The History of Java, v. 1-2

by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles

APPENDIX, A.

The annexed documents, as far as they can be relied on, afford evidence of an extent of mortality in Batavia, as compared with the number of inhabitants, that was perhaps never exampled, for the same space of time, in any other quarter of the world.

The Table No. I., incomplete as it is, was drawn out with as much exactness as the original lists and registers still in possession would admit of. In explanation of some inconsistencies which are exhibited in it, it is necessary to observe, that on the occasion of the capture of this island, part of the most valuable papers were lost or destroyed, and amongst them the register in which was stated the Chinese population, and the number of their deaths and marriages annually, which is the reason why no mention is made of them in this table.

The first and third columns contain only the numbers of European inhabitants.

The last column, which shews the deaths of the Natives and Slaves, is probably a list of the deceased slaves only; because there was a separate list kept of the natives who died annually in the Batavian jurisdiction, which, however, was for a long time incorrect, and at last destroyed in 1811.

It is also probable, that the column of deaths generally does not extend farther than in the town and immediate suburbs; and the other two columns of baptisms and marriages extend over the town, suburbs, and environs together.

The specific lists kept in the different hospitals were likewise lost. This is to be particularly lamented, because they would have shewn how many of the European deaths were inhabitants, military persons, strangers, or sailors or marines from the ships of the different nations in Batavia Roads, who all sent their sick men into the hospitals of Batavia, who, when dead, were comprehended in the number of European deaths. This circumstance explains the incorrectness which appears to exist in the two statements of the living and deceased Europeans.

The Table No. II. was discovered among the records of the Dutch government at Batavia, and in the absence of a more official document, may, perhaps, on that account, be entitled to some confidence.

TABLE, No. I.
List of the Population, Marriages, Baptisms, and Deaths, in the Town and Suburbs of Batavia, from 1700 to 1813, as far as the same could be ascertained from the Registers, &c. after the Conquest of Java in 1811.

	POPULATION.				MARRIAGES.		BAPTISMS.		DEATHS.
	Within the Walls.		In the Suburbs.		Eu­ro­pe­ans.	Half Casts and Other Chris­tians.	Eu­ro­pe­ans' Children.	Those of Half Casts and Other Chris­tians.	Eu­ro­pe­ans, Half Casts, &c.	Natives, Slaves, &c.
	Eu­ro­pe­ans.	Eu­ro­pe­ans & Natives.	Eu­ro­pe­ans.	Eu­ro­pe­ans & Natives.
1700	1,875	20,072	215	32,478	74	134	119	565	697	975
1701	1,715	19,084	321	48,972	65	126	76	341	736	815
1702	1,755	19,683	309	45,452	76	120	83	616	1,088	1,336
1703	1,835	18,580	534	47,123	72	133	190	443	856	931
1704	1,898	22,150	470	49,351	74	144	96	466	442	1,148
1705	1,771	19,752	​—	​—	55	133	100	441	688	1,800
1706	1,923	21,899	417	49,483	79	127	84	447	841	1,839
1707	1,826	21,632	411	47,026	60	116	88	471	655	1,371
1708	1,769	20,922	402	54,628	49	134	87	638	651	1,481
1709	1,681	20,600	412	55,581	64	138	82	575	804	1,828
1710	1,716	20,850	368	58,761	41	152	108	628	684	1,313
1711	1,723	21,517	341	57,843	63	154	110	555	766	1,487
1712	1,656	21,538	448	65,865	60	141	110	595/	684	1,278
1713	1,566	19,007	503	69,110	56	154	747[280]		599	1,022
1714	1,644	19,758	553	66,092	60	150	703		608	1,085
1715	1,663	22,242	411	64,657	43	159	759		567	1,074
1716	1,516	18,947	446	60,236	37	129	688		606	1,207
1717	1,443	18,965	290	59,831	41	147	578		716	1,322
1718	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	663		​—	​—
1719	1,409	19,411	308	68,082	59	154	631		857	1,869
1720	1,610	21,156	361	67,792	68	148	529		977	1,685
1721	1,477	20,520	387	67,044	53	80	467		772	1,210
1722	695	11,252	417	67,339	61	132	649		193	813
1723	1,606	23,716	363	66,079	43	119	610		985	1,597
1724	1,562	23,428	341	62,966	34	172	781		934	1,755
1725	1,615	23,752	332	72,218	60	150	637		958	2,085
	Within the Walls and immediate Suburbs.		In the Vicinity and Environs.				In the Reformed Churches, and since 1746, in the Lutheran Church.
1726	1,452	22,814	304	76,893	58	118	616		994	487
1727	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	740		​—	​—
1728	1,538	15,343	289	73,141	50	155	648		768	590
1729	1,389	20,677	232	81,977	52	135	736		754	500
1730	1,330	20,429	209	80,756	45	167	763		857	1,800
1731	1,431	22,658	241	82,204	45	128	783		886	1,066
1732	1,445	22,646	211	83,602	55	142	625		1,003	689
1733	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	554		​—	​—
1734	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	432		​—	​—
1735	1,338	20,587	224	74,367	65	166	561		240	667
1736	​—	​—	​—	​—	48	​—	727		​—	​—
1737	1,317	19,612	266	67,170	48	133	572		1,966	705
1738	1,350	11,212	212	64,090	49	133	448		2,002	919
1739	1,286	18,502	272	68,229	51	179	658		1,068	668
1740	1,420	14,141	269	72,506	47	90	518		1,317	338
1741	1,388	13,977	287	47,583	52	124	670		1,278	406
1742	​—	​—	259	56,882	47	118	602		1,286	547
1743	1,481	14,609	321	55,023	84	119	639		1,526	682
1744	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	673		​—	​—
1745	1,517	14,926	278	67,254	60	117	592		1,965	1,062
1746	1,597	13,852	242	68,785	​—	​—	574		​—	​—
1747	1,525	13,854	240	73,163	​—	​—	670		​—	​—
1748	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—	627		​—	​—
1749	1,541	14,050	318	77,008	39	115	705		1,662	556
1750	1,520	14,278	313	80,597	63	105	571		2,229	569
1751	1,439	13,874	336	78,259	38	84/	550		2,189	502
1752	1,513	14,596	311	75,152	135[281]		600		1,858	562
1753	1,651	15,710	325	76,611	132		457		1,789	1,542
1754	1,575	15,891	358	93,375	136		553		1,729	617
	Within the Town and all the Suburbs.
1755	1,599	16,466	369	95,938	146		484		2,532	630
1756	1,604	15,925	310	96,702	143		410		1,729	547
1757	1,629	16,356	373	103,443	137		465		1,557	561
1758	1,560	16,855	447	106,151	128		468		1,781	1,082
1759	1,572	16,942	377	111,273	97		437		1,451	636
1760	1,634	16,785	410	109,393	124		450		1,403	1,064
1761	1,499	16,298	305	113,280	​—		387		1,110	980
1762	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		471		​—	​—
1763	1,507	16,282	447	113,009	112		435		2,001	1,134
1764	​—	16,008	413	117,207	131		297		1,907	585
1765	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		357		​—	​—
1766	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		356		​—	​—
1767	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		306		​—	​—
1768	1,642	15,256	273	108,507	93		329		1,933	537
1769	1,271	15,430	389	114,750	124		369		1,869	667
1770	1,183	13,192	328	123,869	126		302		2,871	2,672
1771	1,105	12,233	300	121,380	93		245		2,425	622
1772	1,011	12,743	348	112,346	108		301		2,437	2,256
1773	1,061	13,473	342	107,500	98		284		2,029	534
1774	933	12,134	367	108,215	97		295		2,452	866
1775	1,165	13,512	328	125,635	214		307		2,997	3,007
1776	​—	​—	276	131,895	100		303		3,055	1,199
1777	896	10,661	279	140,332	98		277		1,394	2,031
1778	1,137	12,206	238	135,532	104		253		1,804	2,131
1779	​—	​—	302	160,986	82		290		1,524	1,717
1780	747	13,651	278	129,943	113		259		1,418	1,435
1781	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		272		​—	​—
1782	664	9,517	276	127,039	75		260		733	1,692
1783	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		292		​—	​—
1784	695	10,422	336	129,506	81		279		1,439	1,669
1785	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		243		​—	​—
1786	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		238		​—	​—
1787	574	9,910	375	133,151	58		230		1,939	1,278
1788	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		284		​—	​—
1789	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		236		​—	​—
1790	​—	​—	​—	​—	69		220		2,379	1,672
1791	325	6,367	450	120,352	48		216		2,228	1,590
1792	254	8,121	282	119,297	59		171		1,990	1,131
1793	254	8,121	282	119,297	48		149		1,805	1,030
1794	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		215		​—	​—
1795	​—	​—	​—	​—	92		183		1,121	953
1796	​—	​—	​—	​—	67		173		​—	​—
1797	​—	​—	​—	​—	52		210		215	930
1798	​—	​—	​—	​—	68		173		280	675
1799	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		236		​—	​—
1800	​—	​—	​—	​—	68		169		106	1,168
1801	​—	​—	​—	​—	32		169		​—	​—
1802	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		207		​—	​—
1803	​—	​—	​—	​—	58		182		263	2,356
1804	​—	​—	378	72,830	​—		190		255	​—
1805	​—	​—	500	73,728	83		164		​—	​—
1806	​—	​—	​—	​—	50		171		​—	​—
1807	​—	​—	​—	​—	86		186		​—	2,549
1808	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		151		​—	​—
1809	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		131		​—	​—
1810	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		167		​—	​—
1811	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		136		​—	​—
1812	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		115		​—	​—
1813	​—	​—	​—	​—	​—		138		​—	​—

TABLE, No. II.
List of Deceased and Buried in the several Burial Places at Batavia, from the Year 1730, till the Month of August, 1752.
[Translated from a Document discovered among the Records of the Dutch Government at Batavia.]

	Numb. deceased.
1730.
January	3,862
February	3,786
March	3,928
April	3,860
May	3,862
June	3,889
July	4,268
August	4,404
September	4,597
October	4,290
November	3,965
December	3,739
​		48,450
1731.
January	3,699
February	3,705
March	3,827
April	3,833
May	3,711
June	3,788
July	4,480
August	4,527
September	4,916
October	4,512
November	4,412
December	4,430
​		49,840
1732.
January	4,359
February	4,047
March	4,046
April	4,060
May	4,066
June	4,191
July	4,515
August	4,758
September	5,314
October	4,912
November	4,344
December	4,305
​		52,917
1733.
January	4,205
February	4,261
March	3,989
April	3,948
May	3,747
June	3,840
July	3,885
August	3,805
September	4,147
October	4,148
November	3,906
December	3,864
​		47,745
1734.
January	3,830
February	3,963
March	3,914
April	3,725
May	3,711
June	3,550
July	3,772
August	4,294
September	5,303
October	4,237
November	4,025
December	4,021
​		48,145
1735.
January	3,722
February	3,775
March	3,830
April	3,757
May	3,780
June	3,968
July	4,141
August	4,041
September	4,058
October	4,050
November	3,966
December	3,962
​		47,050
1736.
January	4,110
February	3,909
March	3,815
April	3,778
May	3,760
June	3,699
July	4,063
August	4,078
September	4,260
October	4,110
November	3,841
December	4,080
​		47,503
1737.
January	4,066
February	4,093
March	3,707
April	3,561
May	3,485
June	3,358
July	3,357
August	3,400
September	2,501
October	4,054
November	4,057
December	4,061
​		43,709
1738.
January	3,784
February	3,572
March	3,570
April	3,718
May	3,717
June	4,018
July	4,045
August	3,771
September	4,110
October	4,293
November	4,030
December	4,158
​		46,786
1739.
January	4,039
February	4,017
March	3,909
April	3,759
May	3,885
June	3,985
July	4,266
August	4,273
September	4,053
October	4,139
November	4,189
December	4,084
​		48,598
1740.
January	3,851
February	3,747
March	3,758
April	3,878
May	4,090
June	4,424
July	4,536
August	4,321
September	4,538
October	4,514
November	4,224
December	4,083
​		49,964
1741.
January	4,010
February	3,842
March	3,893
April	3,824
May	3,958
June	4,057
July	4,136
August	3,764
September	4,093
October	3,888
November	3,766
December	3,712
​		46,943
1742.
January	2,849
February	3,731
March	3,780
April	3,811
May	2,185
June	3,665
July	3,915
August	3,976
September	3,546
October	3,537
November	3,646
December	4,021
​		42,662
1743.
January	3,744
February	3,659
March	3,399
April	3,407
May	3,418
June	4,448
July	3,822
August	3,937
September	3,641
October	3,798
November	3,852
December	4,011
​		45,136
1744.
January	4,114
February	3,974
March	3,682
April	3,723
May	3,790
June	3,808
July	3,847
August	3,601
September	5,904
October	3,914
November	4,140
December	4,064
​		47,661
1745.
January	3,952
February	3,765
March	3,212
April	3,230
May	3,290
June	3,327
July	3,655
August	3,736
September	4,197
October	3,632
November	3,486
December	3,526
​		43,008
1746.
January	3,479
February	3,491
March	3,459
April	3,373
May	3,435
June	3,950
July	4,750
August	4,210
September	4,110
October	4,214
November	4,483
December	4,874
​		47,828
1747.
January	4,414
February	4,389
March	4,305
April	4,159
May	4,599
June	4,978
July	5,355
August	4,946
September	5,016
October	3,028
November	4,506
December	4,603
​		54,298
1748.
January	4,459
February	4,322
March	4,796
April	4,689
May	4,603
June	5,106
July	4,469
August	4,355
September	5,034
October	5,169
November	5,140
December	4,864
​		57,006
1749.
January	4,870
February	4,452
March	4,332
April	4,505
May	4,425
June	4,589
July	4,656
August	4,174
September	4,398
October	4,684
November	4,537
December	4,893
​		54,515
1750.
January	4,546
February	4,352
March	4,417
April	4,619
May	5,227
June	5,072
July	5,277
August	5,134
September	4,872
October	4,580
November	4,526
December	4,508
​		57,130
1751.
January	4,543
February	4,128
March	4,163
April	4,170
May	3,967
June	4,967
July	6,904
August	5,566
September	5,699
October	5,344
November	4,612
December	4,533
​		58,605
1752.
January	3,923
February	3,941
March	4,272
April	4,116
May	4,466
June	4,285
July	4,359
August	4,514
​		33,876
During twenty-two years and eight months,
Grand Total		1,119,375

The unhealthiness of the climate of Batavia is connected, in the minds of many, with the fabulous properties of the poison tree of Java, and many are so ignorant of the island as to consider the climate of Batavia as a fair example of that of Java in general. History attests that this city has been highly pernicious to the health both of Europeans and Natives, almost from its foundation, and recent experience concurs with the testimony of history. The mines of America, when they were first discovered, did not more strongly allure the Spaniards, nor urged them to sacrifice more relentlessly the lives of the unresisting natives to their burning thirst of gold, than the monopoly of Java and the Spice Islands led the Dutch Company, in the track of wealth, through danger, injustice and oppression. Though the unhealthiness of Batavia was at all times known and formidable, there were times when the mortality became extraordinary and alarming. Although not prone to any speculation, except that of merchants, or to any inquiry, except for a new market or a more lucrative channel of trade, the Company's Government in India was sometimes forced to institute inquiries into the cause of this insalubrity, and to speculate about the possibility and the means of removing it. Passing by other occasions, there exists on the records of the High Regency a reply to queries about the unhealthiness of Batavia, dated the 14th of October 1753. This paper states that between 1732 and 1738, the greatest number of casualties happened. It assigns, as a great cause of the insalubrity complained of, the situation of the town in a bay, confined on the west and east by projecting points of land, and inclosed in front by a cluster of small islands. The space between the town and the sea is chiefly mud, left by the retreating of the sea: a swamp surrounds the town. The mouths of the rivers are generally covered with underwood and a species of tree peculiar to swamps. The vegetation of these low grounds, it is added, cannot but retain impurities of the most noxious kind. The space which is formed at the mouths of the rivers Táng'ran and Ang'ki is an entire swamp, covered with shrubs which emit exhalations of an impure nature: these are interspersed with the burying grounds of the natives, and the effluvia of these places is felt at some distance. It was believed that the earthquake of 1699, by forcing mud from under the earth and blocking up the mouths of the rivers more than formerly, contributed to increase the previously existing unhealthiness. The lime kilns in the neighbourhood, the close plantations of trees that prevent a free circulation of air, the stagnation of the rivers from the bars of mud or sand which obstruct their out-course into the sea, the kind of water which the inhabitants are compelled to drink, the narrowness of their houses, and the dirt and filth accumulated in the numerous canals that intersect the town, have all their due share of pernicious efficiency assigned them in this report. The buildings, it is said, are admirably adapted to keep out the fresh air, and to retain that which is putrid or noxious. To remedy the evils felt, a new construction of houses is recommended, and a frequent pruning or entire extirpation of the trees.

The fever, which excited this inquiry, commenced in 1733 and lasted till 1738, and, during its continuance, two thousand of the Company's servants and free Christians annually died. In 1739 its violence abated; but it broke out again in 1744, and continued with little diminution or variation to the date of the report in 1753.

Without stopping to inquire whether it would be easier to remove disease from Batavia, or the inhabitants of Batavia from disease, I shall take the liberty of quoting an extract from a report on the climate of some parts of Java, drawn up by Mr. Robertson, the late Superintending Surgeon, which appears to me to afford a satisfactory account of the causes of the insalubrity of the capital. After giving a statement of the mortality that prevailed in an Indiaman, a part of the crew of which landed at Batavia, he thus proceeds.

"Such is the melancholy instance of the noxious climate of Batavia, which came within my own observation. That it was not epidemic is clearly evinced, from its not extending its influence to those who attended the sick, nor to the rest of the crew, all of whom escaped its attack and remained healthy. Among the Dutch who remain in the town, fevers are, I understand, very prevalent at all seasons, notwithstanding their being, in a manner, inured to the climate, and most of them have a sallow sickly appearance. It is not uncommon, in riding through the streets, to meet three or four funerals daily.

"The Chinese, however, who are very numerous, suffer more than any class of the people; perhaps, from the worse situations of their houses, the manner in which these are crowded, the closeness of their apartments, and their gross manner of living. The number of casualties among them, I am told, is incredible, especially during the dry season; and if one may judge from the extent of their burial ground, and the number of their tumuli, it cannot admit of a doubt. The preceding facts are, I conclude, sufficient to establish the truth of the noxious character the climate of Batavia has so long obtained, and I shall now proceed to the causes which have been often investigated, and seem well ascertained, though the knowledge of them has led to little exertion for their removal.

"The baneful effects of marsh miasmata on the human system is well known, engendering intermittent and remittent fevers, dysenteries, and visceral obstructions. Batavia, built almost in a swamp, surrounded by marshes in all directions, trees and jungles, which prevent the exhalations being carried off by a free circulation of air, is peculiarly obnoxious from this cause. Opposite the mouth of the river, and extending a great way to the westward, is a mud-bank, which, in many parts at low water, is uncovered by the sea, and is daily accumulating from the quantities of mud and animal and vegetable matter carried down by the river during its reflux. Again the sea, often at spring tides, overflows the adjacent country, and, on its receding, leaves the soil covered with slime and mud, which, exposed to the action of the sun, soon suffers decomposition, and impregnates the atmosphere with its noxious exhalations, which are carried by the sea breeze over Batavia, where the trees and jungles surrounding the houses prevent their being dissipated. During the heat of the day these exhalations are more diffused and comparatively innoxious, but when the sun withdraws its influence they become more condensed, and amalgamating with the descending evening dews form a morbid atmosphere around the houses of the inhabitants. This hypothesis will readily account for a fact well known, that people whose commercial concerns require their presence in Batavia during the day, and who retire during the night into the country, escape this endemic, while scarcely any who sleep in the town, even for a night, unless those who, by a long residence, are inured to it, escape. In the ingenious and sensible work formerly alluded to (Mr. Johnson's), I find this hypothesis so clearly and perspicuously expounded, that I must take the liberty of quoting it.

"'The cause why the stench emitted by marshes and vegetable matter in a state of decomposition is more perceptible immediately after sunset, is not that the vapours are disengaged in greater quantities then than during the day, but the marshes retain their heat for some time after the sun's rays are withdrawn, and consequently continue to emit vapours through the atmosphere, as during the high temperature of the day by the sun. They therefore meet the descending dews, condensing and forming a thick fog, which hovers over the swamps, accompanied by a noxious and disagreeable odour. The miasmata exhaled during the day, in all probability, descend with the dews of the evening, which, meeting and combining with those that continue to be disengaged from their source, must form a concentration highly capable of affecting the constitution. Marsh effluvia become at a certain distance from their source innoxious. Dr. Hunter observes, 'a few feet in height gives a comparative security in the same buildings.' This will be accounted for by the supposition, that as the miasmata exhaled during the day descend in the evenings, they become more and more concentrated, till meeting the exhalations from the still reeking marshes, a dense stratum of highly impregnated atmosphere is found contiguous to the surface of the earth: hence the salubrity of sleeping in upper apartments. This leads to another practicable inference of considerable importance, that when necessity compels exposure to these marshes, we should select that point of time least likely to meet those miasmata, whether ascending or descending. This period seems to extend from three to six in the afternoon:[282] that is, after the greatest heat of the earth and air, and consequently the greatest evaporation, and before the condensation and return of such exhalations as rose during the day, and which combine with those still issuing from the heated soil for some time after sunset.'

"A second, and, I think, an equally powerful cause, is the stagnant water of the canals, which, in all directions, intersect the city. In the first place, they are filled with filth of every description; there is scarcely at times any perceptible current in them to carry off that filth; and lastly, the sluices are frequently kept shut, for the purpose of swelling the waters above them to irrigate the fields, while those below, which intersect the town, become almost dry, leaving an extensive surface of mud, and every kind of putrified matter, to be acted upon by the sun, raising the most pestilential vapours, with which, as before observed, the atmosphere gets thoroughly impregnated.

"As a third cause, the state of the houses may be considered, and the mode of living of the Dutch. Houses that are untenanted are seldom opened, and thus collect much filth and foul, damp, pernicious vapours. Those that are inhabited are generally shut up in the day time, most of them being glazed, thus preventing a free circulation of air; and in the lower story of most of the houses, the walls are covered some feet from the ground with a greenish coat, and on entering the apartments a stranger experiences a kind of chilly feel, and a damp raw kind of smell. Although it cannot be enumerated among the causes, yet I cannot help thinking the Dutch mode of medical practice, in as far as it is inefficient to counteract the diseases of this climate, must tend to increase the number of fatal terminations.

"The Dutch practitioners, little in the habit of theorizing, continue the same practice in every form of disease, and they are particularly prejudiced against the use of mercury, opium, and other powerful medicines, in consequence relying solely on the most simple and inert remedies. Some few of them, of more enlarged understanding, adopt the English mode, and seem sensible of its superior efficacy.

"A fourth, and, I am convinced, a very general cause, especially of the diarrhœas and dysenteries, which seldom fail to attack new comers, is the water. This most essential article is taken either from the canals or wells, and it is equally bad when passed through a filtering stone. It retains a brackish, hard, unpleasant taste, and if allowed to remain some time in vessels without previous boiling, generates small animalculæ. Such, I conceive, are the most probable and principal causes of the insalubrity of Batavia; though there are, I doubt not, others contributing, which elude observation. It is generally received, though I think an erroneous opinion, that the rainy season is the most unhealthy. The most unhealthy appears to me to be that immediately after the cessation of the rains; and the older and more experienced Dutch residents have observed, that in years when there has been a long continued drought, disease has been more than usually prevalent, and they look forward with anxiety for the accession of the rains, as the means of resisting its baneful dissemination.

"Weltevreden, at a distance of not more than three miles, being less exposed to these causes, excepting the water, is exempt, in a great measure, from its prevailing endemic fever; though diarrhœas are common, especially among those newly arriving, but they are seldom of a serious or alarming nature.

"Among the troops stationed at Weltevreden and Cornelis, diseases are not more frequent than in the healthiest parts of India which I have visited; though for some months since the Báli expedition, the casualties in the 78th regiment have been numerous. At Chemangis, about twenty-two miles from Batavia inland, a battalion of Sepoys is stationed, where, from the returns I have received, it appears they enjoy comparatively good health, and have very few casualties, though a much larger quantity of rain falls than in the vicinity of Weltevreden. It is on an elevated commanding situation, and open and clear of jungle for a considerable extent around."

In support of the opinion which has been given of the general salubrity of the climate of Java, the abstract returns of sick, &c. among the troops serving on Java and its dependencies, for the last two years, are annexed, together with a statement of casualties, in His Majesty's 78th regiment, while serving on the continent of India and in Java.

General Abstract of the Monthly Return of Sick on the Island of Java and its Dependencies, from 1st November, 1813, to 30th October, 1814.

Months.	No. of Troops.		Remained on the 1st.	Admitted.	Discharged.	Dead.				Remaining last month.							To­tal		Proportion of Sick.	Proportion of Deaths to Cures.
	Eu­ro­pe­ans.	Na­tives.				Fe­ver.	Dys­en­ter­y.	Oth­er Dis­eases.	To­tal.	Fe­ver.	Flux.	Hep­a­ti­tis.	Rheu­ma­tism.	Syph­i­lis and Gon­or­rhe­a.	Ul­cers.	Oth­er Dis­eases.	Eu­ro­pe­ans.	Na­tives.
1813.
Nov.	2,262	5,196	938	997	981	5	19	6	30	176	216	10	61	101	195	144	289	635	1 to 8	1 to 32.70
Dec.	2,399	4,962	963	908	974	3	37	14	54	150	205	9	73	95	149	164	266	577	1 to 9.90	1 to 18
1814.
Jan.	2,089	5,536	955	852	895	1	24	11	36	144	196	11	79	99	170	177	232	644	1 to 8.70	1 to 24.86
Feb.	1,233	4,865	677	474	477	3	14	6	23	99	144	2	63	84	113	146	141	510	1 to 9.33	1 to 27.39
Mar.	2,154	5,845	744	733	834	6	19	6	31	146	152	1	69	183	102	116	124	575	1 to 11.52	1 to 26.911
Apr.	1,818	4,962	620	662	620	5	18	5	28	149	131	5	51	80	80	144	177	457	1 to 10.67	1 to 22.14
May	1,781	6,509	848	876	805	8	35	4	47	169	201	7	87	107	131	160	195	667	1 to 9.61	1 to 17.12
June	1,677	5,790	763	934	820	11	30	13	54	168	182	12	80	103	127	151	216	607	1 to 9	1 to 15.18
July	1,663	5,560	839	1,082	880	7	30	10	47	304	199	15	103	117	104	150	230	764	1 to 7.28	1 to 18.72
Aug.	1,569	5,735	947	945	772	21	17	4	42	440	189	11	89	117	111	121	263	815	1 to 6.77	1 to 18.38
Sept.	2,309	5,863	1,157	915	916	31	38	8	77	395	172	15	107	135	97	159	355	725	1 to 7.55	1 to 11.89
Oct.	2,306	5,562	1,079	876	1,018	9	24	12	45	241	176	9	106	122	91	142	278	609	1 to 8.87	1 to 22.62

Average of the Strength of Corps and Detachments.	Average of Sick.	Average of Cures.	Average of Deaths.	Average Proportion of Sick to Well.	Average Proportion of Deaths to Cures.
7,470	862	832	42	1 to 8.66	1 to 99.80

Deaths during the Year.	Fevers.	Flux.	Other Diseases.	To­tal.
514	110	305	99	514
Monthly Average	9⅙	255⁄12	8¼	4210⁄12

General Abstract of the Monthly Returns of Sick on the Island of Java and its Dependencies, from 1st November, 1814, to 31st December, 1815, inclusive.

Months.	No. of Troops.		Remained on the 1st.	Admitted.	Discharged.	Dead.				Remaining last month.							To­tal		Proportion of Sick.	Proportion of Deaths to Cures.
	Eu­ro­pe­ans.	Na­tives.				Fe­ver.	Dys­en­ter­y.	Oth­er Dis­eases.	To­tal.	Fe­ver.	Flux.	Hep­a­ti­tis.	Rheu­ma­tism.	Syph­i­lis and Gon­or­rhe­a.	Ul­cers.	Oth­er Dis­eases.	Eu­ro­pe­ans.	Na­tives.
N.B.​—The monthly returns from Maccassar for November and December, and of the 5th Volunteer Battalion Javan Corps, and of a Detachment of H.M. 78th for December, had not been received when this table was framed.
1814.
Nov.	2,272	6,283	906	820	784	11	21	7	39	211	154	5	104	132	112	185	229	674	1 to 9.47	1 to 20⅒
Dec.	2,325	6,268	890	797	815	13	22	11	46	211	132	10	84	123	116	150	229	597	1 to 104⁄10	1 to 17
1815.
Jan.	2,106	6,233	842	693	776	6	18	8	32	157	119	18	88	105	118	127	188	539	1 to 11.47	1 to 24¼
Feb.	2,211	5,962	714	601	601	6	7	4	17	141	106	8	102	87	117	124	195	502	1 to 11.72	1 to 35.35
Mar.	2,172	5,700	595	642	600	1	10	5	16	184	96	6	79	68	90	98	173	448	1 to 12.67	1 to 37½
Apr.	2,050	5,481	623	706	648	5	10	4	19	182	122	5	81	79	101	92	178	484	1 to 11.37	1 to 34⅒
May	2,082	5,983	658	723	677	4	6	4	14	158	122	8	77	109	111	108	220	470	1 to 11.68	1 to 48.35
June	2,002	5,862	691	682	663	4	12	5	21	204	107	5	81	110	95	103	200	495	1 to 11.31	1 to 31.57
July	1,442	5,227	609	540	551	4	6	3	13	177	109	4	64	72	83	76	149	436	1 to 114⁄10	1 to 42.38
Aug.	1,339	4,836	584	545	554	5	5	4	14	139	102	3	64	74	82	97	152	409	1 to 111⁄140	1 to 39.57
Sept.	1,324	4,595	497	444	467	2	1	5	8	101	91	4	49	60	73	88	123	343	1 to 127⁄10	1 to 58.37
Oct.	1,326	4,770	420	384	387	2	6	5	13	88	58	4	59	64	88	63	77	327	1 to 1511⁄30	1 to 29.76
Nov.	821	4,404	443	407	392	1	6	5	12	101	78	4	53	70	72	68	42	404	1 to 11½	1 to 32⅔
Dec.	772	3,170	344	388	343	2	5	3	10	83	79	4	36	48	59	70	61	318	1 to 10⅖	1 to 34⅓

Average of the Strength of Corps and Detachments.	Average of Sick.	Average of Cures.	Average of Deaths.	Average Proportion of Sick to Well.	Average Proportion of Deaths to Cures.
7,487	699	626	21	1 to 11.17	1 to 29.18

State of His Majesty's 1st Battalion 78th Regiment, shewing the Effective Strength and Number died (including those died of Wounds) killed in Action, &c. Half-yearly, from 16th February, 1797, five days after the Regiment's landing in India, to 25th December, 1815.
Serondole, 13th March, 1816.

Head Quarters of the Regiment and Dates.	Effective Strength on the under-mentioned Dates.			Casualties.		To­tal dead, killed, &c. &c.	PERIODS.
	Serjts.	Drs.	R & F.	Dead, including those that died of wounds, &c.	Killed in Action.
Fort William, 16 Feb. 1797[283]	53	25	1,146	​—	​—	115	16 Feb. 1797, to 24 Dec. 1797.
Berhampore, 25 June	52	22	1,085	25	​—
On the River, 25 Dec.	52	22	993	90	​—
Allahabad, 25 June, 1798	52	22	952	45	​—	79	25 Dec. 1797, to 24 Dec. 1798.
Camp Onoopsher, 25 Dec.	52	22	930	34	​—
Cawnpore, 25 June, 1792.	52	22	913	27	​—	58	25 Dec. 1798, to 24 Dec. 1799.
Ditto, 25 Dec.	52	22	888	31	​—
Ditto, 25 June, 1800	52	22	869	19	​—	53	25 Dec. 1799, to 24 Dec. 1800.
Fort William, 25 Dec.	52	22	890	34	​—
Ditto, 25 June, 1801	52	22	857	30	​—	45	25 Dec. 1800, to 24 Dec. 1801.
Ditto, 25 Dec.	52	22	897	15	​—
Ditto, 25 June, 1802	52	22	884	12	​—	78	25 Dec. 1801, to 24 Dec. 1802.
Ditto, 25 Dec.	52	22	865	66	​—
Camp Rooey, 25 June, 1803	52	22	837	30	​—	166	25 Dec. 1802, to 24 Dec. 1803.
---- Cuttah, 25 Dec.	62	22	709	89	47
---- Chiohoora, 25 June, 1804	52	22	657	61	​—	145	25 Dec. 1803, to 24 Dec. 1804.
Old Women's Island, Bombay, 25 Dec.	53	22	683	84	​—
Ditto, 25 June, 1805	54	22	636	50	​—	80	25 Dec. 1804, to 24 Dec. 1805.
Camp at Bombay, 25 Dec.	54	22	604	30	​—
Ditto, 25 June, 1806	54	22	683	14	​—	38	25 Dec. 1805, to 24 Dec. 1806.
Butcher's Island, near Bombay, 25 Dec.	54	22	668	24	​—
Cabo Island of Goa, 25 June, 1807	54	22	686	17	​—	24	25 Dec. 1806, to 24 Dec. 1807.
Ditto, 25 Dec.	54	22	520	7	​—
Ditto, 25 June, 1808	56	22	706	9	​—	34	25 Dec. 1807, to 24 Dec. 1808.
Ditto, 25 Dec.	57	22	809	25	​—
Ditto, 25 June, 1809	57	22	772	22	​—	54	25 Dec. 1808, to 24 Dec. 1809.
Ditto, 25 Dec.	57	22	740	32	​—
Ditto, 25 June, 1810	55	22	989	22	​—	43	25 Dec. 1809, to 24 Dec. 1810.
Ditto, 25 Dec.	54	22	991	21	​—
Lowjee Family Transport, 25 June, 1811	64	22	965	18	​—	212	25 Dec. 1810, to 24 Dec. 1811.
Surabaya, Java, 25 Dec.	62	22	770	166	28
Ditto, 25 June, 1812	59	22	674	101	​—	200	25 Dec. 1811, to 24 Dec. 1812.
Ditto, 25 Dec.	54	21	684	93	6
Ditto, 25 June, 1813	54	20	625	59	​—	81	25 Dec. 1812, to 24 Dec. 1813.
Ung'arang, 25 Dec.	53	21	625	22	​—
Weltevreeden, Java, 25 June, 1814	54	21	597	28	​—	80	25 Dec. 1813, to 24 Dec. 1814.
Ditto, 25 Dec.	52	20	623	52	​—
Ditto, 25 June, 1815	45	20	583	20	​—	33	25 Dec. 1814, to 24 Dec. 1815.
Serondol, 25 Dec.	45	21	568	13	​—
				1,537	81	1,618
Of Six Companies at Serondol, died from 25th December, 1815, to 13th March, 1816 1 Of One ditto Solo ditto 25th ditto 13th ditto 2 Of Three ditto Weltevreeden, ditto 25th ditto 13th ditto 6 Total 9 Of the above six died at Weltevreeden, one died in consequence of a fall.

Note by N. Currie, Esq. Surgeon of His Majesty's 78th Regiment, on the foregoing Table.

When the 78th regiment first arrived at Java, the men had been long confined on board ship, living on salt provisions, and were afterwards exposed, not only to the fatigues and privations incident to actual warfare, but also to the inclemency of the weather in a tropical climate. All these causes produced a tendency to disease, and when the regiment arrived at Surabáya the quarters were bad; and being in the middle of the town, free access could at all times be had to spirituous liquors. The number of diseases and of casualties was consequently great; but it diminished gradually, as the men were successively accommodated with good barracks at De Noyo. The whole were comfortably lodged in plastered barracks in March or April, 1813, and in May and the following month a very sensible reduction of deaths took place, as may be seen by the abstracts of those months. During the preceding months of January, February, March, and April, the deaths were numerous, but the greater proportion was among the men of a detachment of about two hundred men that joined in January, and continued to be very sickly during those four months. Almost all the men of this detachment had, when attacked, violent diseases.

A very remarkable instance of the bad effects of exposure to night air while asleep, occurred when part of the regiment was sent, in September, 1814, from Weltevreeden to Chemangis, where the barracks were built of wattled bamboos, and the men lying with their heads to the walls, received the current of air directly in their heads. Fifty were seized with a highly inflammatory fever in the course of three days. Delirium was always the first symptom in every case, and it was necessary to bleed several of them largely before they could be sent to the hospital. By referring to the returns it will be seen that almost every increase of sickness happened after a change of quarters, as in the detachment above-mentioned, and after the removal of the regiment from Surabáya to Ung'arang and Sirondol in October, 1813, after the expedition to Bali at Weltevreeden in June, 1814, and to Chemangis in September 1814. An increase of sickness always took place after the use of spirituous liquors on particular holidays, as Christmas, &c.; and on the contrary, the good effects of not exposing the men to morning dews or wet, and of regularity in diet, may be seen in the healthiness of the regiment after the men got settled in good barracks at Surabáya and Weltevreeden.

Java need no longer be held up as the grave of Europeans, for except in the immediate neighbourhood of salt marshes and forests, as in the city of Batavia, and two or three other places on the north coast, it may be safely affirmed that no tropical climate is superior to it in salubrity. By its insular situation, the temperature of the atmosphere is low and equable, and from its lofty mountains it possesses this great advantage, that in a few hours' travelling a climate of any degree of cold may be found.