FOOTNOTES:
[1] My lectures, given in November, 1890, were printed in Nature, April-July, 1891, under the title "On some Points in the Early History of Astronomy," with the following note:—"From shorthand notes of a course of lectures to working men delivered at the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, in November, 1890. The notes were revised by me at Aswân during the month of January. I have found, since my return from Egypt in March, that part of the subject-matter of the lectures had been previously discussed by Professor Nissen, who has employed the same materials as myself. To him, therefore, so far as I at present know, belongs the credit of having first made the suggestion that ancient temples were oriented on an astronomical basis. His articles are to be found in the Rheinisches Museum für Philologie, 1885."
[2] Maspero, "Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient." p. 136.
[3] Hibbert Lectures, 1879.
[4] See Rawlinson's "History of Egypt," Vol. II., p. 134, for references on this subject.
[5] "The temples of the gods ought to be so placed that the statue, which has its station in cella, should, if there be nothing to interfere with such a disposition, face the west; in order that those who come to make oblations and offer sacrifices may face the east.... When temples are built in the neighbourhood of a river, they should command a view of its banks, like the temples of Egypt upon the borders of the Nile."—Vitruvius, Civil Architecture, Section I., Chapter V.
[6] See Biot, "Études sur l'Astronomie Indienne," p. 293.
[7] See Biot, "Sur divers points d'Astronomie ancienne: Mémoires, Académie des Sciences," 1846, p. 47.
[8] For a detailed account of the way in which the formula in use has been obtained, the reader had better turn to Vol. I., p. 253, of Chauvenet's "Spherical and Practical Astronomy."
If we denote the latitude by φ,
and let p = the star's polar distance,
a = " " right ascension,
Θ = sidereal time of observation,
h = the star's altitude,
t = " " hour angle;
then, knowing that
t = Θ - a,
the formula may be written as follows:—
φ = h - p cos. t + ½{p2} sin. 1” sin.2t tan. h.
The Nautical Almanac gives tables to facilitate the computations involved, but greater exactness is obtained by direct computation.
[9] Since I left Egypt, in February, 1893, Captain Lyons has been good enough to comply with my request to repeat the observations. I give the following extract from his letter:—
"The mounds are only within a degree, as it is only the general direction which can be taken.
South mound old temenos wall, 289½° mag. bearing = 19½° N. of W.
Wall at right angles 189° mag. bearing = 71° S. of W.
Going to the West mound there are two higher humps with an opening between them, tons of limestone chips, sandstone blocks with Rameses II.'s name; so that I take this for the site of the great pylon. It is exactly opposite the obelisk, and distant, I should guess, 600 yards.
Site of S. pylon to obelisk, 106½° mag. bearing = 16½° S. of E.
Pole of N. pylon to obelisk, 109½° mag. bearing = 19½° S. of E.
So I think probably the remaining obelisk is the northern one (cf. Horner, "Phil. Trans.," MDCCCLV., pp. 124 and 131), and the temple axis was directed 289½° mag. bearing with corr. 5½° = 284° = 14° N. of West true amplitude."
[10] Amenenemāt I., the founder of the sanctuary of the sun, entreats, after he has begun the great work (which was not finished till the time of his son, Usertesen), "May it not perish by the vicissitudes of time, may that which is made endure!" This desire of a great king which has come down to us through the leathern roll now preserved at Berlin, has not been fulfilled; for of his magnificent structure, built for all eternity, nothing remains but the obelisk we have seen, and a few blocks of stone scarcely worth mentioning. The Persian Cambyses is unjustly accused of having destroyed the temple and city of the sun, for the city was minutely described in detail long after his time, and the temple was still flourishing; nay, many remains of the sanctuary, that have now long since vanished, were described even by Arab authors.—Ebers, "Egypt," p. 190.
[11] "Ninive et l'Assyrie," par Victor Place. Imprimerie Imperiale, 1867.
[12] "Monument de Ninive," par Botta and Flandin. Imprimerie Nationale, 1849.
[13] From a magnetic chart which has been prepared for me by the kindness of Captain Creak, R.N., F.R.S., of the Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty, it seems that the variation at Nineveh and Babylon may be taken as follows:—
| Nineveh. | Babylon. | |
| 1800 | 8° 25′ W. | 8° 25′ W. |
| 1900 | 0° | 0° 25′ W. |
The values for intermediate dates may be roughly arrived at by an interpolation curve.
[14] "Journeys in North China," Williamson. Vol. II., chap. xvi., by Edkins. p. 253.
[15] "Stonehenge: Plans, Descriptions, and Theories," 1880, p. 20.
[16] Ferguson: "Rude Stone Monuments."
[17] See especially "The Golden Bough," by J. G. Fraser, for the midsummer and Beltaine fires.
[18] "Antiquities," b. 8, c. 4, p. 401, Whiston's edition.
[19] Josephus, "Antiquities" III., c. 8, § 9.
[20] The italics are mine—J. N. L.
[21] "Antiquities" III., c. 8, § 9.
[22] Warren: "Underground Jerusalem."
[23] Acosta, in his "History of Indies," lib. vi., p. 459. quoted by Maurice ("Observations Connected with Astronomy and Ancient History and Ruins of Babylon"), states that some of the stones in the Mexican temples to sun and moon measure 38 feet by 18 feet by 6 feet.
[24] See "Palmyra and Baalbek." R. Wood, 1827. Plates.
[25] On this point I gather the following information from the article "Orientation" in the "Grand Dictionnaire Universel du 19 Siècle," by M. Pierre Larousse:—"From the fifth century to the time of the Renaissance, the orientation of churches was generally carried out. The mystical reasons furnished by the sacred writers—according to St. John of Damascus and Cassiodorus—were that Jesus on the Cross had His face turned towards the West, hence Christians during prayer must turn to the East to see it. Further, in the sacred writings Jesus is called the East (Oriens ex alto). Again, Christians hope to see Christ descending in the East on the last day. Finally, the faithful when turning to the East during prayer establish a difference between themselves and the Jews and heretics, for the Jews when praying turn West, and certain heretics South, and others North, hence the heathen said they were sun-worshippers." In the ninth century there was a strong protest against orientation. Catholic churches were built any way, and it was said, "Nunc oremus ad omnem partem quia Deus ubique est."
[26] See Builder, Jan. 2, 1892.
[27] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 174.
[28] Inscription south side of obelisk quoted in "Records of the Past," Vol. XII. (Letter from Capt. Lyons).
[29] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 177.
[30] "Chrestomathie Égyptienne," Do Rougé, iii., p. 60.
[31] "Egyptian Archæology," English edition, p. 105.
[32] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 174.
[33] Brugsch, op. cit., p. 187.
[34] "Karnak. Étude topographique et archéologique."
[35] Mariette, op. cit., text, p. 2.
[36] "History" p. 175.
[37] Nissen in his important memoir does not refer to this hill; his conclusions, therefore, are not absolutely justified by the facts as he states them.
[38] "Œuvres de Volney," vol. v., p. 431.
[39] "Ptolemy Almagest VIII.," chap. vi.
[40] "Recherches sur l'année vague des Egyptiens," by M. Biot. Académie des Sciences 4th April, 1831.
[41] I.e., the stars which never set.
[42] Herodotus II., 44. (I am indebted to my friend Prof. Robertson Smith for this reference.)
[43] See ante, p. 111.
[44] For instance, in the line of sphinxes in front of temple X, shown in the folding plate inserted in Chap. XVIII., the line was left incomplete to preserve the fair-way of the ruined temple north of Y outside the temenos wall.
[45] "Baugeschichte des Dendera-Tempels," 1877.
[46] "Rheinisches Museum für Philologie," 1885, p. 39.
[47] Quoted from Nissen, op. cit.
[48] "Origine des Cultes," vol. i., p. 450.
[49] On this point I am permitted by Professor Maspero to print the following extract from a letter I received from him:—"Tous les temples ptolémaïques et la plus grande partie des temples pharaoniques sont des reconstructions. Ce que vous avez observé de Dendérah, est vrai d'Esnéh, d'Ombos, d'Assouan, de Philæ, etc. Or, si les premiers constructeurs d'un temple—ou chez nous d'une église—peuvent choisir presque à leur gré l'emplacement, et par suite l'orientation, la plus convenable, il en est bien rarement de même des reconstructeurs. Les maisons accumulées autour du temple les gênaient, d'ailleurs les habitudes du culte et de la population étaient prises; on rebâtissait le temple—comme d'ordinaire chez nous on rebâtit l'église—sur la même orientation et sur les mêmes fondations. J'ai constaté le fait à Kom-Ombo, où les débris du temple décoré par Amenhotpou I. et Thoutmosis III. sont orientés exactement comme ceux du temple ptolémaïque actuel, bâti sur les ruines du précédent. Vous avez donc le droit de dire, non seulement pour Dendérah, mais pour beaucoup d'autres temples, qu'ils ont été reconstruits sur l'orientation du temple qu'ils remplaçaient, quand même cette orientation ne répondait plus à la réalité des choses."
[50] Mariette, "Denderah," vol. i., p. 263.
[51] Mariette, op. cit., p. 142. Plutarch wrote in the first century A.D.
[52] Mariette, op. cit., p. 206.
[53] Mariette, op. cit., p. 142.
[54] Hathor is termed "La maîtresse du commencement de l'an." Mariette, loc. cit., p. 207.
[55] "Besides the solstice and the beginning of the Nile flood, there was an event in the sky which was too striking not to excite the general attention of the Egyptian priesthood. We also know from the newly-discovered inscriptions from the ancient empire that the risings of Orion and Sirius were already attentively followed and mythologically utilised at the time of the building of the pyramids."—Krall.
[56] Brugsch, "Egypt," Edition 1891, p. 189.
[57] Ebers, "Egypt," p. 335.
[58] Mariette, pp. 168 and 178.
[59] Dümichen, "Bauurkunde der Tempelanlagen von Dendera," p. 20.
[60] Mariette, p. 156.
[61] "Isis and Osiris," Parthey, cap. 56.
[62] Have we such instances of degradation in the cat replacing the lion and the black pig the hippopotamus, to give two instances?
[63] It has been assumed by several authorities in Egyptology that Sati is a variant for Sirius. It is quite certain that in late times there was a temple at Philæ oriented to Sirius; but there are many grounds for supposing that both Sati and Anuqa referred to special southern stars. There were several points of dissimilarity between Philæ (and Elephantine) and Thebes.
[64] Maspero, "Hist. Anc." xi. 10.
[65] "Monumental Egypt," chapter i.
[66] "Monumental Egypt," chapter i.
[67] The modern Egyptians still hold to the old months for irrigation. 7 Taba = January 15, is commencement of wheat irrigation; 30 Misra is the last safe date for sowing maize in the Delta; 1st Tut is the date of regulating the bridges = September 8 in Upper Egypt.
[68] "Histoire ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient," p. 72.
[69] "Chronologie," i., p. 70.
[70] Op. cit., p. 187.
[71] Krall, loc. cit., p. 20.
[72] Mommsen, "Chronologie," p. 258.
[73] "Studien zur Geschichte der Alten Aegypten," I. Wien, 1881.
[74] "Matériaux pour servir à la Reconstruction du Calendrier," p. 29.
[75] "Aeg. Zeit.," 1886, p. 5, quoted by Krall.
[76] It should be observed that a distinction is made between the Julian and the historical year. This comes from the fact that when astronomical phenomena are calculated for dates B.C., it must be remembered that chronologists are in the habit of designating by 1, or rather by-1, the first year which precedes the instant of time at which the chronological year commenced, while astronomers mark this year in their tables by 0. It follows, therefore, that the rank of any year B.C. is always marked by an additional unit in the chronological dates. For the Christian era, of course, chronologists and astronomers work in the same way. The following table, given by Biot, exhibits the connection between these two methods. In the latter Biot shows the leap-years marked B, and the corresponding years in the Scaligerian chronological period are also given.
Dates of Julian Years commencing on January 1.
| According to Chronologists. | According to Astronomers. | Corresponding years of the period of Scaliger. |
|---|---|---|
| -6 | -5 | 4708 |
| -5B | -4B | 4709 |
| — | — | — |
| -4 | -3 | 4710 |
| -3 | -2 | 4711 |
| -2 | -1 | 4712 |
| -1B | -0B | 4713B |
| Physical instant when the era commenced. | ||
| +1 | +1 | 4714 |
| +2 | +2 | 4715 |
| +3 | +3 | 4716 |
| +4B | +4B | 4717B |
| — | — | — |
| +5 | +5 | 4718 |
[77] Loc. cit., p. 29.
[78] Probably too great a value by two or three days.
[79] Op. cit., p. 48.
[80] Goodwin has already asked, "Does the Smith Papyrus refer to some rectification of the calendar made in the fourth dynasty, similar to that made in Europe from the old to the new style?" Quoted by Riel, "Sonnen-und Sirius-Jahr," p. 361.
[81] On the 7th Epiphi of the tenth year of Ptolemy III. the ceremony of the stretching off the cord took place. Dümichen, Aeg. Zeit., 2, 1872, p. 41.
[82] Op. cit., p. 37.
[83] Dümichen, "Bauurkunde der Tempelanlagen von Dendera," p. 20.
[84] Brugsch thus translates one of the inscriptions:—"Horus in weiblicher Gestalt ist die Fürstin, die Mächtige, die Thronfolgerin und Tochter eines Thronfolger. Ein fliegender Käfer wild (sie?) geboren am Himmel in der uranfänglichen Stadt (Denderah) zur Zeit der Nacht des Kindes in seiner Wiege. Es strahlt die Sonne am Himmel in der Dämmerung, wann ihre Geburt vollbracht wird." Brugsch, "Astron. Inscript.," p. 97.
[85] In this and the following tables the dates connected with the heights of hills where they are known are given in heavy type. Where the local conditions are unknown, hills 1° high have been assumed.
[86] With regard to the temple A of Lepsius, it may be stated that in the time of the Ptolemies it received considerable and curious enlargements and embellishments which make it unique among Egyptian temples.
[87] Baedeker, "Ober-Aegypten," p. 320.
[88] New Gîzeh Catalogue, p. 61.
[89] Brugsch, "Religion und Mythologie," p. 111. Pierret, "Salle Historique de la Galerie Égyptienne" (du Louvre), p. 199.
[90] "Notices des Principaux Monuments Exposés au Musée de Gîzeh," p. 260. (1893.)
[91] The little temple of Isis at Pompeii and the associated frescoes in the Naples Museum are well worth careful study, especially with regard to the arrangements made for the stellar observations (and their final stoppage by the drastic proceeding referred to in the text), and the evolution of Horus in Greek times. The Hippopotami are most carefully drawn.
[92] Gîzeh Catalogue, 1893, p. 63.
[93] Professor Flinders Petrie has been good enough to send me his recent measurements. They justify those obtained from Lepsius' plan.
[94] Brugsch, "Egypt," 1891, p. 220.
[95] Ebers and Dümichen, in Baedeker's "Ober-Aegypten," p. 59.
[96] Op. cit., p. 21.
[97] That is, if we take the temple as oriented originally to α Ursæ Majoris.
[98] No sun temple is closely associated with the Set temples either at Luxor or Abydos, and one on the Annu model would not be so associated, for a right angle would carry its axis outside the ecliptic limits.
[99] Maspero, op. cit., p. 64.
[100] Maspero, op. cit., p. 44, note.
[101] Maspero, op. cit., p. 64.
[102] Maspero, op. cit., p. 46.
[103] Maspero, op. cit., p. 41.
[104] "Bubastis," preface, p. iv.
[105] There are, however, notable exceptions to this rule, which will be discussed further on.
[106] "Mêdûm," chap. i.
[107] Maspero, op. cit., p. 59.
[108] Further, it is known that there was some connection between Pepi-Meri-Rā and the eleventh dynasty of Thebes. Maspero, op. cit., p. 91. And it must also be mentioned that in the later pyramids "texts" are introduced.
[109] Maspero, op. cit., p. 112.
[110] Maspero, op. cit., p. 112.
[111] Maspero, op. cit., p. 113.
[112] It is worthy of inquiry whether the northern star so observed is not the true Nephthys (Nebt-het). If so, the triad Nephthys, Isis and Horus represents daily astronomical observations.
[113] Rawlinson, i. 337.
[114] "Egypt under the Pharaohs," ed. 1891, p. 3.
[115] Brugsch, "History," p. 6.
[116] Maspero, "Histoire ancienne," p. 59.
[117] Idem, p. 63.
[118] Rawlinson, ii., p. 134.
[119] Maspero, "Histoire ancienne," p. 5.
[120] Brugsch, "History of Egypt," 1891, p. 54.
[121] Mariette, "Dêr el-Bahari," p. 31. Mr. W. T. Thistleton-Dyer, the director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, agrees in this view. He permits me to print the following extract from a letter written to me:—"The only positive fact that I can deal with is the representation in the pictures of a small scrubby tree, which seems to have been about four feet high. It appears to have yielded a gummy or resinous exudation from its trunk. Mariette supposes this to be myrrh. Pount to be Somali-land, and To Nuter the Socotran Archipelago. All this fits in very well with botanical facts. Myrrh-producing plants exist both in Somali-land and Arabia, and also in Socotra, as ascertained by Bayley Balfour. The two former places still are, as they always have been, the place of origin of myrrh, and we know that it was largely used by the Egyptians in embalming. There is no evidence that myrrh, or anything in any way resembling it, was ever found south of the Equator. I cannot carry you further south than Berbera."
[122] On this point I am permitted to print the following extract from a letter received from my friend Sir John Kirk, K.C.B.:—"I send you a photo, taken in 1858, in the delta of the Zambezi, of a house built on high poles. The people there live in such houses. There is a ladder by which they mount, and all their belongings are kept above. Such houses I have since seen at the mouth of the River Rufiji, opposite the island of Monfia, to the south of Zanzibar. The reason in both cases for such a type of house is that the country at one time is flooded, and also to avoid mosquitoes. Similar structures are used, I am told, in Madagascar. At Lake Nyassa I believe there are village communities living in the lake, on artificial islands of piles."
[123] Rawlinson, ii., p. 131.
[124] "L'Anthropologie," 1891, No. 4.
[125] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 184.
[126] Inscription of Thothmes III., translated by Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 188.
[127] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 184.
[128] Brugsch, "Egypt," p. 180.
[129] For plans, see Lepsius, vol. ii., p. 130.
[130] For plans, see Lepsius, vol. ii., pp. 133 and 134.
[131] For plans, see Lepsius, vol. ii., pp. 125 and 127.
[132] There is a point of great interest here. It would seem from Captain Lyons' examination of the temples at Wady Halfa, which I make out to have been oriented to α Centauri, that when the two races were amalgamated in later times, both the stars to which I have referred as heralding the equinox were personified by the same goddess, Serk-t.
[133] Besides the book on omens we have "The observations of Bel," or "Illumination of Bel" (Mul-lil), seventy-two books dealing with conjunctions of Sun and Moon, phases (?) of Venus, and appearance of comets. (Sayce, "Hibbert Lectures," p. 29.) The complete materials for the study of Babylonian and Assyrian astronomy cannot be available until the catalogue of the Kouyunjik Collection, now in course of publication by the British Museum, is finished.
[134] Rawlinson, vol. i., p. 316.
[135] Maspero, "Histoire Ancienne," p. 165.
[136] Pierret, "Le Panthéon Égyptien," p. 48. I have before referred to a doubt on this point.
[137] Maspero, op. cit., p. 357.
[138] "Le Panthéon Égyptien," p. 4.
[139] "Kosmologie der Babylonier," p. 147.
[140] "Proc. Zool. Soc.," 1850, p. 160.
[141] Dr. Wallis Budge informs me that An was an old name of the sun-god.
[142] Rawlinson, vol. ii., p. 64.
[143] "Kosmologie der Babylonier," p. 147.
[144] Sayce, "Hibbert Lectures," 1887, p. 193.
[145] Sayce, p. 193.
[146] Jensen, p. 149.
[147] Sayce, p. 439.
[148] Sayce, "Hibbert Lectures," p. 190.
[149] Sayce, p. 280. There is a bas-relief in the British Museum showing this ceremonial.
[150] Sayce, p. 101.
[151] See "Guide to the British Museum," p. 71.
[152] Sayce, Hibbert Lectures, p. 33. Flinders Petrie, Nature, Aug. 9, 1883, p. 341.
[153] Sayce, op. cit., p. 135.
[154] One gets the idea, from reading Professor Sayce's work, that there might have been in the earliest times a north-star-worshipping race up the valley before Ía and Sun and Moon worship were established at Eridu; and that the addition of Ía to the Bīl-Anu-worship to make one triad, and the addition of Bīl to the Ía-Asari-worship to make another, were both compromises. See Sayce, pp. 320, 347, 400.
[155] Prof. Sayce has been good enough to inform me that he is of opinion that Marduk or Merodach was originally a local god of Babylon, and that he was identified with the son of Ea when a colony came to Babylon or founded that city, bringing with it the culture and theology of the south. In this way the sun-god of Babylon became confounded with the sun-god of Eridu. I should add that Assyriologists are not all agreed about the transitions to which I have referred.
[156] I owe to the kindness of Sir Arnold Kemball, K.C.B., the perusal of a valuable report on the agriculture of British East Africa, prepared for him by Mr. W. W. A. Fitz-Gerald. He has permitted me to print the following abstract:—"The whole of the eastern coast is affected in a greater or lesser degree by the S.W. and N.E. monsoons. The following notes deal only with the extent of coast-land lying opposite and to the north of Zanzibar and Pemba islands. The agricultural seasons on the coast-lands are two in number, and correspond with the advent of the N.E. and S.W. monsoons respectively. They are distinguished locally as the 'greater rains,' or 'Masika M'Ku;' the 'lesser rains,' or 'Masika M'dogo.' The greater rains inaugurate the most important cultivating season, commencing in March with the S.W. monsoon. Some years the sowing commences as early as the 7th, but generally speaking the average period may be given as beginning from the middle of the month, and by the first week in April all sowings of Indian corn, rice and 'mfmah' (Millet or Sorghum vulgare), the chief and staple food-stuffs of the people, are generally finished, though sowings may continue till the end of April. The heaviest fall of rain occurs in April and May, and the rain continues with gradually diminishing force to September. Harvest takes place in July and August, and once the grain is off the field the land is immediately cleared and prepared for sowing, in anticipation of the coming of the 'lesser rains' in October. The season of the lesser rains is chiefly the time for the cultivation of Gingelly oil seed, beans, and such other lesser food-stuffs. The season of the 'lesser rains' is deemed more uncertain and less to be depended upon, and the rainfall is decidedly very much smaller in comparison. The 'lesser rains' practically end in November, for though the wind continues steadily from the N.N.E., the rainfall in December, January, and February is slight and uncertain, and it is during these three months, especially the two last, that the greatest heat prevails. The influence of the monsoons is considerably less than on Zanzibar Island, and the difference of rainfall may be put down as about 20 to 30 inches."
[157] Introduction to "Nubische Grammatik," 1880.
[158] Just in the same way that the Equinoctial Pyramid cult gave way in Egypt, dominated by the rise of the Nile at the solstice.
[159] I shall show subsequently that a similar change seems also to have been made at Thebes. Amen-Rā, the Summer Sun-god, was a late invention.
[160] Jensen, pp. 195-198.
[161] Sayce, p. 131.
[162] The italics are mine.—J. N. L.
[163] Professor Sayce also tells me that Asari was subsequently identified by the Semitic Babylonians with Merodach.
[164] "Egypt's Place," vol. i., p. 377.
[165] Rawlinson's "Ancient Egypt," vol. i., p. 328.
[166] Lanzoni also states that Amen-Rā sometimes appears with the four heads of the goat, once special to Chnemu, q.v.
[167] Lanzoni, p. 692.
[168] Rawlinson, vol. i., p. 371.
[169] Naville, "Mythe d'Horus," p. 8.
[170] "Mythe d'Horus," p. 7.
[171] "Mythe d'Horus," p. 7.
[172] "Hist. Anc.," p. 33.
[173] "Hibbert Lectures," p. 155.
[174] In modern German, even, the Moon is masculine and the Sun feminine.
[175] Maspero, op. cit., p. 14.
[176] Annu and An (Denderah): (? "la grande Tribu des Anou" of Maspero?)
[177] Op. cit., p. 315.
[178] I think I am right about the Tortoise, for I find the following passage in Jensen, p. 65, where he notes the absence of the Crab:—"Ganz absehend davon, ob dasselbe für unsere Frage von Wichtigkeit werden wird oder nicht, muss ich daran erinnern, das unter den Emblemen, welche die sogenannten 'Deeds of Sale' häufig begleiten, verschiedene Male wie der Scorpion so die Schildkröte abgebildet gefunden wird."
[179] According to a communication of Dr. Tetens, Aldebaran rose heliacally at the beginning of spring for Babylon 6900 years ago.
[180] With regard to these legends Jensen writes: "Now it is remarkable that the oldest historical king about whom the Babylonians know anything, Sargon of Agadi (?) is said to have lived about 3750 B.C.—i.e., 5639 years ago—and that his son is called Narām-Sīn = 'favourite of Sīn,' the moon-god. And if we bear in mind that the zodiac with its signs plays into the Babylonian legends of creation, and that the Hebrew cosmogonic legends are derived from these, it is for us even more remarkable that the Jews place the creation of the world 5649 years ago, however much the figures derived from the Bible, according to other computations and traditions, may depart therefrom. Whether this is accidental or not, I do not profess to judge."
[181] "Astronomisches aus Babylon," pp. 117-133.
[182] "Die Sterntafeln in den ägyptischen Konigsgräbern von Bibân el-Molûk," von Gustav Bilfinger (p. 69).
[183] In the lists of temples which follow, all the orientations were obtained from azimuths taken with a theodolite, either from the sun or from the planet Venus. In almost every case two or more sights were observed, and occasionally also the performance of the instrument was tested by stars at night. The heights subtended by the visible horizon opposite to the axes of the temples were also observed.
[184] See Nature, February 25, 1892, and May 11, 1893.
[185] R indicates a rising, and S a setting observation.
[186] With regard to a temple of Minerva using α Arietis at Tegea, Mr. Penrose writes:—"Minerva is allowed by the poets to have been able to use Jupiter's thunder, so this is no misappropriation of the star. Juno also seems to have claimed the use of α Arietis as at Samos, and at Girgenti it suits the orientation of the temple of Juno better than Spica. But Spica seems to have been connected with the worship of Juno and Diana in their more strictly female capacity."