behind, they can scarcely hope to overtake. None among its votaries has marked each movement more minutely, or weighed its value and purpose more judiciously, than the distinguished author of this Manual. He has indeed done his task well, and both the beginner and the experienced investigator will find his book an invaluable guide and companion."—Literary Gazette.

———♦———

COMMENTARIES ON

THE WAR IN RUSSIA AND GERMANY OF 1813-14.

BY COLONEL THE HON. GEORGE CATHCART,

Deputy-Lieutenant of the Tower of London.

With Plans. 8vo. 14s.

"As a Treatise on the Science of War, these Commentaries ought to find their way into the hands of every soldier. In them is to be found an accurate record of events of which no military man should be ignorant."—Morning Chronicle.

———♦———

MODERN DOMESTIC COOKERY.

FOUNDED UPON PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMY AND PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE.

AND ADAPTED FOR THE USE OF PRIVATE FAMILIES.

With 100 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 6s.

"The advanced state of cookery having rendered Mrs. Rundell's work obsolete, the publisher has caused it to be remodelled and improved to such an extent as to give it a claim to the title of an original production. The receipts of the late Miss Emma Roberts have been revised and added to the work; and it has had the advantage of being subjected besides to the careful inspection of a 'professional gentleman'—Economy combined with excellence—is the aim, end, and object which it cannot be doubted will be obtained if its prescriptions are attended to. It is fuller than the former Domestic Cookery, of which it is an improved and amended edition—it is more simple and comprehensible in its language; it contains several diagrams not to be found in its predecessor; and it possesses various minor qualities, which increase its value in a tenfold degree, and make it, to say the least, equal to any other book of the kind in the English language."—Observer.

[p.I]Albemarle Street,
July 5, 1851.

MR. MURRAY'S

List of Works in the Press.

Selections from the Despatches of the Duke of Wellington.

BY THE LATE COL. GURWOOD, C.B., K.C.T.S.

A New Edition. One Volume. 8vo.

History of England, from the Peace of Utrecht.

VOLS. 5 & 6—THE FIRST YEARS OF THE AMERICAN WAR: 1763—1780.

BY LORD MAHON, M.P.

2 Vols. 8vo.

Lives of the Friends and Contemporaries of Lord Chancellor Clarendon.

ILLUSTRATIVE OF PORTRAITS IN HIS GALLERY; WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE ORIGIN OF THE COLLECTION; AND A DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF THE PICTURES.

BY LADY THERESA LEWIS.

With Portraits. 2 Vols. 8vo.

The Treasures of Art in Great Britain.

BEING AN ACCOUNT OF THE CHIEF COLLECTIONS OF PAINTINGS, SCULPTURE, MSS. MINIATURES, &c., &c.,

OBTAINED FROM PERSONAL INSPECTION DURING VISITS IN 1836 AND 1850.

(BEING A REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED VERSION OF "ART AND ARTISTS IN ENGLAND.")

BY DR. WAAGEN,

Director of the Royal Gallery of Pictures at Berlin.

2 Vols. 8vo.

[p.J]The Grenville Papers;

BEING

THE PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE OF RICHARD GRENVILLE, EARL TEMPLE, K.G., AND HIS BROTHER, THE RIGHT HONOURABLE GEORGE GRENVILLE, THEIR FRIENDS AND CONTEMPORARIES,

FORMERLY PRESERVED AT STOWE—NOW FOR THE FIRST TIME MADE PUBLIC.

———♦———

Among the contents of this highly important accession to the History of Great Britain in the middle of the Eighteenth Century, will be found Letters from

AND THE

AUTHOR OF THE LETTERS OF JUNIUS.

INCLUDING ALSO,

Mr. Grenville's Diary of Political Events;

PARTICULARLY DURING THE PERIOD OF HIS ADMINISTRATION AS FIRST LORD OF THE TREASURY, FROM 1763 TO 1765.

EDITED BY WILLIAM JAMES SMITH, Esq.

8vo.

Personal Narrative of an Englishman Domesticated in Abyssinia.

BY MANSFIELD PARKYNS, Esq.

With Illustrations. 8vo.

[p.K]Lives of the Three Devereux, Earls of Essex,

From 1540 to 1646.

1. THE EARL MARSHALL OF IRELAND.—2. THE FAVOURITE.—3. THE GENERAL OF THE PARLIAMENT.

FOUNDED UPON LETTERS AND DOCUMENTS CHIEFLY UNPUBLISHED.

BY THE HON. CAPTAIN DEVEREUX, R.N.

2 Vols. 8vo.

The Present State of the Republic of the Rio de la Plata (Buenos Ayres).

ITS GEOGRAPHY, RESOURCES, STATISTICS, COMMERCE, DEBT, ETC., DESCRIBED.

WITH THE HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF THE COUNTRY BY THE SPANIARDS.

BY SIR WOODBINE PARISH, F.R.S., K.C.H, F.G.S.,

Formerly Her Majesty's Consul General and Chargé d' Affaires at Buenos Ayres.

With New Map and Illustrations. 8vo.

Contrasts of Foreign and English Society;

OR, RECORDS AND RECOLLECTIONS OF A RESIDENCE IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE CONTINENT AND ENGLAND.

BY MRS. AUSTIN.

2 Vols. Post 8vo.

The Hand;

ITS MECHANISM AND ENDOWMENTS, AS EVINCING DESIGN.

BY THE LATE SIR CHARLES BELL.

A New Edition. Woodcuts. Post 8vo.

Naval and Military Technological Dictionary.

ENGLISH AND FRENCH.—FRENCH AND ENGLISH.

FOR THE USE OF SOLDIERS, SAILORS, AND ENGINEERS.

BY COLONEL BURN, Assistant Inspector of Artillery.

Small 8vo.

[p.L]The Life and Reminiscences of Thomas Stothard, R.A.

BY MRS. BRAY.

With numerous Illustrations from his Chief Works, drawn on Wood by G. Scharf, Jun., and printed in a novel and beautiful style.

With a Portrait. Small 4to.

Life and Works of Alexander Pope.

EDITED WITH NOTES.

BY THE RIGHT HON. JOHN WILSON CROKER.

Portraits. 4 vols. 8vo.

Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography.

BY WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D.

With an Historical Atlas. 8vo.

A Church Dictionary.

BY WALTER FARQUHAR HOOK, D.D., Vicar of Leeds.

Sixth Edition, revised and enlarged. One Volume. 8vo.

"In this edition, besides the addition of many new articles, all those relating to important Doctrinal and Liturgical Subjects have been enlarged. The authorities on which statements have been made, are given, with copious extracts from the works of our Standard Divines. Special reference has been made to the Romish Controversy. Attention has also been paid to the subjects of Ecclesiastical and Civil Law, and to the Statute Law of England in Church Matters."—Extract from the Preface.

History of Ancient Pottery;

EGYPTIAN, ASIATIC, GREEK, ROMAN, ETRUSCAN, AND CELTIC.

BY SAMUEL BIRCH, F.S.A.

Assistant Keeper of the Antiquities in the British Museum.

With Illustrations. 8vo.

Uniform with "MARRYAT'S MODERN POTTERY AND PORCELAIN."

A Sketch of Madeira in 1850.

BY EDWARD VERNON HARCOURT.

A HANDBOOK FOR THE USE OF TRAVELLERS OR INVALIDS VISITING THE ISLAND.

With a Map and Woodcuts. Post 8vo.

[p.M]The History of Herodotus.

A NEW ENGLISH VERSION. TRANSLATED FROM THE TEXT OF GAISFORD, AND EDITED

BY REV. GEORGE RAWLINSON, M.A., Exeter College, Oxford.

ASSISTED BY

COLONEL RAWLINSON, C.B., AND SIR J. G. WILKINSON, F.R.S.,

WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND APPENDICES, ILLUSTRATING THE HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS, FROM THE MOST RECENT SOURCES OF INFORMATION,

EMBODYING THE CHIEF RESULTS, HISTORICAL AND ETHNOGRAPHICAL, WHICH HAVE BEEN ARRIVED AT IN THE PROGRESS OF CUNEIFORM AND HIEROGLYPHICAL DISCOVERY.

4 Vols. 8vo.

The translation itself has been undertaken from a conviction of the entire inadequacy of any existing version to the wants of the time. The gross unfaithfulness of Beloe, and the extreme unpleasantness of his style, render his translation completely insufficient in an age which dislikes affectation and requires accuracy; while the only other complete English versions which exist are at once too close to the original to be perused with any pleasure by the general reader, and also defective in respect of scholarship.

A Treatise on Naval Gunnery,

FOR THE USE OF OFFICERS AND FOR THE TRAINING OF SEAMEN GUNNERS.

WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THE GUNS INTRODUCED SINCE THE LATE WAR.

BY LIEUT.-GEN. SIR HOWARD DOUGLAS, Bart., G.C.B.

Third Edition, revised. Plates. 8vo.

Considerations on Steam Warfare and Naval Shell-Firing;

BY LIEUT.-GEN. SIR HOWARD DOUGLAS, BART.

8vo.

Letters and Journals of General Sir Hudson Lowe,

REVEALING THE TRUE HISTORY OF NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA.

PARTLY COMPILED AND ARRANGED

BY THE LATE SIR NICHOLAS HARRIS NICOLAS.

With Portrait. 3 Vols. 8vo.

"From these papers the world will at last learn, as it ought long ago to have learnt, the truth, and the whole truth, respecting the captivity of Napoleon."—Quarterly Review.

[p.N]Home Sermons;

OR, SERMONS WRITTEN FOR SUNDAY READING IN FAMILIES.

BY REV. JOHN PENROSE, M.A.,

8vo.

History of Greece for Schools.

ON THE PLAN OF "MRS. MARKHAM'S HISTORIES."

With Woodcuts. Post 8vo.

State Papers of Henry the Eighth's Reign,

COMPRISING THE CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN THE ENGLISH GOVERNMENT AND THE CONTINENTAL POWERS,

FROM THE PERIOD OF THE ELECTION OF CHARLES V. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VIII.

With Indexes. Vols. VI-XI. 4to.

The Official Handbook.

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FOOTNOTES:

[v-A] Postscript to 4th edition of the Manual, price 6d.

[vi-A] As it is impossible to enable the reader to recognize rocks and minerals at sight by aid of verbal descriptions or figures, he will do well to obtain a well-arranged collection of specimens, such as may be procured from Mr. Tennant (149. Strand), teacher of Mineralogy at King's College, London.

[vii-A] Travels in North America by the Author, vol. ii. chap. 22.

[vii-B] Ibid. 1842.

[viii-A] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1851, vol. vii. p. 250.

[ix-A] The generally received determination of the age of this rock is probably correct; but as there are no overlying coal-measures and no well-known Devonian fossils in the whitish stone of Elgin, and as I have not personally explored the geology of that district, I cannot speak as confidently as in regard to the age of the Montreal Chelonian.

[xii-A] H. D. Rogers, Proceedings of Amer. Assoc. of Science, Albany, 1851.

[xii-B] See Memoir by the Author, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. vii. p. 240.

[xiii-A] Würtembergisch. Naturwissen. Jahreshefte, 3 Jahr. Stuttgart, 1847.

[xiii-B] Nov. Act. Acad. Cæsar. Leopold. Nat. Cur. 1850, p. 902. For figures, see ibid. plate xxi. figs. 14, 15, 16, 17.

[xiv-A] See Manual, [p. 268.]

[xv-A] Manual, [p. 289.]

[xv-B] Ibid. [p. 268.]

[xvi-A] For Terminology, see Note, p. 223.

[xvi-B] Quart. Journ. vol. vii. Memoirs, p. 111.

[xvii-A] Principles, 1st ed. chaps. v. and ix.

[xvii-B] Ibid. p. 153.

[xxi-A] Preface to 5th ed. of Studies of University of Cambridge.

[xxii-A] Principles, 4th ed. 1835, vol. i. p. 231, and vol. i. chap. 9. subsequent ed.

[xxii-B] In my Anniversary Address, for 1851, to the Geological Society, the reader will find a full discussion of the facts and arguments which bear on the theory of progressive development.—Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. vii.

[3-A] See Principles of Geology, by the Author, Index, "Nile," "Rivers," &c.

[4-A] See [p. 18.]

[4-B] See Geograph. Journ. vol. iv. p. 64.

[11-A] The kaolin of China consists of 71·15 parts of silex, 15·86 of alumine, 1·92 of lime, and 6·73 of water (W. Phillips, Mineralogy, p. 33.); but other porcelain clays differ materially, that of Cornwall being composed, according to Boase of nearly equal parts of silica and alumine, with 1 per cent. of magnesia. (Phil. Mag. vol. x. 1837.)

[11-B] See W. Phillips's Mineralogy, "Alumine."

[14-A] Consult Index to Principles of Geology, "Stratification," "Currents," "Deltas," "Water," &c.

[21-A] Siau. Edin. New Phil. Journ. vol. xxxi.; and Darwin, Volc. Islands, p. 134.

[28-A] See Synoptic Table in Blainville's Malacologie.

[29-A] Gray, Phil. Trans., 1835, p. 302.

[31-A] For figures of recent species, see below, [p. 183.], and figs. of fossils, see [p. 228.]

[32-A] See Index of Principles, "Fossilization."

[33-A] See Principles, Index, "Lym-Fiord."

[33-B] See below, Chap. XVIII., on the Wealden.

[34-A] See Principles, Index, "Calcareous Springs," &c.

[34-B] Ibid. "Travertin," "Coral Reefs," &c.

[35-A] Report Brit. Ass. 1843, p. 178.

[36-A] Dr. MacCulloch, Syst. of Geol. vol. i. p. 123.

[36-B] Princ. of Geol., Index, "Superior Lake."

[37-A] De la Beche, Geol. Researches, p. 95., and Geol. Observer (1851), p. 686.

[41-A] Vol. i. p. 399. first series.

[41-B] Piddington, Asiat. Research. vol. xviii. p. 226.

[42-A] Jam. Ed. New Phil. Journ. No. 30. p. 246.

[43-A] Stokes, Geol. Trans., vol. v. p. 212. second series.

[43-B] Ibid.

[46-A] In the first three editions of my Principles of Geology, I expressed many doubts as to the validity of the alleged proofs of a gradual rise of land in Sweden; but after visiting that country, in 1834, I retracted these objections, and published a detailed statement of the observations which led me to alter my opinion in the Phil. Trans. 1835, Part I. See also the Principles, 4th and subsequent editions.

[46-B] See his Journal of a Naturalist in Voyage of the Beagle, and his work on Coral Reefs.

[46-C] See chapters xxviii. to xxxi. inclusive.

[48-A] Edin. Trans. vol. vii. pl. 3.

[50-A] Proceedings of Geol. Soc. vol. iii. p. 148.

[53-A] See plan by M. Chevalier, Burat's D'Aubuisson, tom. ii. p. 334.

[55-A] See M. Thurmann's work, "Essai sur les Soulèvemens Jurassiques du Porrentruy, Paris, 1832," with whom I examined part of these mountains in 1835.

[57-A] I am indebted to the kindness of T. Sopwith, Esq., for three models which I have copied in the above diagrams; but the beginner may find it by no means easy to understand such copies, although, if he were to examine and handle the originals, turning them about in different ways, he would at once comprehend their meaning as well as the import of others far more complicated, which the same engineer has constructed to illustrate faults.

[60-A] Biographical account of Dr. Hutton.

[60-B] See above, p. 49. and section.

[60-C] Playfair, ibid.; see his Works, Edin. 1822, vol. iv. p. 81.

[62-A] Playfair, Illust. of Hutt. Theory, § 42.

[62-B] Geol. Trans. second series, vol. v. p. 452.

[64-A] Conybeare and Phillips, Outlines, &c. p. 376.

[64-B] Phillips, Geology, Lardner's Cyclop. p. 41.

[65-A] See the results of the "Geological Survey of Great Britain;" Memoirs, vols. i. and ii., by Sir H. De la Beche, Mr. A. C. Ramsay, and Mr. John Phillips.

[67-A] Western Islands, vol. ii. p. 93. pl. 31. fig. 4.

[69-A] See Mammat's Geological Facts, &c. p. 90. and plate.

[69-B] Conybeare's Report to Brit. Assoc. 1842, p. 381.

[70-A] Prestwich, Geol. Trans. second series, vol. v. pp. 452. 473.

[75-A] Section given by Dr. Christie, Edin. New Phil. Journ. No. xxiii., called by mistake the Cave of Mardolce, by the late M. Hoffmann. See account by Mr. S. P. Pratt, F. G. S. Proceedings of Geol. Soc. No. 32. 1833.

[78-A] I was directed by M. Deshayes to this spot, which I visited in June, 1833.

[78-B] See Trans. of Geol. Soc., second series, vol. v. plate v.

[82-A] Trimmer, Proceedings of Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 7. 1842.

[83-A] See Lyell on Sand-pipes, &c., Phil. Mag., third series, vol. xv. p. 257., Oct. 1839.

[84-A] Principles of Geology, 7th ed. p. 506., 8th ed. 509.

[85-A] Second Visit to the U. S. vol. ii. chap. 34.

[88-A] "Ancient Sea Margins," p. 114., by R. Chambers.

[91-A] See Principles, vol. i. chap. iv.

[103-A] For tertiary, Sir H. De la Beche has used the term "supracretaceous," a name implying that the strata so called are superior in position to the chalk.

[103-B] Professor Phillips has adopted these terms: Cainozoic, from καινος, cainos, recent, and ζωον, zoon, animal; Mesozoic, from μεσος, mesos, middle, &c.; Paleozoic, from παλαιος, palaios, ancient, &c.

[103-C] Professor Phillips has adopted these terms: Cainozoic, from καινος, cainos, recent, and ζωον, zoon, animal; Mesozoic, from μεσος, mesos, middle, &c.; Paleozoic, from παλαιος, palaios, ancient, &c.

[103-D] Professor Phillips has adopted these terms: Cainozoic, from καινος, cainos, recent, and ζωον, zoon, animal; Mesozoic, from μεσος, mesos, middle, &c.; Paleozoic, from παλαιος, palaios, ancient, &c.

[103-E] Palæontology is the science which treats of fossil remains, both animal and vegetable. Etym. παλαιος, palaios, ancient, οντα, onta, beings, and λογος, logos, a discourse.

[110-A] See Princ. of Geol. vol. iii. 1st ed.

[112-A] See Principles, Index, "Serapis."

[113-A] Geol. Quart. Journ. vol. ii. Memoirs, p. 15.

[114-A] Quart. Geol. Journ. 4 Mems. p. 48.

[115-A] Journal, p. 451.

[116-A] See Principles, 8th ed. pp. 260-268.

[117-A] Lyell's Second Visit to the United States, vol. ii. chap. xxxiv.

[119-A] Princ. of Geol. 3d edition, 1834, vol. iii. p. 414.

[120-A] Proceedings Geol. Soc. No. 43. p. 222.

[122-A] Chap. xvi. and the references there given.

[122-B] Voyage in 1822, p. 233.

[123-A] T. L. Hayes, Boston Journ. Nat. Hist. 1844.

[124-A] See paper by the author, Phil. Trans. 1835, p. 15.

[125-A] See above, section, p. 48.

[125-B] Geol. of Fife, &c. p. 220.

[129-A] For a full account of the drift of East Norfolk, see a paper by the author, Phil. Mag. No. 104. May, 1840.

[130-A] Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. vii. p. 22.

[131-A] Forbes, Memoirs of Geol. Survey of Great Britain, vol. i. p. 377.

[134-A] Geol. Trans. 2d series, vol. vi. p. 135. Mr. Smith of Jordanhill had arrived at similar conclusions as to climate from the shells of the Scotch Pleistocene deposits.

[134-B] Proceedings of Geol. Soc. No. 63. p. 119.

[135-A] Travels in N. America, vol. ii. p. 141.

[135-B] Ibid. p. 99. chap. xix.

[136-A] Bulletin Soc. Géol. de France, tom. iv. 2de sér. p. 1121.

[138-A] See Travels in N. America, vol. i. chap. ii.

[140-A] Agassiz, Etudes sur les Glaciers.

[143-A] Archiac, Hist. des Progrès, &c. vol. ii. p. 249.

[143-B] See Elements of Geology, 2d ed. 1841.

[144-A] Darwin's Journal, p. 283.

[144-B] More recently Sir R. Murchison, having revisited the Alps, has declared his opinion that "the great granitic blocks of Mont Blanc were translated to the Jura when the intermediate country was under water."—Paper read to Geol. Soc. London, May 30, 1849.

[147-A] Morris, Geol. Soc. Proceed., 1849.

[147-B] Woodward's Geology of Norfolk.

[148-A] Zool. of Beagle, part 1. pp. 9. 111.

[149-A] Owen, Brit. Foss. Mamm. 271. Mastodon longirostris, Kaup, see ibid.

[152-A] I am indebted to Mr. Lonsdale for the details above given respecting the structure of this coral.

[155-A] Owen, Brit. Foss. Mam. xxvi., and Buckland, Rel. Dil. 19. 24.

[155-B] See Principles of Geology.

[158-A] See Principles of Geology, chaps. xli. to xliv.

[162-A] See paper by E. Charlesworth, Esq.; London and Ed. Phil. Mag. No. xxxviii. p. 81., Aug. 1835.

[162-B] See Monograph on the Crag Mollusca. Searles Wood, Paleont. Soc. 1848.

[163-A] In regarding the Suffolk crag, both red and coralline, as older Pliocene instead of Miocene, I am only returning to the classification adopted by me in the Principles and Elements of Geology up to the year 1838.

[166-A] E. Forbes, Mem. Geol. Survey, Gt. Brit., vol. i. 386.

[172-A] Proceedings of the Geol. Soc. vol. iv. part 3. 1845, p. 547.

[175-A] Bulletin des Sci. de la Soc. Philom., May, 1825, p. 74.

[176-A] Hébert. Bulletin. 1849, vol. vi. 2d series, p. 459.

[181-A] Scrope, Geology of Central France, p. 15.

[183-A] See Desmarest's Crustacea, plate 55.

[185-A] I believe that the British specimen here figured is P. rhombica, Linn.

[189-A] See Proceedings of Roy. Soc., No. 44. p. 233.

[190-A] Lyell and Murchison, sur les Dépôts Lacust. Tertiaries du Cantal, &c. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Oct. 1829.

[191-A] Leyde Magaz. voor Wetensch Konst en Lett., partie v. cahier i. p. 71. Cited by Rozet, Journ. de Géologie, tom. i. p. 43.

[191-B] M. C. Prevost, Submersions Itératives, &c. Note 23.

[192-A] Cuvier, Oss. Foss., tom. iii. p. 255.

[194-A] This species is found both in the Paris and London basins.

[197-A] Coquilles caractérist. des Terrains, 1831.

[197-B] Quarterly Geol. Journal, vol. iii. p. 353.

[199-A] Prestwich, Quart. Geol. Journ. vol. iii. p. 386.

[199-B] Palæont. Soc. Monograph. Rept. pt. ii. p. 61.

[202-A] For description of Eocene Cephalopoda, see Monograph by F. E. Edwards, Palæontograph. Soc. 1849.

[203-A] Annals of Nat. Hist. vol. iv. No. 23. Nov. 1839.

[206-A] Murchison, Quart. Journ. of Geol. Soc. vol. v., and Lyell, vol. vi. 1850. Anniversary Address.

[206-B] See paper by the author, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. iv, p. 12.; and Second Visit to the U. S. vol. ii. p. 59.

[206-C] Quart. Journ. Geol Soc. vol. vi. p. 32.

[207-A] See Memoir by R. W. Gibbes, Journ. of Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. vol. i. 1847.

[208-A] Lyell, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1847, vol. iv. p. 15.

[209-A] M. Alcide d'Orbigny, in his valuable work entitled Paléontologie Française, has adopted new terms for the French subdivisions of the Cretaceous Series, which, so far as they can be made to tally with English equivalents, seem explicable thus:

Danien.Maestricht beds.
Senonien.Upper and lower white chalk, and chalk marl.
Turonien.Part of the chalk marl and the upper greensand, the latter being in his last work (Cours Elémentaire) termed Cénomanien.
Albien.Gault.
Aptien.Upper part of lower greensand.
Neocomien.Lower part of same.

[211-A] See paper by the author, Trans. of Geol. Soc., vol. v. p. 246., 1840.

[211-B] Fitton, Geol. Trans., 2d series, vol. iv. p. 319.

[215-A] Proceedings of Geol. Soc., vol. iii. pp. 7, 8., 1842.

[216-A] Geol. Trans. Second Series, vol. iii. p. 232. plate 31. figs. 3. and 11.

[216-B] Geol. of U. S. Exploring Exped. p. 252. 1849.

[217-A] See Chapters X. and XI.

[217-B] Darwin, p. 549. Kotzebue's First Voyage, vol. iii. p. 155.

[217-C] Mantell, Geol. of S. E. of England, p. 96.

[219-A] Dr. Fitton, Quart. Geol. Journ., vol. i. p. 179., ii. p. 55., and iii. p. 289., where comparative sections and a valuable table showing the vertical range of the various fossils of the lower greensand at Atherfield is given.

[221-A] Archiac, sur la Form. Crétacée du S. O. de la France, Mém. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. ii.

[222-A] D'Orbigny's Paléontologie Française, pl. 533.

[223-A] In this and subsequent remarks on fossil plants I shall often use Dr. Lindley's terms, as most familiar in this country; but as those of M. A. Brongniart are much cited, it may be useful to geologists to give a table explaining the corresponding names of groups so much spoken of in palæontology.

Brongniart. Lindley.
Cryptogamic. { 1. Cryptogamous amphigens, or cellular cryptogamic. Thallogens. Lichens, sea-weeds, fungi.
2. Cryptogamous acrogens. Acrogens. Mosses, equisetums, ferns, lycopodiums—Lepidodendron.
Phanerogamic. { 3. Dicotyledonous gymnosperms. Gymnogens. Conifers and Cycads.
4. Dicot. Angiosperms. Exogens. Compositæ, leguminosæ, umbelliferæ, cruciferæ, heaths, &c. All native European trees except conifers.
5. Monocotyledons. Endogens. Palms, lilies, aloes, rushes, grasses, &c.

[223-B] A. Brongniart, Veget. Foss. Dict. Univ., p. 111., 1849.

[224-A] See a paper by the author, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. i. p. 55.

[225-A] Proceed. Geol. Soc. iv. p. 391.

[225-B] See Forbes, Quart. Geol. Journ. vol. i. p. 79.

[227-A] Dr. Fitton, Geol. Trans. vol. iv. p. 320. Second Series.

[230-A] Mantell, Geol. of S. E. of England, p. 244.

[231-A] "On the Dorsetshire Purbecks," by Prof. E. Forbes, Edinb. Brit. Assoc., Aug. 1850.

[233-A] Mr. Webster first noticed the erect position of the trees and described the Dirt-bed.

[233-B] Fitton, Geol. Trans., Second Series, vol. iv. pp. 220, 221.

[233-C] See Flinders' Voyage.

[233-D] Fitton, ibid.

[233-E] Buckland and De la Beche, Geol. Trans., Second Series, vol. iv. p. 16. Mr. Forbes has ascertained that the subjacent rock is a freshwater limestone, and not a portion of the Portland oolite, as was previously imagined.

[234-A] E. Forbes, ibid.

[235-A] See Principles of Geol., 8th ed. pp. 260-268.

[235-B] Ibid. p. 443.

[237-A] Fitton, Geol. of Hastings, p. 58.; who cites Lander's Travels.

[237-B] See above, p. 85.; and Second Visit to the U. S. vol. ii. chap. xxxiv.

[237-C] See the Author's Anniv. Address, Geol. Soc. 1850, Quart. Geol. Journ. vol. vi. p. 52.

[241-A] An account of these cliffs was read by the author to the British Assoc. at Glasgow, Sept. 1840.

[241-B] Seine-Inferieure, p. 142. and pl. 6. fig. 1.

[243-A] Botley Hill, near Godstone, in Surrey, was found by trigonometrical measurement to be 880 feet above the level of the sea; and Wrotham Hill, near Maidstone, which appears to be next in height of the North Downs, 795 feet.

[243-B] My friend Dr. Mantell has kindly drawn up this scale at my request.

[244-A] Fitton, Geol. of Hastings, p. 55.

[244-B] Conybeare, Outlines of Geol., p. 81.

[245-A] Ibid., p. 145.

[245-B] Geol. of Western Sussex, p. 61.

[247-A] See illustrations of this theory by Dr. Fitton, Geol. Sketch of Hastings.

[248-A] Sir E. Murchison, Geol. Sketch of Sussex, &c., Geol. Trans., Second Series, vol. ii. p. 98.

[248-B] See [fig. 94.] [p. 76.]

[251-A] Geol. Soc. Proceed. No. 74. p. 363. 1841, and G. S. Trans. 2 Ser. v. 7.

[251-B] For farther information, see Mantell's Geol. of S. E. of England, p. 352.

[252-A] Soulèvemens Jurassiques. Paris, 1832.

[253-A] See above, p. 82.

[257-A] See Mantell's Geol. of S. E. of England, p. 32. After re-examining the elephant bed in 1834, I was no longer in doubt of its having been a regular subaqueous deposit. In 1828, Dr. Mantell discovered in the shingle below the chalk-rubble the jawbone of a whale 12 feet long, which must have belonged to an individual from 60 to 70 feet in length, Medals of Creation, p. 825.

[259-A] See Chapters VI. and XIX.

[261-A] Fitton, Geol. Trans., Second Series, vol. iv. pl. 23. fig. 12.

[262-A] S. P. Pratt, Annals of Nat. Hist., November, 1841.

[263-A] See Phil. Trans. 1850, p. 393.

[263-B] P. Scrope, Geol. Proceed., March, 1831.

[265-A] For a fuller account of these Encrinites, see Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i. p. 429.

[266-A] Lycett, Quart. Geol. Journ. vol. iv. p. 183.

[266-B] Proceedings Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 414.

[267-A] See Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise; and Brodie's Fossil Insects, where it is suggested that these elytra may belong to Priomus.

[267-B] Vol. i. p. 115.

[269-A] I have given a figure in the Principles of Geology, chap. ix., of another Stonesfield specimen of Amphitherium Prevostii, in which the sockets and roots of the teeth are finely exposed.

[269-B] A figure of this recent Myrmecobius will be found in the Principles, chap. ix.

[270-A] Owen's British Fossil Mammals, p. 62.

[271-A] Ibbetson and Morris, Report of Brit. Ass., 1847, p. 131.

[274-A] Conyb. and Phil. p. 261.

[275-A] Agassiz, Pois. Fos. vol. ii. tab. 28, 29.

[276-A] Bridgewater Treatise, p. 290.

[276-B] Agassiz, Poissons Fossiles, vol. iii. tab. C. fig. 1.

[276-C] Ibid. p. 168.

[276-D] Ibid. p. 187.

[277-A] Geol. Soc. Proceedings, vol. iii. p. 157. 1839.

[277-B] Geol. Trans. Second Series, vol. v. p. 511.

[278-A] Geol. Trans., Second Series, vol. i. pl. 49.

[278-B] Conybeare and De la Beche. Geol. Trans.; and Buckland, Bridgew. Treat., p. 203.

[278-C] Quart. Geol. Journ. vol. ii. p. 411.

[279-A] Αμβλυς, amblys, blunt; and ῥυγχος, rhynchus, snout.

[280-A] Darwin's Journal, chap. xix.

[280-B] Bridgew. Treat., p. 125.

[281-A] Geological Researches, p. 334.

[281-B] Buckland, Bridgew. Treat., p. 307.

[281-C] Ibid.

[281-D] See Principles, Index, Lancerote, Graham Island, Calabria.

[281-E] A History of Fossil Insects, &c. 1845. London.

[282-A] Tableau des Veg. Fos. 1849, p. 105.

[283-A] Con. and Phil., p. 166.

[283-B] Geol. Researches, p. 337.

[283-C] Burat's D'Aubuisson, tom. ii. p. 456.

[285-A] See description of the coal-field by the author, and the plants by C. J. F. Bunbury, Esq., Quart. Geol. Journ., vol. iii. p. 281.

[286-A] Buckland, Bridgew. Treat., vol. ii. p. 38.

[287-A] Monog. des Bunten Sandsteins.

[288-A] Tableau des Genres de Veg. Fos., Dict. Univ. 1849.

[290-A] Geol. Trans., Second Series, vol. v.

[290-B] Buckland, Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 439.; and Murchison and Strickland Geol. Trans., Second Ser., vol. v. p. 347.

[295-A] Ormerod, Quart. Geol. Journ. 1848, vol. iv. p. 277.

[296-A] Hugh Miller, First Impressions of England, 1847, pp. 183. 214.

[297-A] Buist, Trans. of Bombay Geograph. Soc. 1850, vol. ix. p. 38.

[297-B] Travels in North America, vol. ii. p. 168.

[298-A] Hitchcock, Mem. of Amer. Acad. New Ser., vol. iii. p. 129.

[298-B] This specimen is now in Dr. Mantell's museum.

[299-A] Amer. Journ. of Sci. vol. xlviii. p. 46.

[300-A] Journal of Voyage of Beagle, &c. 2d edition, p. 89. 1845.

[301-A] Palæontographical Society, 1848, London.

[302-A] Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond., Second Series, vol. iii. p. 37.

[303-A] King's Monograph, pl. 2.

[306-A] See paper by Messrs. Riley and Stutchbury, Geol. Trans., Second Series, vol. v. p. 349., plate 29., figures 2. and 5.

[306-B] Owen, Report on Reptiles, British Assoc., Eleventh Meeting, 1841, p. 197.

[307-A] Murchison's Russia, vol. ii. pl. A. fig. 3.

[308-A] Phillips; art. "Geology," Encyc. Britan.

[309-A] Sedgwick, Geol. Trans., Second Series, vol. iv.; and Phillips, Geol. of Yorksh. part 2.

[309-B] Memoirs of Geol. Survey, vol. i. p. 195.

[315-A] The trunk in this case is referred by Mr. Brown to Lepidodendron, but his illustrations seem to show the usual markings assumed by Sigillaria near its base.

[316-A] For terminology of classification of plants, see above, note, p. 223.

[316-B] Quart. Geol. Journ., vol. v., Mem., p. 17.

[317-A] Anniv. Address to Geol. Soc., 1840.

[317-B] Hawkshaw, Geol. Soc. Proceedings, Nos. 64. and 69.

[318-A] Geol. Report on Cornwall, &c. p. 143.

[318-B] Lindley and Hutton, Foss. Flo. part 6. p. 150.

[319-A] See papers by Messrs. Beckett and Ick. Proceed. in Geol. Soc., vol. iv. p. 287.

[319-B] Annales des Mines, 1821.

[320-A] Principles of Geol., 8th ed., p. 215.

[321-A] See figures of texture, Witham, Foss. Veget., pl. 3.

[321-B] See Lyell's Travels in N. America, vol. ii. p. 179.

[322-A] Quart. Geol. Journ., vol. ii. p. 177.

[324-A] Geol. Quart. Journ., vol. ii. p. 393.; and vol. vi. p. 115.

[325-A] Prestwich, Geol. Trans., 2d Series, vol. v. p. 440. Murchison, Silurian System, p. 105.

[325-B] Silurian System, p. 84.

[325-C] Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. xiii. Horner, Edin. New Phil. Journ., April, 1836.

[325-D] Phillips; art. "Geology," Encyc. Metrop., p. 590.

[326-A] Phillips; art. "Geology," Encyc. Metrop., p. 592.

[326-B] Memoirs of Geol. Survey, pp. 51. 255, &c.

[329-A] H. D. Rogers, Trans. Assoc. Amer. Geol., 1840-42, p. 440.

[333-A] Trans. of Ass. of Amer. Geol., p. 470.

[334-A] Lyell's Second Visit to the U. S., vol. ii. p. 245. American Journ. of Sci., 2d series, vol. v. p. 17.

[335-A] Principles of Geol., p. 696.

[335-B] For changes in climate, see Principles of Geol., chaps. vii. and viii.

[335-C] Geol. Trans., 2d series, vol. vi. p. 330.

[336-A] Agassiz, Poiss. Foss., lib. 4. p. 62. and liv. 5. p. 88.

[337-A] Goldfuss, Neue Jenaische Lit. Zeit., 1848; and Von Meyer, Quart. Geol. Journ., vol. iv. p. 51., memoirs.

[338-A] See Lyell's Second Visit, &c., vol. ii. p. 305.

[340-A] These impressions, found by Mr. Lea, were imagined to be in a rock as ancient as the old red sandstone; but, according to Mr. H. D. Rogers, they are in the lowest part of the coal formation.

[341-A] Phillips, Geol. of Yorksh., vol. ii. p. 208.

[342-A] Phillips, Geol. of Yorksh., pl. 20. fig. 65.

[342-B] Ibid., pl. 17. fig. 15.

[342-C] See section, [fig. 318.] [p. 287.]

[343-A] The Old Red Sandstone, by Hugh Miller, 1841.

[345-A] Old Red Sandstone. Plate 1. fig. 1. Mr. M.'s description of the fish is most graphic and correct.

[347-A] Camb. Phil. Trans., vol. vi. pl. 8. fig. 2.

[349-A] See Proceedings of Geol. Soc., and the anniversary speech of Dr. Buckland, P. G. S., for 1841.

[349-B] Lyell's Second Visit to the United States, vol. ii. p. 277.

[350-A] Memoir on the Hartz, Palæontographica of Dunker and Von Meyer, part iii.

[352-A] Murchison, Silurian System, p. 198, 199.

[354-A] Silurian System, pl. 7. bis. fig. 1. b.

[358-A] Quart. Geol. Journ., vol. ii. p. 11.; and Memoirs of Geol. Survey, vol. ii. p. 518.

[359-A] Quart. Geol. Journ., vol. iv. p. 300.

[359-B] Ibid., 299.

[359-C] Ibid., 145.

[360-A] Since this was written, Mr. Logan has discovered chelonian footprints in the lowest fossiliferous beds of the Silurian series, near Montreal, in Canada. Professor Owen inclines to refer them to the genus Emys.—Quart. Journ. G. S., vol. vii. p. lxxvi.

[368-A] For a description and theory of active volcanos, see Principles of Geology, chaps. xxiv. to xxvii.

[374-A] G. Rose, Ann. des Mines, tom. viii. p. 32.

[374-B] Geol. Trans. vol. ii. p. 211. 2d series.

[378-A] I have been favoured with this drawing by Captain B. Hall.

[381-A] Cambridge Transactions, vol. i. p. 402.

[382-A] Cambridge Trans., vol. i. p. 410.

[382-B] Ibid. vol. ii. p. 175.

[382-C] Dr. Berger, Geol. Trans., 1st series, vol. iii. p. 172.

[382-D] Geol. Trans., 1st series, vol. iii. p. 210. and plate 10.

[382-E] Ibid. p. 201.

[383-A] Geol. Trans., 1st series, vol. iii. p. 205.

[383-B] Ibid. p. 213.; and Playfair, Illust. of Hutt. Theory, p. 253.

[383-C] Geol. Trans., 1st series, vol. iii. p. 206.

[383-D] Sedgwick, Camb. Trans. vol. ii. p. 37.

[383-E] Illust. of Hutt. Theory, § 253. and 261. Dr. MacCulloch, Geol. Trans., 1st series, vol. ii. p. 305.

[383-F] Syst. of Geol. vol. i. p. 206.

[384-A] Camb. Trans. vol. ii. p. 180.

[385-A] MacCul. Syst. of Geol. vol. ii. p. 137.

[385-B] Seale's Geognosy of St. Helena, plate 9.

[386-A] Fortis. Mém. sur l'Hist. Nat. de l'Italie, tom. i. p. 233. plate 7.

[387-A] Scrope, Geol. Trans. vol. ii. p. 205. 2d series.

[389-A] See Princ. of Geol., Index, "Graham Island," "Nyöe," "Conglomerates, volcanic," &c.

[390-A] MacCulloch, West. Isl., vol. ii. p. 487.

[390-B] Syst. of Geol., vol. ii. p. 114.

[390-C] Ibid.

[392-A] See Principles, chaps. xxiv-xxvii.

[393-A] See Principles, chaps. xxvi. and xxx.; 8th ed. p. 397-475.

[394-A] See Principles of Geol. ch. xxiv. (8th ed. p. 355.).

[394-B] See Lyell on Craters of Denudation, Quart. Geol. Journ. vol. vi. p. 232.

[399-A] Caldcleugh, Phil. Trans. 1836. p. 27., and Official Documents of Nicaragua.

[399-B] See Principles, Index, "Skaptar Jokul."

[401-A] This view of the Isle of Cyclops is from an original drawing by my friend the late Captain Basil Hall, R. N.

[404-A] Consult the valuable memoir of M. L. A. Necker, Mém. de la Soc. de Phys. et d'Hist. Nat. de Génève, tom. ii. part i. Nov. 1822.

[405-A] From a drawing of M. Necker, in Mém. above cited.

[405-B] Phil. Trans., vol. lxx., 1780.

[409-A] Maclure, Journ. de Phys., vol. lxvi. p. 219., 1808; cited by Daubeny, Description of Volcanos, p. 24.

[410-A] This view is taken from a sketch which I made on the spot in 1830.

[416-A] Trans. of Geol. Soc., 2d series, vol. v.

[419-A] Scrope, Edin. Journ. of Sci., June, 1826, p. 145.

[419-B] Hibbert, Extinct Volcanos of the Rhine, p. 24.

[422-A] See the map, [p. 179.]

[423-A] Scrope's Central France, p. 98.

[423-B] See chaps. xxiv., xxv., and xxvi., 7th and 8th editions.

[423-C] See Quarterly Geol. Journ., vol. ii. p. 77.

[425-A] For a view of Puy de Tartaret and Mont Dor, see Scrope's Volcanos of Central France.

[427-A] Scrope's Central France, p. 60., and plate.

[428-A] Daubeny on Volcanos, p. 14.

[428-B] Edin. Journ. of Sci., No. iv. N. S. p. 276. Figures of some of these remains are given by M. Bertrand de Doue, Ann. De la Soc. d'Agricult. de Puy, 1828.

[429-A] Mém. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. i. p. 175.

[429-B] See Lyell and Murchison, Ann. de Sci. Nat., Oct. 1829.

[430-A] See Scrope's Central France, p. 21.

[430-B] Ibid, p. 7.

[431-A] Boblaye and Virlet, Morea, p. 23.

[432-A] De la Beche, Geol. Proceedings, No. 41. p. 196.

[432-B] "The rock," as English readers of Burn's poems may remember, is a Scotch term for distaff.

[435-A] Murchison, Silurian System, &c. p. 230.

[435-B] Ibid., p. 272.

[435-C] Ibid., p. 325.

[435-D] Chap. XXVII. [p. 356.]

[435-E] Geol. Trans., 2d series, vol. iv. p. 55.

[439-A] Bulletin, 2d sèrie, iv. 1304.; and Archiac, Hist. des Progrès de Geol., i. 38.

[440-A] Boase on Primary Geology, p. 16.

[441-A] Bulletin, vol. iv., 2d ser., pp. 1318. and 1320.

[441-B] Syst. of Geol., vol. i. p. 157.

[441-C] Ibid., p. 158.

[442-A] Geol. Trans., 1st series, vol. iii. pl. 21.

[442-B] MacCulloch, Geol. Trans., vol. iii. p. 259.

[443-A] Capt. B. Hall, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. vii.

[444-A] MacCulloch, Syst. of Geol., vol. i. p. 58.

[444-B] Western Islands, pl. 31.

[444-C] On Geol. of Cornwall, Camb. Trans. vol. i. p. 124.

[445-A] Phil. Mag. and Annals, No. 27. new series, March, 1829.

[445-B] Necker, sur la Val. de Valorsine, Mém. de la Soc. de Phys. de Génève, 1828. I visited, in 1832, the spot referred to in fig. 497.

[446-A] Necker, Proceedings of Geol. Soc., No. 26. p. 392.

[446-B] See Keilhau's Gæa Norvegica; Christiania, 1838.

[450-A] Silliman's Journ., No. 69. p. 123.

[450-B] See "Principles," Index, "Jorullo."

[451-A] "Principles," Index, "Volcanic Eruptions."

[453-A] Darwin, pp. 390. 406.; second edition, p. 319.

[454-A] See map of Europe and explanation, in Principles, book i.

[456-A] Elie de Beaumont, sur les Montagnes de l'Oisans, &c. Mém. de la Soc. d'Hist. Nat. de Paris, tom. v.

[456-B] See Murchison, Geol. Trans., 2d series, vol. ii. part ii. pp. 311-321.

[456-C] Western Islands, vol. i. p. 330. plate 18., figs. 3, 4.

[456-D] Von Buch, Annales de Chimie, &c.

[457-A] Proceedings of Geol. Soc., vol. ii. p. 562.

[457-B] See the Gæa Norvegica and other works of Keilhau, with whom I examined this country.

[459-A] Murchison, Geol. Trans., 2d series, vol. ii. p. 307.

[459-B] Geognostische Wanderungen, Leipzig, 1838.

[461-A] In the above section I have attempted to represent the new discoveries made since 1839, by Mr. Necker and Mr. A. C. Ramsay, in regard to the plutonic formations, 6. a, and 6. b.

[463-A] For the geology of Arran consult the works of Drs. Hutton and MacCulloch, the Memoirs of Messrs. Von Dechen and Oeynhausen, that of Professor Sedgwick and Sir R. Murchison (Geol. Trans. 2d series), Mr. L. A. Necker's Memoir, read to the Royal Soc. of Edin. 20th April, 1840, and Mr. Ramsay's Geol. of Arran, 1841. I examined myself a large part of Arran in 1836.

[469-A] Geol. Trans., 2d series, vol. iii. p. 480.

[469-B] The Silurian System of Rocks, as developed in Salop, Hereford, &c., p. 245.

[469-C] Ibid., p. 246.

[470-A] Introduction to Geology, chap. iv.

[471-A] Silurian System of Rocks, &c., p. 246.

[471-B] Report, Brit. Ass., Cork, 1843, p. 60.

[471-C] Quart. Geol. Journ., vol. iii. p. 87. 1847.

[472-A] Geol. Obs. on S. America, 1846, p. 168.

[472-B] Margaric acid is an oleaginous acid, formed from different animal and vegetable fatty substances. A margarate is a compound of this acid with soda, potash, or some other base, and is so named from its pearly lustre.

[472-C] Letter to the author, dated Cape of Good Hope, Feb. 20. 1836.

[474-A] Keilhau, Gæa Norvegica, pp. 61-63.

[475-A] Geol. Manual, p. 479.

[475-B] Phil. Trans., 1804.

[476-A] Poggendorf's Annalen, No. xvi., 2d series, vol. iii.

[476-B] See Principles, Index, "Carbonated Springs," &c.

[476-C] Hoffmann's Liparischen Inseln, p. 38. Leipzig, 1832.

[477-A] See Princ. of Geol.; and Bulletin de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. ii. p. 230.

[477-B] See Princ. of Geol.; and Daubeny's Volcanos, p. 167.

[477-C] Jam. Ed. New Phil. Journ., No. 51. p. 43.

[478-A] Syst. of Geol., vol. i. p. 210.

[478-B] Ibid., p. 211.

[478-C] See above, pp. 327, 333.

[479-A] See Lyell, Quart. Geol. Journ., vol. i. p. 199.

[479-B] Dr. Boase, Primary Geology, p. 319.

[480-A] Geol. Trans., 2d series, vol. ii. p. 227.

[480-B] Darwin, Volcanic Islands, pp. 69, 70.

[480-C] Geol. Obs. in S. America, p. 167. See also above, p. 471.

[480-D] Bulletin, vol. iv. p. 1301.

[483-A] See notices of Savi, Hoffmann, and others, referred to by Boué, Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, tom. v. p. 317.; and tom. iii. p. xliv.; also Pilla, cited by Murchison, Quart. Geol. Journ., vol. v. p. 266.

[487-A] See Principles, Index, "Calcareous Springs."

[489-A] Principles, &c. chap. iv. 8th ed. p. 49.

[491-A] Geol. Trans. vol. iv. p. 139.; Trans. Roy. Geol. Society Cornwall, vol. ii. p. 90.

[492-A] Carne, Trans. of Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. iii. p. 238.

[492-B] Fournet, Etudes sur les Dépots Metalliferes.

[493-A] Geol. Rep. on Cornwall, p. 340.

[493-B] Principles, ch. xxvii. 8th ed. p. 422.

[496-A] See Dr. Daubeny's Volcanos.

[496-B] Bulletin, iv. p. 1278.

[497-A] R. W. Fox on Mineral Veins, p. 10.

[497-B] Ibid. p. 38.

[498-A] I am indebted to Sir H. De la Beche for this information. See also maps and sections of Irish Survey.

[498-B] Sir H. De la Beche, MS. notes on Irish Survey.

[499-A] Report on Geology of Cornwall, p. 310.

[501-A] See Principles of Geol., Book 3.

[501-B] See the author's Anniv. Address to the Geol. Soc. 1837. Proceedings of G. S. No. 49. p. 520.

Transcriber's Notes:

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