THE FRENCH ADVANCE INTO THE BAHR EL GHAZAL, etc.
(Taken from French sources.)[206]
“When the Franco-Congolese agreement of 14th July, 1894, was concluded, the French had little difficulty in taking over the territory that had been occupied by the Belgians. Three companies of Senegalese tirailleurs—in effective force 175 men each—formed the regular military forces, and to these were joined, after a while, the native militia that had been recruited by the Belgians. Captains Vermot, Ditte, and Hossinger successively proceeded to take possession of the fortified posts still in the hands of the agents of the Congo State, and it was thus that M. Liotard was able, on his return to the Congo, at the beginning of 1895, after a seven months’ absence in France, to occupy as Commissioner of the Republic, and Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Ubangi, the important centre Zemio, on the 10th July, situated at 248 miles from the confluence of the M’Bomu with the Welle. Consequently, he was able to control the N’Sakarras and Azande tribes, whose chiefs, Bangassu, Rafaï, and Zemio, are now faithful allies of France.
“Once these territories were placed under direct French control, M. Liotard proceeded to carry out the initial programme of penetrating towards the Nile, and began to push forward the occupation of the Bahr El Ghazal Province, the rights over which, acquired by their treaty with England of 12th May, 1894, had been ceded to France by the Belgian Congolese.
“In February, 1896, M. Liotard, accompanied by Captain Hossinger, arrived at Tembura, where he was warmly received by the Azande Sultan. A post was established, and Captain Hossinger put in command. He was assassinated some months afterwards, 6th July, by a Senegalee belonging to the garrison. This did not modify in the least the political situation. M. Liotard had gained such an ascendency over the natives, that French authority was as firmly established as if it had been preceded by a vigorous military campaign.
“Moreover the personal influence of the Lieutenant-Governor impressed itself equally on his white fellow-workers.
In the Bahr El Ghazal Province—Marchand Mission.“It was thus that at the beginning of 1896, French political action had penetrated beyond the ridge of the Congo Basin, and had made itself felt in the Bahr El Ghazal Province, that is, in the Basin of the Nile. Captain Marchand therefore had had nothing to do with this, as it was only on the 25th June, 1896, practically four months after the occupation of Tembura, that this officer embarked at Marseilles. With him were Captains Baratier, Germain, Mangin, Lieutenant Largeau, Naval-Lieutenant Morin, Midshipman Dyé, Landerouin, interpreter Dr. Emily, 12 French non-commissioned officers, and 150 Senegalese tirailleurs. He had at his disposition two small steamers, the ‘Faidherbe’ and the ‘Duc d’Uzés,’ and three barges made of aluminium, the ‘Pleigneur,’ ‘Crampel,’ and the ‘Lauzière.’
“On the 23rd July, 1896, Marchand disembarked at Loango, and set to work to send forward the members of his staff and his material. The task was difficult, as the tribes between Loango and Brazzaville were in rebellion.
“On the 27th September, the head of the Mission arrived at Loudima, 155 miles from Brazzaville, in a dying condition. However, he pulled through, and on the 19th October he was on his feet again. The country had been pacified, and transports were able to get through, so that by the 1st March, 1897, Captain Marchand was able to leave Brazzaville and to reach the Upper Ubangi.
“Everything here was prepared for his forward march. M. Liotard having opened up on the east the road from Zemio to Tembura, had also freed the road to the north. To effect this, he had taken possession of Deim Zubeir, in June, 1897, formerly the residence of Lupton Bey when he commanded the Bahr El Ghazal. Thus Captain Marchand had the choice of two roads for reaching the Nile—the way by Zemio—Tembura, with the River Sueh for his flotilla, or the way of Zemio—Deim Zubeir, with the Bahr El Homr. Captain Marchand chose the first, and by tremendous exertions, lasting over eight months, all the material (boats, stores and ammunition) was concentrated near Tembura, in Fort Hossinger on the banks of the Sueh. This was in the last days of 1897.
“Marchand then chose Kojali as his point of embarkation. It is situated on the Sueh (about 50 miles N.N.E. from Fort Hossinger), and he connected it with Méré[207] by a road over 16 feet wide and 99 miles in length—a gigantic work. He built a dockyard at Kojali, with slips, for repairing his boats; then, 4 miles above the confluence of the Wau and the Sueh, he built Fort Desaix,[208] near the old Kuchuk Ali, and, in order to connect this with Kojali, he established the ‘Rapides’ station (Rafili), latitude N. 6° 52″.
“In the month of November, 1897, the whole mission was established on this solid base of operations, with the two gunboats ‘Faidherbe’ and ‘Nil,’ and ten barges built of steel and aluminium.
“Marchand, from his headquarters, Fort Desaix, set himself to convert the pronounced hostility of the Dinkas (estimated at 5,000,000 (?)) into a more amicable attitude, by making them understand that he had not come to raid them in the name of the Sultan Tembura.
“In February, 1898, the announcement that a party of whites coming from the south had arrived at Ayak, on the Naam or Rohl River, determined Marchand to put his troops in motion, and this had an excellent moral effect on the population. Lieutenant Gouly was sent to occupy M’Bia, two days’ march from Ayak and Rumbek, but he unhappily died there of an attack of bilious hematuric fever; Captain Germain marched from the ‘Rapides’ post towards the Tonj, where the post of observation Diabéré was established; Captain Mangin went from Fort Desaix to Jur Ghattas; while a reinforcement of 100 tirailleurs, armed with ‘Gras’ carbines, arrived at Fort Desaix from Deim Zubeir. All the native chiefs then sent to Fort Desaix with offers of help.
“On the 26th March, Captain Baratier and the interpreter Landerouin returned from a reconnaissance which they had made as far as the confluence of the Bahr El Arab and up to Lake Nô, while Captain Largeau had explored the Bahr El Homr and made a survey of the course of the River Wau.
“At this time Captain Marchand occupied the following centres in the Basin of the Bahr El Ghazal:—Tembura, Kojali, les Rapides, Fort Desaix, Meshra El Rek, Bahr El Arab, Rumbek, Jur Ghattas, M’Bia, and Ayak. It was then that he wrote:—
“‘I hold now, in the Basin of the Bahr El Ghazal—that is, of the Nile—an all-powerful position. I have seven barges or steel boats, a steamer under way, fifteen canoes made by my tirailleurs, able to take me wherever I wish in the Basin of the Nile, where the first French steamer has now penetrated in spite of obstacles and every hostility.
“‘But do not think that our position is altogether an agreeable one. First of all, we are dying of hunger, and for a long time we have depended almost exclusively on what we shoot for food. You know that starvation was the cause of the disaster in this neighbourhood to the Dhanis[209] expedition. Locusts have ravaged the few plantations of the Bongo natives on which we were depending, and my own plantations are also destroyed. How are we going to reach the Nile? Shall we be forced to eat the ambach of the marshes? And then, if it were only the question of pushing quickly through with my boats, it would be little. But the problem is much more difficult. One must not pass through here only. The march through a country does not constitute a right to the country traversed. It must be an effective occupation, etc.’
“In spite of all these obstacles, Marchand and his companions arrived at Kodok on the 10th July, not without having had to do with the Dervishes. Three different times were they attacked by them in large numbers, but the rifles of the Senegalese tirailleurs soon caused great havoc in their ranks, and they fled, leaving their dead behind them. Thus the French Mission was able to establish itself at Kodok.”
THE END OF THE MAHDIST DOMINION.
[198]See [end of Chapter] for details of this expedition.
[199]Composed of:—16th Battalion, Arab Battalion, Camel Corps, Irregulars and details, the whole under 8 British officers.
[200]Among them the Emir Sadalla, who commanded the Dervish force at the first action at Gedaref.
[201]1 squadron Cavalry, 2 guns and 2 Maxims, 2nd and XIVth Battalions, &c.
[202]7th Squadron, 2nd Field Battery, 6 Maxims, 6 Companies Camel Corps, IXth and XIIIth Sudanese, 1 Company 2nd Battalion, 1 Battalion of Gehadia, etc., etc.
[204]See below (next page).
[205]False report.
[206]Translation from the “Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de Lyon.”
[207]The highest navigable point on the River Mboku.
[208]Now Wau.
[209]Congo Free State.
CHAPTER VII.
FROM 1900 ONWARDS.
1900.The new year opened auspiciously by the capture of Osman Digna on the 18th January by Captain F. Burges, Mamur Mohammed Bey, and a police patrol, in the Warriba Hills, some 90 miles south-west of Suakin. This notorious Emir was sent to Rosetta to join the other Dervish prisoners, and is now (1904) at Damietta.
Sudd and Survey expeditions.All the rivers were exceptionally low during the winter of 1899-1900, and the various expeditions and survey parties which were now started off had much difficulty in getting through to their posts.
Major Peake commenced clearing the sudd on the last day of December, and succeeded in opening a channel in the following April (vide [p. 304]). Sir W. Garstin also came up to study the Bahr el Jebel and Bahr el Ghazal rivers.
At the end of February parties of English (Uganda) (under Captain Gage), French (under Lieutenant Tanquedec), and Congolese (under Commandant Henry) troops arrived at Omdurman, having been found by Major Peake trying to cut their way through Block 3. The Uganda and Congolese parties were sent back, and the French (who were evacuating the Bahr el Ghazal) continued their journey to Europe.
Abyssinian Frontier.With the object of coming to an arrangement with Abyssinia regarding the frontier between that country and the Sudan, two surveying expeditions were sent out towards the end of 1899, under Major Austin, D.S.O., and Lieutenant Gwynn, D.S.O., respectively. The former, with Lieutenant Bright, surveyed up the Sobat and Baro Rivers to Gore, and thence in a southerly direction to the Gelo, returning viâ the Pibor River to Nasser. Owing to obstruction on the part of local Abyssinian chiefs Major Austin was unable to penetrate to Lake Rudolf, but the geographical results of his expedition were most useful. Lieutenants Gwynn and Jackson started up the Blue Nile to Famaka, thence south along the edge of the Abyssinian plateau, and across the Sonka to the Garre river, whence they returned viâ Nasser, after doing much valuable survey work.
On 22nd December, 1899, Sir R. Wingate was appointed Sirdar and Governor-General, vice Lord Kitchener, called to South Africa.
Millenniumists.In January, 1900, an increasing sect in Omdurman, which was dubbed “the Millenniumists,” and might have led to trouble, was suppressed.
Rabeh Zubeir.In April Rabeh Zubeir was attacked near Lake Chad by three converging French columns; he himself was killed, and his kingdom absolutely destroyed.
The rest of the year was mostly occupied in the Government settling down to its work, organising the exhausted country, etc.; no events of any importance took place till the end of the year.
Kiro.A Sudanese post was established in November at Kiro, on the left bank of the Upper Nile, a few miles north of the Belgian post, about 5° 30′ north lat. This post, finding in April, 1901, that it was just south of 5° 30′, crossed the river to Mongalla, where it established itself permanently.
Occupation of Bahr el Ghazal.On November 29th, 1900, an expedition under Lieut.-Colonel Sparkes left Omdurman in steamers in order to occupy the Bahr el Ghazal. It consisted of five British and 13 native officers, 82 regulars, and 266 irregulars, with necessary stores, transport, etc.
The party arrived at Meshra el Rek on 14th December, 1900, and patrols were sent out to reconnoitre. 1901.Tonj was quickly fixed on as temporary headquarters (1st January, 1901), and small expeditions were made by Colonel Sparkes to Wau, Fort Desaix, Rumbek, Amadi, Kiro, Shambe, and back to Tonj, whilst the remainder of the party consolidated its position and made friends with the natives. Lieutenant Fell, R.N., started cutting the sudd in the Jur river, with the object of opening up a waterway from the Bahr el Ghazal river, but his arduous labours, lasting for the next 15 months, were not crowned with success till June, 1902. Major W. Boulnois meanwhile conducted a patrol to Deim Zubeir, Telgona, Faroge (Forga), and Chamamui, meeting with a most friendly reception from the chiefs of these districts, and returned to Tonj on 10th April. Shortly afterwards the same officer proceded to Rumbek and chastised some raiding Nuers, with the effect of bringing the Agars and other Dinkas in at once to acknowledge Government authority.
Colonel Sparkes now made an extensive patrol to the south, to visit Sultan Tembura of the Nyam Nyams. Here, after many difficulties of travel, he arrived on 25th June, 1901, and was most cordially received by the Sultan, whose people were of a comparatively highly civilised order. Sparkes returned to Wau on the 27th July, and proceeded north shortly afterwards, suffering severely from fever. In November, as Major Boulnois, besides many of the troops, was invalided owing to the same cause, Major Hunter assumed command of the Occupation Force.
Frontiers.In the spring of 1901 the question of the Sudan-Eritrea and Abyssinian Frontiers claimed the attention of the Sudan Government. Colonel Hon. M. G. Talbot concluded, with Lieutenant Colli, at Kassala, on 16th April, a treaty[210] regarding the frontier between Sabderat, the Atbara, Tomat, and Todluk, and a new grazing convention was also concluded between Colonel Collinson (Mudir of Kassala) and Signor Martini (Governor-General of Eritrea) on 28th February, 1901. Major Gwynn, D.S.O., with Captain Smyth, V.C., continued his surveys from Famaka northwards (he having arrived at this place from Addis Abbaba on the 14th April), and fixed a series of important points during his journeys, which extended altogether from Jebel Jerok to Gallabat.
Major Austin’s expedition.Meanwhile Major Austin and Lieutenant Bright had started from Nasser on a further expedition south-eastwards from Nasser on the 12th January. They were to find stores provided by the Abyssinians at Murle, on the north bank of Lake Rudolf, but on arriving at this point, after making a valuable survey from Nasser, they found no signs of Abyssinians or stores. They then struck south along the western shore of the lake, and after suffering severely from hunger and sickness, and losing 39 out of 53 of their men by starvation, they eventually arrived at Lake Baringo on the 6th August.
Darfur.Since 1898 Ali Dinar had been with some difficulty establishing himself on the throne of Darfur. He was appointed Government-Agent in that country, and in June, 1901, he began paying an annual tribute.
Raids in Darfur.In September Ali Dinar sent a strong force under Tirab Suleiman against the Maalia and Rizeigat Arabs in the south, whom he wished to bring under his sway. Tirab raided them heavily, and on their taking refuge in Kordofan threatened to pursue them thither. The consequent consternation in Kordofan was only allayed by the Mudir mobilising a force of camel corps, etc., near the frontier at Foga and Nahud. Matters quieted down, and Ali Dinar expressed his apologies.
Wadai.[211]To turn to affairs in Wadai:—
At the end of 1898 Sultan Yusef died and nominated his second son Ibrahim to succeed him, whilst Abdel Aziz his eldest son, who was a violent and war-like character, was blinded to preclude the possibility of disturbance. As Dud Murra the youngest of the three brothers got on well with Ibrahim he was left unmolested, and the late Sultan Yusef’s body was duly interred at Wara, the recognised burial place of Wadai Sultans. Ibrahim, on his accession, though his father Yusef was a strong Senussiist, refused to give up merissa drinking and declared himself an anti-Senussiist. It was at Sultan Yusef’s request that Senussi had sent Mohammed El Sunni as his representative at the Court of Abesher at the end of 1897.
Owing to widespread animosity against Ibrahim, caused partly by this friction with the Senussiists and partly by his execution of several of the Agids[212] he determined to leave Abesher on the pretext of going on pilgrimage to Wara, but in reality to seek refuge in the mountains of Abu Sinun. Sheraf El Din now took charge of affairs with the tacit consent of Jerma Othman the chief Agid, and sent an expedition to bring back the fugitive Ibrahim alive or dead. He was eventually betrayed by the ex-dervish Emir Zogal[213] and brought to Abesher, where after being, it is reported, blinded, he died of his wounds and was buried (1900). “Better,” he said, “to die as a Sultan in my Palace than to flee shamefully before slaves.” (The party sent to capture Ibrahim was under the command of the slave Gorani Gelma.) In 1902 his remains were transferred to Wara.
Thereupon Ahmed Abu Ghazali (so-called on account of his long neck), the son of the former Sultan Ali, was proclaimed Sultan through the influence of Sheraf El Din, who continued to have the chief hand in the government. This direction of affairs by a eunuch was, however, extremely unpopular and, as a protest, in September, 1901, Sultan Bekhit of Dar Sula refused to comply with orders from Abesher. Jerma, too, endeavoured to install Asil as Sultan in place of Ahmed Ghazali, but as the latter threatened to have Asil’s eyes put out, he fled to Fitri and surrendered near there to Lieut.-Colonel Destenave, in the French sphere. Ahmed now became annoyed with Jerma, as he considered him responsible for the flight of Asil, whilst the people, on the other hand, by whom Jerma was much liked, demanded the head of Ghazali’s chief adviser, Sheraf El Din. The Senussi agent, however, Mohammed El Sunni, now stepped in and effected a reconciliation between Jerma and Sheraf El Din, but the Sultan deeply incensed at the conduct of Jerma determined to kill him. Mohammed Sunni, hereupon, again intervened at the critical moment and obtained his reprieve.
| By kind permission of] | [Capt. Amery. |
SONS OF THE MAHDI AND KHALIFA.
(Now being educated in Egypt.)
With Jerma free again the Sultan and Sheraf El Din considered they were no longer safe at Abesher and both resolved to seek refuge in Dar Salamat. On the flight of the Sultan, Jerma at once assumed the direction of affairs at the capital and unsuccessfully attacked the fugitive Sultan’s rearguard soon after it had quitted Abesher. The pursuit was continued and a severe engagement took place about 40 miles further south. Another action was subsequently fought in Dar Salamat in November, 1901, and Ghazali continued his flight to El Batha.
Jerma now returned to Abeshe and in December 1901 proclaimed Dud Murra, a youth of barely 20 years of age and brother of Sultan Ibrahim, as Sultan.
Mohammed El Sunni.Mohammed El Sunni, the Senussi agent, is reported (1903) to be dead, and since the death of the Senussi, in May, 1902, the prestige of that doctrine is said to have materially decreased in Wadai.
Rome Conference.In November, in consequence of difficulties in the frontier negotiations between the Sudan, Eritrea and Abyssinia, a Conference was held in Rome, which resulted in agreements satisfactory to all, and included customs, postal and telegraph conventions between the Sudan and Eritrea (vide [pp. 292-295]).
Recapitulation to the end of 1901.Meanwhile the Sudan Government had been settling itself, exploring its vast territories, organising and administering the country, instituting legislation, extending communications, and in general laying the foundations of good government. Various small disturbances, not necessary to chronicle in detail, had occurred, chiefly in the neighbourhood of the frontiers, slave-raiding or refusal of sections of tribes to pay tribute being the chief causes; but on the whole, in spite of deficiency of population, limited numbers of officials, and rigid but necessary economy, the Sudan settled down into an era of peace and growing prosperity.
1902. Bahr el Ghazal.In January, 1902, Captain A. M. Pirie occupied Deim Zubeir and Chamamui, and was then recalled, owing to the murder of Lieutenant Scott-Barbour by the Agar Dinkas. This officer had been in charge of a camel convoy between Shambe and Rumbek, and was treacherously assassinated on the banks of the Naam river (Rohl) on 10th January. A punitive expedition was quickly organised by Major Hunter, and in a series of rapid marches it killed many of the Agars, burned their villages and captured their cattle. A further expedition under Captain L. Stack, arriving viâ Shambe from Khartoum in March, completed the punishment. Myang Matyang, the chief offender, died in July of wounds received, and the Agars came in and sued for peace, which was granted.
Ali Dinar.In January Ali Dinar was seriously ill, and was at one time reported to be dead; but he recovered completely.
Nuer expedition.A small exploring expedition sent under Major Blewitt up the Khor Filus into the Nuer country, belonging to Denkur, in April only resulted in the Nuers first defying the troops, and then fleeing further into the interior.
Sudd.Meanwhile Major G. E. Matthews had been hard at work for five months on the 15th block of sudd, but, owing to there being no current to take away the cut blocks, it was practically a hopeless task, and was temporarily given up, the “false channel” which circumvented this portion of the sudd proving sufficient for purposes of navigation.
Surveys.During the spring Major Gwynn continued his surveys along the Sudan-Eritrea frontier, fixing points up to Ras Kasar on the Red Sea, and eventually finishing up at a point 100 miles north of Suakin.
Treaty with Menelek.On the 15th May a treaty was signed at Addis Abbaba, defining the Sudan-Abyssinian frontier line, and containing other important clauses (vide [p. 296]).
Western Sudan.The great religious Sheikh El Senussi, who had previously been residing at the oasis of Kufra, becoming uneasy at the advance of the French in the Lake Chad region, as well as being apprehensive of the possible eventualities that might follow the victory of Omdurman, moved his headquarters to Geru,[214] about 10 days north of Abesher, in the year 1900. In order, too, to extend his influence and safeguard his interests, he established a zawia at Bir Alali about four days north of Lake Chad and wrote on three separate occasions to Sultan Ali Dinar of Darfur requesting him to prepare zawias for him in Jebel Marra and in Dar Zaghawa. The Sultan, however, was unwilling to be saddled with such an illustrious but inconvenient guest, and the matter eventually fell through in 1902. From that time no visits of Senussiists to El Fasher have been reported.
At last the situation in the west was brought to a head by a French patrol searching a Senussiist zawia in Kanem for reported arms. A collision ensued some time in August, 1901, which was insignificant and partook of the nature of a raid. On 19th November, however, a more serious collision took place, in which a small French force was defeated by Sheikh el Barrani, the Senussi representative in Kanem.
On the 18th January, 1902, the French, strongly reinforced, attacked the Senussiists at the zawia of Alali, in Kanem, and the latter, though assisted by the Aulad Suleiman (Tuareg) tribe, sustained a severe defeat.
The Jehad was now proclaimed by the Senussi, and hundreds of his adherents flocked into Geru from Tripoli, Wadai, and the surrounding deserts. It appears, however, that the intention of the Senussi was merely to act on the defensive, for no forward movement was undertaken; there were even rumours that the Sheikh intended to retire north to Kufra to avoid collision with the enemy. At a third action, however, which appears to have been fairly decisive, Mohammed Abu Egeil, the Senussi general in Kanem, was killed, and the Senussiists fell back eastwards and northwards.
During May, 1902, the Sheikh el Senussi sickened, owing, it is said, to his anxiety regarding the situation. He is reported to have died on 30th May, and to have nominated his nephew, Ahmed el Sherif, as his successor. The story of his death was not confirmed, and for a long time rumours were rife of his appearance at Kufra, at Jaghbub, etc., with the intention of proclaiming himself a Mahdi, of going to Mecca on pilgrimage, etc., etc.; the shrine in which he was buried was reported to have been opened, and found empty, and many other stories of his reappearance were told. It seems, however, most probable that he did die on or about the date given, and it is certain that his successor has removed himself and all his property back to Kufra.
Darfur.In July Ali Dinar reported that Arabi Dafaalla, ex-Dervish Emir on the Upper Nile, had surrendered to him with all his men and 3,000 rifles, and had received the “Aman.”
Cholera.During the summer the cholera, which had been ravaging Egypt, made its appearance at Halfa, and eight natives died. Owing, however, to the strict surveillance there and at Suakin no further cases occurred in the Sudan.
On the 20th July Major Hunter, Acting Commandant of Bahr el Ghazal, died of blackwater fever.
British garrison.During the winter of 1902-03 the British garrison of Khartoum was raised from one company, which up to this time had remained only during the cold weather, to a whole battalion, permanently quartered there.
Small disturbances.Various small raids into the Sudan took place during the years 1900-03 along the Abyssinian frontier, the chief offenders being Wad Mahmud in the Keili district, and a brigand named Hakos on the border near Gallabat. Appeals to the higher Abyssinian authorities produced little result, owing to their want of control over these outlying districts. The end of these two brigands is recorded later.
In Kordofan the restless tribes of the southern hill districts were never at peace, but the inter-tribal disturbances were purely local, and in no way threatened the stability of the Government in these parts.
1903.In the Eastern Sudan the Rasheida slave-traders and the Gemilab tribe threatened at various times to give trouble, but they have quieted down, and the latter tribe has “come in.”
Delimitations.At the end of 1902 Major C. W. Gwynn proceeded, with Major C. E. Wilson, to the further delimitation of the Abyssinian frontier. He completed the demarcation from the Setit to just south of Kirin, and returning, viâ Kodok, in May, 1903, settled the limits of the new Sudanese leased territory of Itang on the Upper Baro River.
Colonel Hon. M. G. Talbot also met the Italian delegates at Kassala in February, 1903, and together they delimitated the frontier from Abu Gamal to the Setit, opposite the mouth of the Khor Royan, which point now forms the junction of Eritrea, Abyssinia, and the Sudan (vide [p. 290]).
Bahr el Ghazal.Colonel Sparkes set out on 13th January on a patrol to Hofrat el Nahas, the famous copper mines in Southern Darfur. He arrived there on March 1st, and was told that no European had visited it since 1876. The country was totally deserted, and it was evident that if the mines were worked, transport, although perhaps possible on the Bahr el Arab during some parts of the year, would be a matter of great difficulty. Colonel Sparkes returned to Deim Zubeir on 21st March, having marched a distance of 667 miles.
A patrol was meanwhile sent to open up relations with the powerful Azande chief, Yambio. Its commander, Captain Armstrong, was most unfortunately killed by an elephant on the 23rd February, and although the journey was continued by Colour-Sergeant Boardman, R.M.A., the expedition did not meet with success, for on reaching the Nyam Nyam country it was attacked by Yambio’s son (Mangi), and had to retire, though without loss (except of baggage, etc.).
Wadai.After continual fighting with Dud Murra, Ahmed El Ghazali was caught (20th March, 1903) in an ambush; his eyes were put out, and he was kept a captive with the Agid Salamat at Abesher. Wadai now became more or less settled, and trade was reopened to the north and east.
Bahr el Ghazal negotiations.During the past three years negotiations with the Government of the Congo Free State on the subject of the Bahr el Ghazal have been taking place; up to date, however, they have produced no definite result.
Shilluks.In April, Kur Wad Nedok, Mek of the Shilluks, was deposed for malpractices, and Fadiet Wad Kwad Keir elected in his place.
Kordofan. False prophet, September.On the 1st September, 1903, it was reported from El Obeid that a certain Mohammed El Amin, who had recently returned from Mecca and settled in Jebel Tagale, had proclaimed himself Mahdi. Colonel Mahon, C.B., D.S.O., left Khartoum at once with a squadron of cavalry, and marching viâ the Fachi-Shoya-Sherkeila route surprised and captured the false prophet at Ageila without fighting. He was conducted to El Obeid, where he was hanged on the 27th September.
October.It having been reported that Mansur Abdel Rahman, a cousin of Sultan Ali Dinar of Darfur, was raiding or collecting taxes from people in Kordofan, Captain Carter proceeded with a small force of Camel Corps from El Eddaiya and surprised the party, numbering some 40 rifles and horsemen, at Sherafa, and captured Mansur, who was subsequently liberated after the restoration of the property he had taken.
Nile-Red Sea Railway.Work on this railway was commenced in November, 1903.
Darfur.During the summer of 1903 one or more treasonable conspiracies to seize the throne of Darfur were nipped in the bud by the present Sultan Ali Dinar. Adam Rijal, the Commandant of Jebel El Hella, and Tirab Suleiman, another important general, both suffered the death penalty in consequence. The ex-Dervish Emirs, Zogal and Karamalla Kirkesawi, were also both mysteriously put out of the way.
In December, 1903, at the Sultan’s request, the boundaries of Darfur were clearly explained to him in writing.
Mahmal.The first Mahmal[215] to leave Darfur for Mecca since the conquest of that country by Zubeir Pasha in 1873 arrived at Khartoum in November. The value of the “Surra”[216] was stated to be about £450. The Mahmal proceeded viâ Suakin to Jedda, and returned to Khartoum at the end of June.
Upper Nile. Thalweg Agreement.A provisional agreement defining the Thalweg of the Nile between N. Lat. 5° and 5° 30′ was drawn up on 13th September by Captain R. C. R. Owen, representing the Sudan Government, and the late General Utterwulghe, on behalf of the Government of the Congo Free State.
Floods.The winter of 1903-04 will be memorable for the exceptional height of the Nile and its tributaries in the Upper Nile region, consequent on which there followed very extensive floods.
Eastern Sudan. Hakos.The brigand Hakos, who had caused considerable annoyance by raiding and robbery along the frontier between the Setit and Gallabat, was reported to have been killed on 16th December near Nogara. Had his career not been thus suddenly terminated, the Emperor Menelik had agreed with the Sudan Government to take combined action against him.
Abyssinian Coal Expedition.An expedition to prospect for coal in the valley of the Goang (Upper Atbara), near Chelga, was despatched by the Sudan Government from Khartoum in December, 1903.
1904. Itang.Captain H. H. Wilson left Kodok on the 23rd December, 1903, with merchants to establish a trading station at Itang on the Baro. After making the preliminary arrangements there he visited Ras Tesemma Nado at Gore. His Excellency, the Governor-General, subsequently visited Itang in May, 1904.
Ibrahim Wad Mahmud.In April, 1903, after the delimitation of the Abyssinian frontier, Ibrahim Wad Mahmud, the notorious slave raider of J. Jerok, was informed that as his village fell within the limits of the Sudan, he must cease raiding and settle down. As Ibrahim, however, in spite of a second letter of warning, continued to raid and openly defied the Government, in February a mixed force of about 800 men (partly irregulars) with two guns was sent under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Gorringe (Governor, Sennar), to capture him. The expedition was completely successful and Jebel Jerok was surprised; Ibrahim, who succeeded in escaping, was handed over to Major G. de H. Smith[217] by Sheikh Hamed of Asosa on the 3rd of March. He was subsequently brought to Wad Medani, where he was tried and hanged on the 23rd May, 1904.
Bahr El Ghazal. Lemaire Expedition.In October, 1903, a scientific mission hailing from the Congo Free State, under the leadership of the explorer Lemaire, arrived at Mvolo in the south-east Bahr El Ghazal. It withdrew in the following spring, but was again seen in 1905.
1904. Yambio Patrol.On the 27th January a strong patrol, under the command of Captain P. Wood, left Tonj to visit the Nyam Nyam Sultan Yambio. The object of the patrol was to establish friendly relations with the Nyam Nyam chiefs Riketa, Yambio, and Mangi. On arrival at Riketa’s (a son of Yambio, and avowedly friendly), the patrol met with a treacherous and hostile reception. Riketa’s village was accordingly destroyed, and the patrol returned to Tonj. Captain H. E. Haymes, R.A.M.C., who was wounded in the head, subsequently died at Tonj on the 15th March.
Yambio is now dead. Owing to his persistent treachery and hostility, a column under Major Boulnois was sent against him, and in a smart action by Major Carter, February 9th, 1905, Yambio and ten of his men were killed.
Sudan-Eritrean Frontier.A provisional agreement regarding a slight rectification of the Sudan-Eritrea frontier near Karora was drafted by representatives of both Governments in January. It has not yet been ratified.
Sudd.The work of opening the 15th block of sudd on the Bahr El Jebel was recommenced by Lieutenant Drury, late R.N., in October, 1903, and continued during the succeeding 6 months, but eventually had to be again abandoned before the real channel of the river had been entirely cleared. The clearing of this block will probably be resumed, and it is hoped, completed in 1905.
Kordofan.In the spring of 1904, as several of the Meks of the Nuba Mountains continued to disregard Government orders to cease raiding and return looted property, punitive measures of a minor description were undertaken after repeated warnings, with most satisfactory results. In September, 1904, Major O’Connell with a force of 340 rifles, 3 guns and friendlies, successfully enforced the submission of the Nubas of Jabel Daier, about 60 miles south of El Obeid.
Sketch of events in the Lado Enclave.After their defeat of the Dervishes at Rejaf in February, 1897 (vide [p. 263]), the Belgians, under Chaltin, proceeded to occupy the territory leased to King Leopold under the Treaty of May, 1894, whilst Arabi Dafaalla and his Dervishes retreated to his deim at Bor and thence, at the end of 1898 or beginning of 1899, across the Bahr El Ghazal to Kalaka and Dar Kara.
Chaltin at once commenced to build and fortify stations at Lado (which had ceased to exist), Kiro, Loka, and Yei, whilst further south, Dufile (now moved to New Dufile), and Mahaji, etc., were occupied. At the end of 1901 Captain Hanolet was appointed Commandant Supérieur of the Enclave, and continued to improve the stations and communications with great energy. In August, 1903, Captain Hanolet was replaced by Commissaire Général G. Utterwulghe. The lamented death of this able and universally popular officer took place at Yei on the 8th May, 1904; he was succeeded by Commandant Wacquez.
Lado is now the headquarters of the Lado Enclave, whilst Yei, a fortified military station on the river of that name, is next in importance. Good roads connecting the stations on the Nile with Yei are in course of construction, and automobiles are now being used with some success to assist in the supply of the troops in the Enclave. These number some 2,000-3,000 native regulars, who are said to be excellent soldiers.
A railway connecting the Congo at Stanleyville with the shores of Lake Albert Nyanza at Mahaji, immediately to the south of the Enclave, is now in course of construction.
Mahdi on Blue Nile.In August, 1904, a religious fanatic named Adam, having first obtained promises of support from the Kenana Kawatil, openly declared himself Mahdi in the Kenana Khot near Senga. Prompt measures were taken to effect his arrest, and in the fight which ensued on his refusal to surrender the Mahdi and the whole of his adherents (11), were annihilated, while the Egyptian Mamur of Senga was unfortunately killed by the rebels.
Progress in 1903-04During 1903-1904 the Sudan Government extended its influence over and established posts in some of the remotest parts of its territory. In the north, the desert west of Dongola was widely explored and a post established on the Arbain road. The Arab tribes living in the wildest regions of the Southern Atbai were visited and much of this country mapped. Further south, the heart of the district inhabited by the redoubtable Gemilab tribe was reconnoitred and surveyed. Posts were established in the little-known country, previously infested by Abyssinian brigands, between the River Setit and Gallabat, and in consequence of these measures for public security the trade with Abyssinia at the latter place rapidly increased.
South of Roseires the administration was extended to the mountainous district of J. Tabi, hitherto practically unexplored and unknown, and inhabited by a shy and distinctive Negro race. Further south, the country of the more northern Burun adjoining the Abyssinian frontier and, until recently, the happy hunting ground of border slave raiders, was pacified and effectively garrisoned by regulars, whilst the opening up of trade routes from the border districts of Abyssinia to the Blue and White Niles and Sobat was commenced. In the Upper Nile Province, the Shilluk tribe was brought under the more direct control of the Government, whilst considerable progress was made with the Dinkas on the Sobat and the deeply suspicious Nuers of the Bahr El Zeraf, whose country had long remained unexplored by a white man. The Pibor river was navigated for 170 miles beyond the Akobo junction, or 240 miles from its mouth, and its source was roughly determined.
At Mongalla a suitable station was constructed and the almost unknown tribes, Beri and Aliab, visited in the spring of 1904, posts being established where necessary.
In the Bahr El Ghazal Province,[218] patrols traversed a great part of the country and the main roads were improved sufficiently to admit of the successful introduction of wheeled transport. In Southern Kordofan effective administration was extended, and detachments of regular troops were quartered throughout the Nuba mountains.
The most important step taken by the Government during 1903-1904 for the economic development of the Sudan was the commencement of a railway connecting the port of Suakin with the present main line near the Atbara mouth. In addition, reconnaissances were carried out for a branch line from Abu Hamed to Merowe and Affat in the Dongola Province.
The future advancement of the country was further enhanced by the efforts made by the Government to encourage the cultivation of cotton, both by the issue of large grants of seed as well as by an arrangement through which a fair price was guaranteed to the producer for all cotton placed on the market.
Visits of distinguished persons.It only remains to be stated that in January 1900, and again in February 1905, T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of Connaught, and in November 1901 His Highness the Khedive, visited Khartoum; a year later General Lord Kitchener did the same and opened the Gordon College; whilst Lord Cromer paid visits in December 1899, January 1901 and January 1903, proceeding as far as Gondokoro in the latter year.
H.R.H. Princess Henry of Battenberg, accompanied by the Princesses Victoria of Battenberg and Beatrice of Saxe-Coburg, visited Khartoum in February 1904.
Sir William Garstin visited the White Nile, Bahr El Ghazal, Bahr El Zeraf and Blue Nile in 1899-1904, and the Bahr El Jebel in 1901 and again in 1904, when he also explored the River Atem or “Gertrude” Nile. In 1903 he visited Uganda, Semliki River, Albert Nyanza, as well as the Bahr El Jebel. The results of these journeys have now been published, August 1904 (F.O. Blue Book, Egypt, No. 2, 1904).
Explorers.The following noted travellers, in addition to numerous distinguished sportsmen, have passed through Khartoum at different times since 1898: Wellby, Grogan, Donaldson-Smith, Henri, Gibbons, Neumann, Austin, Bright, Lionel Decle, Macmillan, and Bulpett, Sir C. Eliot, Powell Cotton, and Pierre. The latter arrived in January, 1904, from Zemio in Haut Ubangi viâ Deim Zubeir and Wau.
GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF THE SUDAN.
| Name. | Date. | |
|---|---|---|
| Mohammedan. | Gregorian. | |
| Osman Bey | 1240 | 1825 |
| Maho Bey | 1241 | 1826 |
| Khurshid Pasha | 1241 | 1826 |
| Ahmed Pasha Abu Udn | 1254 | 1839 |
| Ahmed Pasha El Minikli | 1259 | 1844 |
| Khaled Pasha | 1262 | 1846 |
| Abdel Latif Pasha | 1266 | 1850 |
| Rustem Pasha | 1267 | 1851 |
| Ismail Pasha Abu Jebel | 1268 | 1852 |
| Selim Pasha | 1269 | 1853 |
| Ali Pasha Sirri | 1270 | 1854 |
| Ali Pasha Sharkas | 1271 | 1855 |
| Arakil Bey | 1273 | 1857 |
| Hassan Bey Salama | 1275 | 1859 |
| Mohammed Bey Rasikh | 1278 | 1862 |
| Musa Pasha Hamdi | 1279 | 1863 |
| Jaafar Pasha Sadek | 1281 | 1865 |
| Jaafar Pasha Mazhar | 1282 | 1866 |
| Mumtaz Pasha | 1287 | 1871 |
| Ismail Pasha Ayub | 1289 | 1873 |
| Gordon Pasha | 1293 | 1877 |
| Rauf Pasha | 1296 | 1879 |
| Abdel Gader Pasha | 1299 | 1882 |
| Ala El Din Pasha | 1300 | 1883 |
| Gordon Pasha | 1301 | 1884[219] |
| Kitchener Pasha | 1316 | 1899 |
| Wingate Pasha | 1317 | 1899 |
| By kind permission of] | [M. Venieris. |
RECEPTION OF LORD KITCHENER AT THE GORDON COLLEGE, KHARTOUM. NOVEMBER, 1902.
[210]Subsequently for the greater part cancelled (vide [p. 290.])
[211]Taken chiefly from an account of Wadai written by Captain Julien, formerly resident at Kuti, published in “L’Afrique Française.”
[212]The Agids are the important men in Wadai, i.e., the chief noblemen, governors of districts, generals, etc.
[214]Approximately N. Lat. 19°, E. Long. 20° 10′.
[215]“Mahmal” means literally “something carried.” It is said to have been originated about the 12th Century A.D. by a certain Queen of Egypt named Shagar El Durr, of the Ayubite Dynasty, who prepared a very sumptuous litter (hodag), on which she intended to visit Mecca by camel. State affairs, however, prevented her making personal use of the “hodag,” which she therefore sent to Mecca with presents of money. This sending of the “hodag” to Mecca gradually became a custom, and was eventually copied in Syria. Nowadays a Mahmal leaves Cairo and Damascus simultaneously each year, and consists of a richly ornamented dome-shaped “hodag” or litter which is carried on a camel to Mecca and lodged in the “Kaaba” there until the Mahmal returns, when it is taken back again. The richly embroidered curtains, however, are presented to the “Kaaba” or Mosque.
[216]Surra means “package”—in this case a package of money: it is sent partly as a present to the Sherif of Mecca for the maintenance of the “Kaaba” and partly to the Arab Sheikhs along the road, who otherwise would endeavour to loot the Mahmal on its journey.
[217]Died at Khartoum, October 10th, of blackwater fever.
[218]H. E. Governor-General visited Wau in November, 1904; H. E. left Khartoum at 3 a.m. on the 7th November, and arrived at Wau at 11 a.m. on the 17th, the journey having occupied 10½ days. The return journey was accomplished, including the inspection of intermediate stations, in under 8 days—a “record.”
[219]To 26th January, 1885.
APPENDIX A.
TEXT OF TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS REGARDING THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN.
(1.)
AGREEMENT BETWEEN HER BRITANNIC MAJESTY’S GOVERNMENT AND THE GOVERNMENT OF HIS HIGHNESS THE KHEDIVE OF EGYPT RELATIVE TO THE FUTURE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SUDAN.
WHEREAS certain provinces in the Sudan which were in rebellion against the authority of His Highness the Khedive have now been reconquered by the joint military and financial efforts of Her Britannic Majesty’s Government and the Government of His Highness the Khedive;
AND whereas it has become necessary to decide upon a system for the administration of and for the making of laws for the said reconquered provinces, under which due allowance may be made for the backward and unsettled condition of large portions thereof, and for the varying requirements of different localities;
AND whereas it is desired to give effect to the claims which have accrued to Her Britannic Majesty’s Government, by right of conquest, to share in the present settlement and future working and development of the said system of administration and legislation;
AND whereas it is conceived that for many purposes Wadi Halfa and Suakin may be most effectively administered in conjunction with the reconquered provinces to which they are respectively adjacent;
Now, it is hereby agreed and declared by and between the Undersigned, duly authorized for that purpose, as follows:—
ARTICLE I.
The word “Sudan” in this Agreement means all the territories South of the 22nd parallel of latitude, which:
1. Have never been evacuated by Egyptian troops since the year 1882; or
2. Which having before the late rebellion in the Sudan been administered by the Government of His Highness the Khedive, were temporarily lost to Egypt, and have been reconquered by Her Majesty’s Government and the Egyptian Government, acting in concert; or
3. Which may hereafter be reconquered by the two Governments acting in concert.
ARTICLE II.
The British and Egyptian flags shall be used together, both on land and water, throughout the Sudan, except in the town of Suakin, in which locality the Egyptian flag alone shall be used.
ARTICLE III.
The supreme military and civil command in the Sudan shall be vested in one officer, termed the “Governor-General of the Sudan.” He shall be appointed by Khedivial Decree on the recommendation of Her Britannic Majesty’s Government, and shall be removed only by Khedivial Decree, with the consent of Her Britannic Majesty’s Government.
ARTICLE IV.
Laws, as also Orders and Regulations with the full force of law, for the good government of the Sudan, and for regulating the holding, disposal, and devolution of property of every kind therein situate, may from time to time be made, altered, or abrogated by Proclamation of the Governor-General. Such Laws, Orders and Regulations may apply to the whole or any part named of the Sudan, and may, either explicitly or by necessary implication, alter or abrogate any existing Law or Regulation.
All such Proclamations shall forthwith be notified to Her Britannic Majesty’s Agent and Consul-General in Cairo, and to the President of the Council of Ministers of His Highness the Khedive.
ARTICLE V.
No Egyptian Law, Decree, Ministerial Arrêté, or other enactment hereafter to be made or promulgated shall apply to the Sudan or any part thereof save in so far as the same shall be applied by Proclamation of the Governor-General in manner hereinbefore provided.
ARTICLE VI.
In the definition by Proclamation of the conditions under which Europeans, of whatever nationality, shall be at liberty to trade with or reside in the Sudan, or to hold property, within its limits, no special privileges shall be accorded to the subjects of any one or more Power.
ARTICLE VII.
Import duties on entering the Sudan shall not be payable on goods coming from Egyptian territory. Such duties may, however, be levied on goods coming from elsewhere than Egyptian territory, but in the case of goods entering the Sudan at Suakin, or any other port on the Red Sea littoral, they shall not exceed the corresponding duties for the time being leviable on goods entering Egypt from abroad. Duties may be levied on goods leaving the Sudan, at such rates as may from time to time be prescribed by Proclamation.
ARTICLE VIII.
The jurisdiction of the Mixed Tribunals shall not extend, nor be recognised for any purpose whatsoever, in any part of the Sudan, except in the town of Suakin.
ARTICLE IX.
Until and save so far as it will be otherwise determined by Proclamation, the Sudan, with the exception of the town of Suakin, shall be and remain under martial law.
ARTICLE X.
No Consuls, Vice-Consuls, or Consular Agents shall be accredited in respect of nor allowed to reside in the Sudan, without the previous consent of Her Britannic Majesty’s Government.
ARTICLE XI.
The importation of slaves into the Sudan, as also their exportation, is absolutely prohibited. Provision shall be made by Proclamation for the enforcement of this Regulation.
ARTICLE XII.
It is agreed between the two Governments that special attention shall be paid to the enforcement of the Brussels Act of 2nd July, 1890, in respect to the import, sale, and manufacture of fire-arms and their munitions, and distilled or spirituous liquors.
Done in Cairo, the 19th January, 1899.
| (Signed) | BOUTROS GHALI—CROMER. |
(2.)
WHEREAS, under our Agreement made the 19th day of January, 1899, relative to the future administration of the Sudan, it is provided by Article VIII. that the jurisdiction of the Mixed Tribunals shall not extend nor be recognised for any purpose whatsoever in any part of the Sudan except in the town of Suakin;
And Whereas no Mixed Tribunal has ever been established at Suakin and it has been found to be inexpedient to establish any such tribunal in that locality, by reason notably of the expenses which the adoption of this measure would occasion;
And Whereas grievous injustice is caused to the inhabitants of Suakin by the absence of any local jurisdiction for the settlement of their disputes, and it is expedient that the town of Suakin should be placed upon the same footing as the rest of the Sudan;
And Whereas we have decided to modify our said agreement accordingly in manner hereinafter appearing;
NOW, it is hereby agreed and declared by and between the Undersigned duly authorised for that purpose, as follows:
ARTICLE I.
Those provisions of our Agreement of the 19th day of January, 1899, by which the town of Suakin was excepted from the general regime established by the said Agreement for the future administration of the Sudan, are hereby abrogated.
Done at Cairo, the 10th of July, 1899.
| (Signed) | BOUTROS GHALI—CROMER. |
(3.)
DECLARATION.
Signed at London, March 21, 1899.
[Ratifications exchanged at Paris, June 13. 1899.]
The undersigned, duly authorised by their Governments, have signed the following Declaration:—
The IVth Article of the Convention of the 14th June, 1898, shall be completed by the following provisions, which shall be considered as forming an integral part of it:—
1. Her Britannic Majesty’s Government engages not to acquire either territory or political influence to the west of the line of frontier defined in the following paragraph, and the Government of the French Republic engages not to acquire either territory or political influence to the east of the same line.
2. The line of frontier shall start from the point where the boundary between the Congo Free State and French territory meets the water-parting between the watershed of the Nile and that of the Congo and its affluents. It shall follow in principle that water-parting up to its intersection with the 11th parallel of north latitude. From this point it shall be drawn as far as the 15th parrallel in such manner as to separate, in principle, the Kingdom of Wadai from what constituted in 1882 the Province of Darfur; but it shall in no case be so drawn as to pass to the west beyond the 21st degree of longitude east of Greenwich (18° 40′ east of Paris), or to the east beyond the 23rd degree of longitude east of Greenwich (20° 40′ east of Paris).
3. It is understood, in principle, that to the north of the 15th parrallel the French zone shall be limited to the north-east and east by a line which shall start from the point of intersection of the Tropic of Cancer with the 16th degree of longitude east of Greenwich (13° 40′ east of Paris), shall run thence to the south-east until it meets the 24th degree of longitude east of Greenwich (21° 40′ east of Paris), and shall then follow the 24th degree until it meets, to the north of the 15th parallel of latitude, the frontier of Darfur as it shall eventually be fixed.
4. The two Governments engage to appoint Commissioners who shall be charged to delimit on the spot a frontier-line in accordance with the indications given in paragraph 2 of this Declaration. The result of their work shall be submitted for the approbation of their respective Governments.
It is agreed that the provisions of Article IX of the Convention of the 14th June, 1898, shall apply equally to the territories situated to the south of the 14° 20′ parallel of north latitude, and to the north of the 5th parallel of north latitude, between the 14° 20′ meridian of longitude east of Greenwich (12th degree east of Paris) and the course of the Upper Nile.
Done at London, the 21st March, 1899.
| (L.S.) | (Signed) | SALISBURY. |
| (L.S.) | (Signed) | PAUL CAMBON. |
(4.)
AGREEMENT BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND HIS MAJESTY KING LEOPOLD II, SOVEREIGN OF THE INDEPENDENT STATE OF THE CONGO, RELATING TO THE SPHERES OF INFLUENCE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND THE INDEPENDENT STATE OF THE CONGO IN EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA.
Signed at Brussels 12th May, 1894.
The undersigned, the Honorable Sir Francis Richard Plunkett, a Knight Grand Cross of the most distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George, Her Britannic Majesty’s Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the King of the Belgians on behalf of the British Government, and M. van Eetvelde, Officer of the Order of Leopold, Grand Cross of the Orders of St. Gregory the Great, of Christ of Portugal, and of the African Redemption, etc., Secretary of State of the interior of the Independent State of the Congo, on behalf of the Government of the Independent State of the Congo, duly authorised by their respective Governments, have agreed as follows:—
His Majesty the King of the Belgians, Sovereign of the Independent State of the Congo, having recognised the British sphere of influence, as laid down in the Anglo-German Agreement of the 1st July, 1890 (No. 129), Great Britain undertakes to give to His Majesty a lease of territories in the Western basin of the Nile, under the conditions specified in the following Articles:
Boundary. North of German Sphere. Watersheds between the Nile and the Congo.
Art. I. (a) It is agreed that the sphere of influence of the Independent Congo State shall be limited to the north of the German sphere in East Africa by a frontier following the 30th meridian east of Greenwich up to its intersection by the watershed between the Nile and the Congo, and thence following this watershed in a northerly and north-westerly direction.
(b) (Defines boundary from R. Zambezi to Lake Tanganyika.)
Lease of certain territories by Great Britain to the Congo State. West shore of Lake Albert and Watershed between the Nile and the Congo.
Art. II. Great Britain grants a lease to His Majesty King Leopold II, Sovereign of the Independent State of the Congo, of the territories hereinafter defined, to be by him occupied and administered on the conditions and for the period of time hereinafter laid down.
Boundaries.
The territories shall be bounded by a line starting from a point situated on the west shore of Lake Albert, immediately to the south of Mahagi, to the nearest point of the frontier defined in paragraph (a) of the preceding Article. Thence it shall follow the watershed between the Congo and the Nile up to the 25th meridian east of Greenwich, and that meridian up to its intersection by the 10th parallel north, whence it shall run along that parallel directly to a point to be determined to the north of Fashoda. Thence it shall follow the “thalweg” of the Nile southward to Lake Albert, and the western shore of Lake Albert to the point above indicated south of Mahagi.
This lease shall remain in force during the reign of His Majesty King Leopold II, Sovereign of the Independent Congo State.
Nevertheless, at the expiration of His Majesty’s reign, it shall remain fully in force as far as concerns all the portion of the territories above-mentioned situated to the west of the 30th meridian east of Greenwich, as well as a strip of 25 kilom. in breadth, to be delimitated by common consent, stretching from the watershed between the Nile and the Congo up to the western shore of Lake Albert, and including the port of Mahagi.
This extended lease shall be continued as long as the Congo territories as an Independent State or as a Belgian Colony remain under the sovereignty of His Majesty and his Majesty’s successors.
Flag.
Throughout the continuance of a lease there shall be used a special flag in the leased territories.
Lease of Territory by Congo State to Great Britain between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Albert Edward.
[Art. III.[220] The Independent Congo State grants under lease to Great Britain, to be administered when occupied under the conditions and for a period hereinafter determined, a strip of territory 25 kilom. in breadth, extending from the most northerly port on Lake Tanganyika, which is included in it, to the most southerly point of Lake Albert Edward.
This lease will have similar duration to that which applies to the territories to the west of the 30th meridian east of Greenwich.]
Self-Denying Declaration.
Art. IV. His Majesty King Leopold II, Sovereign of the Independent Congo State, recognises that he neither has nor seeks to acquire any political rights in the territories ceded to him under lease in the Nile basin other than those which are in conformity with the present Agreement.
Similarly, Great Britain recognises that she neither has, nor seeks to acquire, any political rights in the strip of territory granted to her on lease between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Albert Edward other than those which are in conformity with the present Agreement.
Telegraphic Communication.
Art. V. The Independent Congo State authorises the construction through its territories by Great Britain, or by any Company duly authorised by the British Government, of a line of telegraph connecting the British territories in South Africa with the British sphere of influence on the Nile. The Government of the Congo State shall have facilities for connecting this line with its own telegraphic system.
This authorisation shall not confer on Great Britain or any Company, person, or persons, delegated to construct the telegraph line, any rights of police or administration within the territory of the Congo State.
Equality of Treatment in Territories Leased.
Art. VI. In the territories under lease in this Agreement the subjects of each of the Contracting Parties shall reciprocally enjoy equal rights and immunities, and shall not be subjected to any differential treatment of any kind.
In witness whereof the undersigned have signed the present Agreement, and have affixed thereto the seal of the arms.
Done in duplicate at Brussels, this 12th day of May, 1894.
| (L.S.) | FRANCIS RICHARD PLUNKETT. |
| (L.S.) | EDM. VAN EETVELDE. |
Claims of Turkey and Egypt in Basin of the Upper Nile not Ignored.
(1) Sir F. Plunkett to Mr. van Eetvelde.
British Legation, Brussels,
12th May, 1894.
M. le Secrétaire d’Etat,
The Earl of Kimberley, in authorising me to sign the Agreement of this day’s date for a lease of certain territories in the British sphere of influence in East Africa to His Majesty King Leopold II, has directed me to record the assurance that the parties to the agreement do not ignore the claims of Turkey and Egypt in the Basin of the Upper Nile.
I avail, etc.,
F. R. PLUNKETT.
(2) M. van Eetvelde to Sir F. Plunkett.
Brussels,
12th May, 1894.
Sir,
In signing on behalf of His Majesty King Leopold II, the Agreement of this day’s date, for a lease of certain territories in the British sphere of influence in East Africa, I reciprocate the assurance that the parties to the Agreement do not ignore the claims of Turkey and Egypt in the Basin of the Upper Nile.
I avail, etc.,
EDM. VAN EETVELDE.
Explanatory Despatch relating to the above Agreement between Great Britain and the Congo State, of 12th May, 1894.
The Earl of Kimberley to Mr. Hardinge.
Foreign Office,
23rd May, 1894.
Sir,
Claims of Egypt and Turkey to Equatorial Provinces.
* * * * * * * * *
On approaching His Majesty, Her Majesty’s Government found him fully disposed to enter into an arrangement which, while enabling him to continue the work he had commenced, would record his recognition of the position of Great Britain in her sphere, and of such claims as Egypt, and, through her, Turkey, may have to the Equatorial Provinces whose administration was abandoned owing to the evacuation of the Sudan.
I enclose copy of agreement by which His Majesty, having recognised, on behalf of the Congo State, the British sphere of influence as laid down in the Anglo-German Agreement of 1890, received from Great Britain leases of the territory specified in the Agreement under certain conditions.
Her Majesty’s Government are satisfied that, under the Agreement, this portion of the British sphere will be administered in a spirit in full accordance with the requirements of civilisation, and of the Acts of Berlin and Brussels.
* * * * * * * * *
I have, etc.,
KIMBERLEY.
(4a.)
DECLARATION BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE CONGO FREE STATE, WITHDRAWING ART. III OF THE AGREEMENT OF 12th MAY, 1894, RESPECTING THE TERRITORY BETWEEN LAKE TANGANYIKA AND LAKE ALBERT EDWARD.
Brussels, 22nd June, 1894.
DECLARATION.
In compliance with the request made by His Majesty the King of the Belgians, Sovereign of the Independent State of the Congo, that the Government of Her Britannic Majesty will consent to the withdrawal of Art. III. of the Agreement of the 12th May, 1894, the Undersigned, duly authorised by their respective Governments, agree that the said Article be withdrawn.
Done, in duplicate, at Brussels, the 22nd day of June, 1894.
| F. R. PLUNKET. |
| EDMOND VAN EETVELDE. |
(5.)
AGREEMENT re TRIBES BETWEEN KHOR BARAKA AND RED SEA.
With a view to establishing in a permanent manner the dependence of the semi-nomadic tribes which exist on the frontier between the Baraka and the Red Sea, and to determining precisely the frontier separating the Italian and Egyptian territory in this region, H.E. Ferik Sir Herbert Kitchener, Pasha, Sirdar of the Egyptian Army, and H.E. Cavaliere Oreste Baratieri, Lieut. General, Governor of the Colony of Eritrea, authorised by their respective Governments have agreed to the following articles:—
I. In the district between the Red Sea and the Baraka, the frontier line between Egypt and Eritrea shall follow a line which, starting from Ras Kasar joins the principal branch of the Karora about 2 kilom. from the coast, and follows the course of the Karora up to a point marked Karora on the map. The frontier then follows the watershed between the torrents Aiet and Merib on the north and the torrents Falkat and Sela on the south, up to a point on the plateau of Hagar Nush, to be fixed by the delineators, and from that point so fixed shall proceed to join the Baraka at a point which is also left to the delineators to establish, following a clearly determined natural line. From the Baraka, the line of frontier goes straight to the intersection of the 17th parallel north with the 37th meridian east of Greenwich.
II. The semi-nomadic tribes on the frontier known as the Hazerandowa (Ad-Azeri), Felunda (Aflenda), Beit Maleh, and Rashaida, together with the sections of the Beni Amer at present acknowledging the authority of Sheikh Idris Hamen, are recognised as dependent on the Egyptian Government; and the Beni Amer acknowledging Sheikhs Ali Husseid, and Mahmud Sherif, as well as the Hababs, are recognised as dependent on the Government of Eritrea.
III. The two Governments bind themselves to concede reciprocally, reserving themselves the power of imposing a moderate tax in payment, rights of pasturage and cultivation in their respective territories to such alien tribes as apply for the concession through their respective Governments. Such concession shall be limited only by the requirements of public safety and by the needs of other local tribes dependent on the Government giving the concession.
IV. The two Governments bind themselves reciprocally to oppose as far as is practicable, and without necessarily having recourse to force, the settlement in their respective territories of tribes who may cross the frontier in consequence of rebellion or defection of their chiefs.
In the interests of public tranquility, the two Governments further bind themselves to take into consideration according to the circumstances of each case, the expediency of total or partial disarmament of the tribes on the frontier, due allowance being made for the requirements of their defence.
Each of the two Governments, however, reserves to itself full liberty to decide upon the measures which it shall take in its own territory, both as regards the means of opposing the immigration of rebellious tribes, and in respect to the time, method and extent of the disarmament to which this article refers.
| (Signed) | HERBERT KITCHENER, Sirdar. | ||
| Asmara, 25th June, 1895. | |||
| (Signed) | GENERALE O. BARATIERI. | ||
| 7th July, 1895. |
(6.)
ERITREA-SUDAN FRONTIER BETWEEN RAS KASAR AND THE KHOR BARAKA, AS SETTLED BY THE PARSONS-MARTINI AGREEMENT, SIGNED AT ASMARA, 7th DECEMBER, 1898.
Being desirous of determining the Sudan and Italian frontier between Ras Kasar and Baraka, and thus ratifying the Kitchener-Baratieri Convention of the 7th July, 1895, the undersigned, El Lewa Parsons Pasha, Governor of Suakin and Commandant of Kassala Station, on behalf of His Highness the Khedive of Egypt; and Chevalier Ferdinando Martini, Extraordinary Civil Commissioner of the Colony of Eritrea, on behalf of His Majesty the King of Italy, have agreed as follows:—
Art. I. Starting from the Cape of Ras Kasar on the Red Sea the frontier between the Sudan and Eritrea follows a line which, following the heights of Halabai (Halibai) and Gaba Keli (Gabei-Helli) joins the bed of the Karora (Carora) and ascends the latter to the heights of Tefleinai (Teflanait), whence viâ Abbeinedu mountain it reaches the watershed between the valleys of Karora (Carora) and Tabbeh (Tabeh) on the south and the Aitara (Aitera) and Areirib (Arerib) on the north, it then runs in a westerly direction along the above-mentioned watershed to the hillock of Mashonkole (Sciancolet), and thence by the slopes of Sigat Alim (Sigat Tellim) it reaches a little to the north of Roribet mountain, the plateau of Hagar Nush (Nusch); thence it follows its northern edge to the summit of Hamoiet (Hamoet) and along the Hafta (Afta) torrent to the wells of the same name, thence to Jebel Aar (Monte Haar) over the undulating region which forms the watershed between the middle course of the Ambakta (Ambacta) and the Lui (Loi) torrent; from that rocky region it proceeds to the Baraka (Barca) and joins it at its confluence with the Ambakta (Ambacta) following the slopes which limit on the north the lower portion of this last named valley.
Art. II. Two Commissioners, delegated one by the Egyptian Government, and the other by the Italian Government, will proceed within six months to demarcate the frontier by erecting boundary pillars.
Done at Asmara in duplicate, in Italian and Arabic, on the 7th day of December, 1898.
| (Signed) | CHARLES PARSONS, PASHA. |
| (Signed) | MARTINI. |
(Names in brackets as spelt in Italian version—G.)
(7.)
DELIMITATION OF FRONTIER BETWEEN ERYTHRÆA AND THE EGYPTIAN-SUDAN.
From the point of junction of the Ambakta with the Baraka, the line of frontier follows the course of the latter (Baraka) up-stream to its junction with the Khor Dada, and then turning in a westerly direction follows the Dada throughout its course to its source at the foot of the Iskénié range of hills.
The line now turns southwards and follows the watershed between the streams flowing directly to the Baraka on the east and those flowing to the Gash and Langeb on the west. This watershed is defined by the Iskénié Koreb and Yaet (Tai-yé) ranges of hills, by Jebel Meesat and finally by Jebel Benefer.
From Jebel Benefer the line of frontier passes in almost a direct line to the Sabderat range, being defined south of Jebel Benefer by the low hill Tedelaié, by Jebel Afada-Gumbib, by the hills Gelmabai and Dobadob, and finally by the peak called Deberenis on the Sabderat range.
From Deberenis the line crosses the Sabderat range by Jebel Eunice to the peak called Kwasana, and thence crosses Khor Sabderat to a point on the range of hills south of the Khor.
This point has been marked by a pillar.
The cliff of Shababit is left in Sudanese territory.
| W. J. WALTER. |
| Capt. W. MEYER. |
| BONGIOVANNI SIMONE. |
Sabderat,
1st June, 1899.
(The above is the sense of the original British and Italian versions combined: they are not exact translations of each other.—G.)
(8.)
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE FRONTIER BETWEEN THE SUDAN AND ERITREA FROM SABDERAT TO TODLUC. (With Map.)
Commencing from the last pillar erected in 1899 by Major Walter and Captain Bongiovanni on the south of the Kassala-Sabderat road, the boundary runs in a southerly direction practically in a straight line to Jebel Anderaib, situated about 3 kilom. from the right bank of the Gash; from there it runs nearly due west to a point on the Gash south of Jebel Gulsa, which it leaves entirely in Sudan territory; from the right bank of the Gash it runs straight to the highest point of Jebel Abu Gamal.
[221][From Jebel Abu Gamal it proceeds in a straight line to a point in latitude 14° 52′ north, on the right bank of the Atbara in the small district of El Egeiri, which is bounded on the north by the districts of El Yoya and El Rumeila, and on the south by that of El Alim.]
[221][From this point it ascends the deepest channel of the Atbara till it reaches its junction with the Setit, where it leaves the Atbara and ascends the deepest channel of the Setit to a point between the districts of El Gereiish and Abuda.]
[221][From here it proceeds in a straight line on a true bearing of about 56° east of north to Todluc, leaving within the territory of Eritrea the group of low hills known as Jebel Alaklai.]
Done in double original at Todluk, the 16th day of April, 1901.
| (Signed) | M. G. TALBOT, Miralai, Commissioner for the Sudan. |
| (Signed) | GIUSEPPE COLLI DI FELIZZANO, Tenente Piemonte Reale Cavalleria incaricato per il Governo dell’ Eritrea. |
(9.)
DESCRIPTION OF THE LINE AGREED UPON FOR THE RECTIFICATION OF THE BOUNDARY BETWEEN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN AND THE COLONY OF ERYTHRÆA. (With Map.)
The rectified boundary shall run from the highest summit of Jebel Abu Gamal to the highest point of the group of low hills known as El Burak, situated on the magnetic bearing of 175° from Abu Gamal and 14 kilometres distant.
From El Burak it shall run in a straight line to the eastern ridge of the Koraiteb Hills, passing through the highest rock of this ridge, the highest of the whole group, and leaving to the Sudan the water-holes in the Koraiteb Rocks to the west of this line. The Sudan Government, however, shall allow Erythræan subjects with caravans from Sogada to Noggara, or vice versâ, or engaged in collecting gum in Erythræan territory, to use these water-holes. This privilege shall not be extended to hunters in Erythræan territory.
Between El Burak and Koraiteb, owing to the necessity of avoiding the tracts of pathless bush so frequently met with in this waterless area, the Commission was compelled to keep to the west of the direct line. It was, consequently, impossible to do more than to ascertain that the little hill of Murawi, the ridge of Ginjar, or Wad Ganjar, and the pond or marsh of Um Sagit, lie within Sudan territory without constituting them boundary points.
From Koraiteb the boundary shall pass in a straight line to the conspicuous clump of trees surrounded by stones at the western end of the hill known as J. Nuwar, and from there, on a magnetic bearing of 166°, to the road cleared this winter by Bimbashi Savile between Umbrega and El Hafeira, and striking it on the ridge between Wad Mizammil and El Hafeira at a distance of about 520 metres, measured along the track from the point where it crosses the nearest water channel immediately west of the ridge.
The right of passage between the hills of J. Nuwar and J. El Batiota, as through the area known as El Makhram El Batiota, shall be enjoyed by the subjects of both Governments.
From the above-mentioned point on the Umbrega-El Hafeira road, now marked by a blazed “heglig” tree on the north side of the road, the boundary shall run straight to the bend of the Setit immediately opposite the mouth of the Khor Royan.
| (Signed) | M. G. TALBOT, Colonel, Commissioner for the Sudan. |
Umbrega Camp,
February 18, 1903.
Copy given to the Erythræan Commissioner.—M. G. T.
(10.)
DECLARATION REGARDING THE SETTLEMENT OF THE ABYSSINIAN-SUDANESE-ERYTHRÆAN FRONTIERS.
It is agreed that, in order to complete the delimitation of the frontier between the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Erythræa, a line shall be drawn from Abu Gamal (see Talbot-Colli map) to be eventually demarcated by special delegates in accordance with geographical features, in a southerly direction as far as the junction of the Khor Um Hagar with the River Setit. (See Talbot-Colli map 36° 37′ east long.)
The territory to the east of this line which has been recognised as Sudanese territory by the Emperor Menelik shall be transferred, subject to his consent, to Erythræa.
The parallelogram west of this line and north of the Tomat-Todluk line shall be ceded by Italy to the Sudan.
As a consequence of this arrangement the boundary line between the Sudan and Abyssinia from the Setit to Matamma shall be deflected towards the west, so as to leave on the Abyssinian side Nogara and the trade-route from Gondar northwards towards Erythræa.
The British and Italian Agents in Abyssinia will work together in concert to obtain from the Emperor Menelik in return for this extension of the Abyssinian boundary, a zone of territory to the East of Todluk-Maieteb line, which will give to Erythræa the whole of the Kunama tribe up to the Mareb.
Should these negotiations, after a reasonable lapse of time, prove unsuccessful, negotiations shall be resumed in Rome between the Italian and British delegates with the object of tracing the boundary between the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and Abyssinia on the basis of the Todluk-Ombrega or Maieteb-Jebel Obar lines, whilst, as regards the boundary between the Sudan and Erythræa, the status quo ante of the territory North of the Tomat-Todluk line shall be preserved.
The arrangement contemplated in the present declaration shall be regarded as secret until the consent of the Emperor Menelik has been obtained.
Done at Rome, this twenty-second day of November, in the year one thousand nine hundred and one.
| (Signed) | F. MARTINI. | RENNELL RODD. |
| G. AGNESA. | GLEICHEN, Kaimakam. | |
| F. CICCODICOLA. | J. L. HARRINGTON. | |
| A. BODRERO. |
(11.)
SABDERAT AGREEMENT.
Between the undersigned:—Colonel John Collinson, C.B., Mudir of Kassala, on the part of the Anglo-Egyptian Government, and Chevalier Ferdinando Martini, Royal Commissioner of Eritrea, on the part of the Government of His Majesty the King of Italy, have agreed to the following Convention:—
ARTICLE I.
From the 1st March, 1901, “The Parsons-Martini Convention” regarding the question of pasturage[222] in the territory of the Erithrean Government signed at Asmara on the 7th of December, 1898, is abrogated.
ARTICLE II.
Each Government reserves to itself to permit or forbid the temporary emigration into its territory of tribes, or fractions of tribes, who desire to enter its territory for the purpose of pasturage of their flocks and herds, and reserves to itself the conditions under which such permission will be granted.
ARTICLE III.
When temporary permission for grazing is given under Article II of this Convention, it is to be understood that those persons to whom such permission is given, are, from the time they cross the frontier, amenable to the laws at that time in force in the country they enter.
Made at Sabderat in duplicate in Italian and English this twenty-eighth day of February, 1901.
| (Signed) | J. COLLINSON, Colonel, Mudir, Kassala. |
| MARTINI. |
N.B.—The originals of this agreement in English and Italian are retained in the Kassala office.
(Signed) J. COLLINSON.
(12.)
CUSTOMS CONVENTION BETWEEN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN AND ERYTHRÆA.
ARTICLE I.
On the importation into the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan of any goods coming from the Italian Colony of Erythræa, no other or higher duties shall be imposed than those which are, or may be payable under the Egyptian Tariff for the time being in force on the importation into Egypt of the like goods coming from any third country, the most favoured in this respect, provided always that such duties shall not exceed five per cent. in the case of natural produce which may be proved, to the satisfaction of the Sudanese Custom House authorities at the place of entry into the Sudan, to be the bonâ fide produce of the said Colony of Erythræa, intended for consumption in the Sudan. Such goods however passing through the Sudan for consumption in Egypt, will have, on entering Egypt, to make good the difference between the duty here specified and the duty imposed by the Egyptian Tariff.
ARTICLE II.
On the importation into the Italian Colony of Erythræa, of any goods coming from the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan, no other or higher duties shall be imposed than those which are, or may be payable under the Tariff for the time being in force in the said Colony on the importation into the said Colony of the like foreign goods coming from any third country, the most favoured in this respect, provided always that such duties shall not exceed five per cent. in the case of natural produce which may be proved to the satisfaction of the Erythræan Custom House authorities at the place of entry into the said Colony to be the bonâ fide produce of the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan.
ARTICLE III.
Tobacco in all its forms coming from the Colony of Erythræa may be legally imported into the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan under the same conditions as may be applicable to tobacco imported into Egypt.
Tobacco in all its forms coming from the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan may be legally imported into the Colony of Erythræa on conditions to be established by the Governor of that Colony.
ARTICLE IV.
The importation of arms and ammunition of all kinds from the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan into Erythræa and from Erythræa into the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan is expressly prohibited.
ARTICLE V.
The importation of salt and of all alcoholic liquors into the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan from Erythræa and from the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan into Erythræa shall be subject to such conditions and restrictions as may be from time to time laid down by the respective Governments, which may at any time prohibit such importation if they shall think fit.
The importation of sugar and of manufactured cotton of all kinds from the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan into the Colony of Erythræa shall be subject to the conditions which shall be laid down by the Government of the Colony.
ARTICLE VI.
On the importation into the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan from the Italian Colony of Erythræa of any produce of the said Colony such as gum, india-rubber, ivory, or ostrich feathers, upon which a tax or royalty is imposed in the Sudan, there shall be levied on such produce the like tax or royalty as that which is for the time being in force in the Sudan, without prejudice to the payment of the duties leviable on such produce under the provisions of Article I.
The same dispositions shall apply to these categories of produce when imported into the Colony of Erythræa from the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan.
Provided always that deduction of the amount already paid in respect of Customs duties on the entry of such produce into either territory shall be made from the amount payable in respect of the said tax or royalty.
ARTICLE VII.
As regards the load tax which may be levied in the Sudan on loaded camels or other loaded transport-animals proceeding towards Erythræa, no higher tax shall be levied on these than is levied on transport-animals in the Mudiria of Kassala or the Administrative District of Suakin.
ARTICLE VIII.
The drawback upon goods coming from the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan and passing through the Italian Colony of Erythræa in transit, as well as that upon goods coming from the said Colony and passing in transit through the said territory, shall be equal in amount to the whole of the duty paid on their entry into the country through which they pass in transit, on condition that they be duly sealed and accompanied by certificates of origin delivered by the competent authorities, either Anglo-Egyptian or Erythræan as the case may be.
Provided always that the provisions of this article shall not apply to goods imported into Egypt and not intended for re-exportation thence.
ARTICLE IX.
Each of the two Governments shall decide where its own Customs Houses shall be and shall make its own valuations on imported and exported goods on the basis of their value at the place of import or export.
These valuations shall be revised every six months and communicated to each other by the respective authorities, who will exchange views with the object of establishing by friendly understanding the approximate cost of transport for the following six months.
ARTICLE X.
Goods exported from the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan into Erythræa will pay the same export duty (not exceeding one per cent.) as is paid on goods exported from Suakin or other Red Sea ports.
Goods exported from Erythræa into the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan may be subjected to an export or statistical duty of one per cent.
ARTICLE XI.
The coasting trade between the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan and the Italian Colony of Erythræa shall be subject to the treatment granted to the most favoured nation by either of the contracting parties.
ARTICLE XII.
The present Convention shall remain in force for ten years, dating from the day of the exchange of ratifications, but shall be subject to revision after five years, on the application of either of the contracting parties, provided that the application is made six months before the expiration of the five years.
In case neither of the two contracting parties shall have given notice six months before the expiration of the said period of ten years of their intention to terminate the present Convention, it shall remain in force for a further period of five years, and thereafter for successive periods of the like duration, unless either of the contracting parties shall have given notice as aforesaid six months before the expiration of the quinquennial period then current.
Done at Rome this twenty-sixth day of November, in the year one thousand nine hundred and one.
| (Signed) | MARTINI. |
| (Signed) | GLEICHEN, Kaimakam. |
Ratified at Cairo, 2nd January, 1902.
(13.)
POSTAL CONVENTION BETWEEN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN AND ERYTHRÆA.
ARTICLE I.
From the date of the present Convention the Post Offices of the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan and of Erythræa will carry out the service of ordinary and registered (raccomandate) correspondence and of money orders between the Sudan and Erythræa, under the conditions, formalities and tariffs in force in the Universal Postal Union, except as hereinafter mentioned.
ARTICLE II.
The exchange of mails will take place weekly at Sabderat. Each Government will provide for the transport of the mails in its own territory.
ARTICLE III.
The Service of Money Orders between the Colony of Erythræa and the Sudan is carried out in accordance with the forms and regulations in force for the Money Order Service between Erythræa and Egypt.
ARTICLE IV.
This Convention is subject to revision every five years, dating from the exchange of ratifications, on the application of one of the contracting parties six months before the close of the quinquennial period.
ARTICLE V.
The Postal Convention (Parsons-Samminiatelli) of the 25th of December, 1897, is hereby cancelled.
Done at Rome this twenty-sixth day of November, in the year one thousand nine hundred and one.
| (Signed) | MARTINI. |
| (Signed) | GLEICHEN, Kaimakam. |
Ratified at Cairo, 8th January, 1902.
(14.)
TELEGRAPHIC CONVENTION BETWEEN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN AND ERYTHRÆA.
ARTICLE I.
Telegrams between the Anglo-Egyptian territory of the Sudan and Erythræa can be despatched from or to any telegraphic station in either country.
ARTICLE II.
The telegraph line of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is connected with that of Erythræa at the station of Sabderat which is worked by Italian personnel. The cost of the working of this telegraphic station will be divided equally between the two Governments.
ARTICLE III.
The total charge for telegrams between the two countries shall be at the rate of one lire (forty-two millièmes) for the first fifteen words or less, and five centesimi (two millièmes) per word after the first fifteen words.
The money received for such telegrams shall remain in the possession of the Administration from whose station the telegram is sent.
ARTICLE IV.
Telegrams from or to the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan through Erythræa and Perim to (or from) places beyond Perim will pay over and above the nominal tariff, a transit tax (over Erythræan lines and cables) of forty centesimi (sixteen millièmes) per word; which sum will be credited to the Administration of Erythræa in the half-yearly settlement of accounts.
ARTICLE V.
In like manner telegrams from (or to) the Erythræan Colony passing over Sudanese or Egyptian telegraph lines to (or from) places outside Egypt or the Sudan will pay, over and above the normal tariff, a transit tax of seventy-five centesimi (thirty millièmes) per word over the lines Kassala-Alexandria or Kassala-Suakin; which sum will be credited to the Administration of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in the half-yearly settlement of accounts.
ARTICLE VI.
In case of interruption to the Italian Massawa-Perim cable, or to the lines and cables between the Sudan and abroad, it is agreed that the lines or cables of each Government shall be at the service of the other.
In this case the service telegrams of one Government passing over the lines and cables of the other will pay only half the transit taxes above mentioned.
ARTICLE VII.
The authorities of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and of Erythræa will exchange mutually and free of cost, in English, Italian, or Arabic, political or military news which might interest each other.
ARTICLE VIII.
The half-yearly accounts above-mentioned shall be regulated on the 1st January and 1st July of each year.
ARTICLE IX.
The said Convention shall remain in force for the space of one year from the date of exchange of ratifications, but after this period it shall continue in force sine die until revised at the request of one of the two contracting parties who shall give at least six months notice of his wish for such revision.
ARTICLE X.
The Telegraphic Convention (Parsons-Samminiatelli) of the 25th December, 1897, is hereby cancelled.
Done at Rome this twenty-sixth day of November, in the year one thousand nine hundred and one.
| (Signed) | MARTINI. |
| (Signed) | GLEICHEN, Kaimakam. |
Ratified at Cairo, 8th January, 1902.
(15.)
TREATY BETWEEN GREAT BRITAIN AND ETHIOPIA. (With Map.)
His Majesty Edward VII, by the Grace of God, King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, and His Majesty Menelik II, by the Grace of God, King of Kings of Ethiopia, being animated with the desire to conform the friendly relations between the two Powers, and to settle the frontier between the Sudan and Ethiopia; and His Majesty King Edward having appointed as his plenipotentiary Lieut.-Colonel John Lane Harrington, a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order, His Majesty’s Agent at the Court of His Majesty Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia, whose full powers have been found in due and proper form, and His Majesty the Emperor Menelik, negotiating in his own name as King of Kings of Ethiopia, they have agreed upon and do conclude the following Articles which shall be binding on themselves, their heirs and successors.
ARTICLE I.
The frontier between the Sudan and Ethiopia agreed on between the two Governments shall be:—The line which is marked in red on the map annexed to this Treaty in duplicate, and traced from Khor Um Hagar to Galabat, to the Blue Nile, Baro, Pibor, and Akobo rivers, to Helile, thence to the intersection of the 6° lat. north with the 35° long. east of Greenwich.
ARTICLE II.
The boundary as defined in Article I shall be delimited and marked on the ground by a Joint Boundary Commission which shall be nominated by the two High Contracting Parties, who shall notify the same to their subjects after delimitation.
ARTICLE III.
His Majesty the Emperor Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia, engages himself towards the Government of His Britannic Majesty not to construct or allow to be constructed any work across the Blue Nile, Lake Tsana, or the Sobat which would arrest the flow of their waters into the Nile, except in agreement with His Britannic Majesty’s Government and the Government of the Sudan.
ARTICLE IV.
His Majesty the Emperor Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia, engages himself to allow his Britannic Majesty’s Government and the Government of the Sudan to select, in the neighbourhood of Itang on the Baro River, a block of territory having a river frontage of not more than 2,000 metres, in area not exceeding 400 hectares, which shall be leased to the Government of the Sudan, to be administered and occupied as a commercial station so long as the Sudan is under the Anglo-Egyptian Government.
It is agreed between the two High Contracting Parties that the territory so leased shall not be used for any political or military purpose.
ARTICLE V.
His Majesty the Emperor Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia, grants to his Britannic Majesty’s Government and the Government of the Sudan the right to construct a railway through Abyssinian territory to connect the Sudan with Uganda. A route for the railway will be selected by mutual agreement between the two High Contracting Parties.
The present Treaty shall come into force as soon as its ratification by His Britannic Majesty shall have been notified to the Emperor of Ethiopia.[223]
In faith of which His Majesty Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia, in his own name, and Lieutenant-Colonel John Lane Harrington on behalf of his Majesty King Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, have signed the present Treaty in duplicate, written in the English and Arabic languages, identically, both texts being official, and have thereto affixed their seals.
Done at Addis Abbaba, this 15th day of May, 1902.
(16.)
NOTE.
ANNEX TO THE TREATY OF 10th JULY, 1900,[224] REGARDING THE FRONTIER BETWEEN ETHIOPIA AND ERITREA, AND THE TREATY OF 15th MAY, 1902, REGARDING THE FRONTIER BETWEEN THE SUDAN AND ERITREA.
His Majesty the Emperor of Ethiopia, Menelik II, Major Ciccodicola, Italian Minister in Ethiopia, and Lieutenant Col. Harrington, H.B.M’s. Agent in Ethiopia, have mutually agreed that:—
ARTICLE I.
The frontier treaty between Ethiopia and Eritrea previously determined by the line Tomat-Todluc is mutually modified in the following manner:—Commencing from the junction of the Khor Um Hagar with the Setit, the new frontier follows this river to its junction with the Maieteb, following the latter’s course so as to leave Mount Ala Tacura to Eritrea, and joins the Mareb at its junction with the Mai Ambessa.
The line from the junction of the Setit and Maieteb to the junction of the Mareb and Mai Ambessa shall be delimited by Italian and Ethiopian delegates so that the Cunama tribe belong to Eritrea.
ARTICLE II.
The frontier between the Sudan and Eritrea instead of that delimited by the English and Italian delegates by the Convention of the 16th April 1901, shall be the line which from Sabderat, is traced viâ Abu Gamal to the junction of the Khor Um Hagar with the Setit.
The present agreement shall come into force as soon as its ratification by the British and Italian Governments shall have been notified to the Emperor of Ethiopia.
In faith of which, His Majesty the Emperor of Ethiopia, Menelik II, in his own name and that of his successors, Major Ciccodicola in the name of his Majesty Victor Emmanuel III, King of Italy, and his successors, and Lieut.-Col. Harrington in the name of His Majesty Edward VII, King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, and his successors have signed the present note in triplicate; written in Italian, English, and Amharic languages, identically, all texts being official, and have thereto affixed their seals.
Done at Addis Abbaba, this 15th day of May, 1902.
(17.)
Sudan Agent’s Office,
Sudan Government, Cairo.
21st April, 1902.
My Lord,
I have the honour to inform Your Lordship that the Sudan Government has had under consideration the question of duties to be paid on goods coming from Uganda into or passing through the Sudan.
It has been decided that the Customs Convention[225] recently concluded with Eritrea shall apply to such goods under the following conditions:—
1. Certificates of origin should be furnished by the Uganda authorities in order to facilitate and ensure the efficient collection of the proper Customs dues.
2. In the event of goods not specially specified in Article VI of the Convention being imported into the Sudan from Uganda, there shall be levied the following:—
(a) On goods proved to the satisfaction of the Sudanese Custom House authorities to be the bonâ fide natural produce of Uganda, a duty equal to that payable under the Egyptian Tariff for the time being in force on the importation into Egypt of the like goods coming from any third country but in no case to exceed 5 per cent.
(b) On other goods, a duty equal to that payable under the Egyptian Tariff above-mentioned without the 5 per cent. reservation. This duty is at present 8 per cent. ad valorem on most articles.
3. On gum, india-rubber, ivory, ostrich feathers, etc., etc., an import duty in accordance with (a) or (b) and in addition the existing royalty (20 per cent. at present), minus the amount of the import duty paid under (a) or (b).
In other words, imported goods which are liable to pay royalty in the Sudan are allowed a drawback of the original amount of import duty paid.
4. (a) Goods duly sealed and accompanied by certificates of origin delivered by Uganda Authorities, passing in transit through Anglo-Egyptian territory, other than goods imported into Egypt and not intended for re-exportation thence, shall be entitled to a drawback of the whole of the duty paid on their entry into the Sudan, i.e., of import duty, or of royalty, or of both.
(b) The maximum time allowed for goods passing in transit through Anglo-Egyptian territory will be six months.
I have the honour to be, my Lord,
Your Lordship’s most obedient servant,
| (Signed) | GLEICHEN, Miralai, Sudan Agent,Cairo. |
| (For Governor-General of theSudan.) | |
The Right Honourable,
The Earl of Cromer, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., K.C.S.I., C.I.E.
His Britannic Majesty’s Agent and Consul-General in Egypt.
Foreign Office,
12th May, 1902.
My Lord,
I have received Your Lordship’s despatch No. 61, Confidential of 23rd ultimo, forwarding copy of a letter from the Agent of the Government of the Sudan at Cairo in regard to the duties to be paid on goods coming from Uganda into or passing through the Sudan.
I approve the proposals in Count Gleichen’s letter, and will communicate them to H.M.’s Commissioner in Uganda.
I am, etc.,
| (Signed) | LANSDOWNE. |
The Earl of Cromer, G.C.B., etc., etc.
Cairo.
(18.)
BOUNDARY AGREEMENT BETWEEN FRANCE AND THE CONGO FREE STATE, 14th AUGUST, 1894.
The undersigned, Gabriel Hanotaux, Minister for Foreign Affairs of the French Republic, etc.; Jacques Haussmann, Director of Political and Commercial Affairs at the Colonial Office, etc.; Joseph Devolder, ex-Minister of Justice and ex-Minister of the Interior and Education of His Majesty the King of the Belgians, Vice-President of the Supreme Council of the Congo Free State, etc.; and Baron Constant Goffinet, etc., Plenipotentiaries of the French Republic and of the Congo Free State, deputed to prepare an agreement relative to the boundaries of the respective possessions of the two states and to settle the other questions pending between them, have agreed upon the following provisions:—
Boundary between the Congo Free State and French Congo, Oubanghi, etc.
Art. 1. The frontier between the Congo Free State and the Colony of French Congo, after following the thalweg of the Oubanghi up to the confluence of the Mbomou[226] and of the Ouelle (or Welle), shall be constituted as follows:—(1) The thalweg of the Mbomou up to its source. (2) A straight line joining the watershed between the Congo and Nile Basins. From this point the frontier of the Free State is constituted by the said watershed up to its intersection with long. 30° east of Greenwich (27° 40′ east of Paris).
Arts. 2 and 3. French right of Police over the waters of the Mbomou.
Renunciation by Free State of Occupation or Influence over certain Districts. Watershed of Congo and Nile Basins, etc.
Art. 4. The Free State binds herself to renounce all occupation, and to exercise in the future no political influence west or north of a line thus determined:—Long. 30° east of Greenwich (27° 40′ east of Paris), starting from its intersection of the watershed of the Congo and Nile Basins, up to the point where it meets the parallel 5° 30′, and then along that parallel to the Nile.
Art. 5. Ratifications to be exchanged within three months.
Art. 6. In token of which the Plenipotentiaries have drawn up the present arrangement and affixed their signatures.
Given at Paris in duplicate, August 14, 1894.
| G. HANOTAUX. |
| J. HAUSSMANN. |
| J. DEVOLDER. |
| BARON GOFFINET. |
(Approved by the Government of the French Republic, by Law of 21st December, 1894.)
(19.)
AGREEMENT re FRONTIER ERITREA-ABYSSINIA. (With Map.)
In the name of the Holy Trinity:
His Majesty King Humbert I of Italy, and His Majesty Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia, being desirous of settling the question of the frontier between Eritrea and Ethiopia, which was left unsettled at the conclusion of the Peace Treaty of Addis Abbaba of the 26th October, 1896, have agreed to conclude the following Convention.
Art. I. The line Tomat-Todluc-Mareb-Belesa-Muna, traced on the attached map, is acknowledged by the two contracting parties as the frontier between Eritrea and Ethiopia.
Art. II. The Italian Government hereby binds itself not to cede or sell to another Power, the territory lying between the line Tomat-Todluc-Mareb-Mai Ambessa-Mai Feccia-Mai Maretta-Mai Ha-Mahio-Plain of Pharaoh’s hens (1) and the line Tomat-Todluc-Mareb-Belesa-Muna, given by his Majesty Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia, to Italy.
His Majesty Menelik II, King of Kings of Ethiopia, in his own name, his heirs and successors, and Captain Ciccodicola, in the name of His Majesty Humbert I, King of Italy, his heirs and successors, have with willingness and accord agreed to and written this Convention in Italian and Amharic, considering both as official (in case of error, however, in the writing, the Emperor Menelik will adhere to the Amharic text), and having approved of same they have affixed their seals thereto.
Written at the City of Addis Abbaba, this 10th day of July, 1900.
| (Signed) | Seal of the EMPEROR MENELIK. |
| (Signed) | Capt. FREDERICK CICCODICOLA. Representative of H.M. the King of Italy. |
(1) Line proposed by the Emperor Menelik to Major Nerazzini in 1897.
(20.)[227]
Berlin Act, 26.2.85: Free Trade in Congo Basin, etc.
(21.)[227]
Brussels Act, 2.7.90 (in force since 2.4.94): Slave Trade, Firearms, Ammunition, etc. Amongst others, Great Britain, France, Italy, Russia, Turkey, and Abyssinia are Signatories.
[220]This Article was withdrawn by a Declaration signed 22nd June, 1894 (vide below).
[221]These three paragraphs have been cancelled by the later agreement of 18.2.03—G.
[222]Not printed.—G.
[223]Done, September, 1902.—G.
[226]According to Junker’s map (Gotha, J. Perthes, 1888).
[227]Not printed here, but text may be found in Hertslet’s “Map of Africa by Treaty,” 1896 Edition, pp. 20 to 47, and pp. 48 to 106 respectively.
APPENDIX B.
THE SUDD.
SUDDSCAPE.
General description. (Editor.)The “sudd” (in Arabic sadd = block) is a generic name by custom applied to the huge marshes through which the Bahr El Jebel, Bahr El Ghazal, Bahr El Zeraf and the lower portion of their tributaries wind their way. It forms an irregular triangle of which the northern base extends about 200 miles west from the mouth of the Bahr El Zeraf, and the southern apex lies about Bor, 250 miles S.S.E. of Lake No. It is difficult to estimate the area of these vast marshes, but it cannot be much less than 35,000 square miles.
These marshes are formed by the expansion of the rivers mentioned over this area, and probably represent the bed of an old prehistoric lake which has to a certain extent dried up. The theory has been put forward that in those far-off days a ridge about Kodok, subsequently broken through by the river, caused the holding-up of waters in this lake, but this is hardly the place to examine this theory in detail.
Suffice it to say that a great part of this area is covered with a shallow sheet of water, over almost the whole extent of which thick reeds and swamp-grasses have sprung up. Except in the actual river channels this water is probably nowhere more than 2 to 6 feet deep.
Scenery.To the eye the effect is one of a vast extent of brilliant green papyrus, feathery reeds and sword-grass, 5 to 15 feet above the water, broken by occasional patches of light ambach trees, with channels of water, pools and lagoons dotting the “swamp-scape,” and here and there a sparse tree or two on the horizon. Occasionally, and more especially towards the south, ridges, or patches of mud or solid ground are visible, Animal life.and in such parts there is much bird and animal life. In the lower (northern) reaches of the Sudd nearly all signs of life—except the brilliant little bee-eater, an occasional heron, fish-eagle, or “anvil bird,” the ubiquitous crocodile, and, of course, the insects—disappear; but in the more southerly parts are found many varieties of game.
Inhabitants.On the Bahr El Jebel, for the first 150 miles south of Lake No there are no human inhabitants visible. Thereafter occasional Dinkas and their villages are seen up to about Bor (384 miles); whilst beyond this the Bari country commences, the population as the Lado Enclave is approached being considerably thicker on the east than on the west bank. The Bahr el Ghazal swamps and banks are almost uninhabited.
Of the larger species of game, elephant, giraffe, buffalo, and many sorts of antelope, including waterbuck, Leucotis, Cobus Maria, etc., etc., are seen towards the south, whilst the hippopotamus is excessively numerous almost throughout.[228] From the reeds and mudbanks arise clouds of wildfowl, crane, geese, (black and white, and brown), storks (saddleback, black, open-billed and marabou), herons (white, grey, egret, purple, “squacco,” and “Goliath”), bustard, and the quaint balaeniceps rex (whale-headed stork), besides pelican, spoonbill, ibis, and duck of every description; and of insect life the supply is unnecessarily large throughout. This latter includes several varieties of persistent and poisonous mosquitos (from the large scarlet one to the tiny anopheles), the trumpet-headed sudd insect and other kindred grasshopper-like creatures, millions of midges and mayflies, the serût fly, moths, spiders, fireflies, etc., etc. The sudd also swarms with coarse fish, some running to a considerable size.
The true Sudd.Some confusion has been caused by the word “sudd” being applied to the whole of these marshes. As a matter of fact, the real sudd is only the obstructive floating vegetation, originated in the lagoons as described below, which is driven by force of circumstances into the river channels and there forms the block or sudd. By far the greater portion of the marshes are covered by standing reeds, papyrus and the like, which, although they cover and assist in the formation of the floating vegetation and even, when uprooted, form part of it, yet are not, strictly speaking, sudd in their original state.
Thus, the traveller who proceeds along the cleared channel from Lake No to Gondokoro will, in all probability, although in the middle of the “sudd,” see little, if any, genuine sudd at all.
Formation of Sudd. (Sir W. Garstin.)In the Bahr El Jebel the main factors in forming sudd are the papyrus and the “um sûf.” These two, with the earth adhering to their roots, form the real obstruction. Many of the smaller swimming plants, such as the “Azolla” the “Utricularia” and the “Otellia Vallisneria” are mingled with the others, but they certainly do not play an important part in the formation of the obstacle. The ambach, too, has been unjustly accused of assisting in forming this barrier. This is not the case. This plant does not grow in any great quantity in the vicinity of the Bahr El Jebel, and its stem is so light and brittle that it would break when subjected to great pressure.
On the Bahr El Ghazal, on the contrary, the sudd is chiefly composed of the swimming plants above-mentioned. Their breeding places are Lake Ambadi and the other shallow lakes to the south.
The Ghazal sudd is much lighter in texture than that of the Jebel, and is consequently much easier to remove. At the same time, even in the former river, the sudd is at times dangerous, especially if it forms down-stream of a vessel, and if the latter has to work upon it from its up-stream end. The accident to Gessi Pasha’s expedition in 1880 proves that even the Bahr El Ghazal sudd can be an impassable obstacle under such circumstances.
Before alluding to the work done in removing the sudd, it may be as well to say a few words as to the principal causes of this remarkable barrier.
The Bahr El Jebel traverses the marshes between Bor and Lake No for some 380 miles of its course. South of Shambe the river has never been known to be blocked. On either side of the channel, in these immense swamps, extend large shallow lagoons, some of them covering a square mile or more of area. These lagoons are surrounded on every side by a luxuriant growth of aquatic plants, consisting chiefly of the papyrus and the grass known to the Arabs as the “um sûf” (the mother of wool). Both these plants grow in water, but not in any great depth. The papyrus attains a height of from 15 to 20 feet, with fibrous roots which strike deep into the ground. The “um sûf” rarely exceeds 5 feet in height, and its roots do not extend so deeply as do those of the papyrus. They are, however, very tough and difficult to break or cut through. These roots are bedded in the soil below the water, but the strong gales which blow in these regions loosen their hold to a large extent. If such a storm be accompanied by any rise of the water surface, large masses of these plants are set free from their original position, and begin to float on the surface of the lagoons. Their roots form such a tangled mass that large quantities of the earth in which they are embedded remain clinging to them. These act as ballast, and when the island of papyrus or reeds is detached and, under the influence of the wind, is set drifting about the lagoon, the weight of the earth retains the plants in their vertical position. Their roots, the moment they reach a shallow, act as anchors, and speedily strike down again into the muddy bottom of the lake. Large masses constantly change their position in this way. If the storm cease, they remain where they are. Unfortunately, at the commencement and end of the rainy season, stormy weather is the rule rather than the exception. At such seasons large areas of the marsh vegetation are in motion, driven hither and thither by the wind.
The Bahr El Jebel, where it passes through the swamps, has no banks whatever, and is, as a rule, separated from the lagoons merely by a narrow belt of papyrus. In many places it is in connection with them, and the water of the lakes flows in and out of the river, according to the level of the latter. As the stormy season in these latitudes heralds the approach of the annual rains, the rise of the river follows very speedily. The channel of the Bahr El Jebel being only of sufficient section to carry the low water supply, with the first rise in the levels the river spreads over the marshes, flooding them in all directions, and increasing the depth of water in the lagoons. It thus causes the areas of reed, already detached by the wind, to float still more easily. The continuous gales which prevail set hundreds of acres of these floating masses moving in one direction. Eventually they reach a point on the river where they are forced into the channel. Once there the current speedily carries them down-stream. Ere long their course is arrested by a projection on the edge of the channel or by a sharp bend. It may happen that an area of reed, several acres in extent, bursts into the river in a large sheet, and in such a case it must be necessarily arrested at the first point where the section is contracted. The result is that the channel is quickly blocked, though, perhaps, not at first to any great depth. Masses of weed, however, follow one another in succession, brought down by the stream. The section of the channel being reduced by the first obstruction, the velocity of the water rapidly increases, and these masses, following the easiest course, pass under the obstacle thus created. Each fresh mass arriving is sucked underneath those originally arrested, until at last the whole becomes wedged into one solid block, composed partly of earth and partly of stalks and roots of papyrus and reed, broken up by the extreme compression into an inextricable tangle. So great is the pressure applied by the water, that the surface of the block is often forced several yards above the water-level and is seamed by alternate ridges and furrows. The thickness varies greatly, according to the conditions and sections of the channel. In some cases it is not more than 4 to 6 feet, but it not infrequently obtains a thickness of 16 feet, below water, and occasionally as much as 22 feet have been observed.[229] Underneath this bar the river manages to force an outlet, but with a velocity increased proportionately to the smallness of the aperture. At the same time, the up-stream level rises, flooding the marshes in every direction, the water making use of any side channel that it can find. In time, doubtless, if left to itself, it would desert its original course, and the stream would take an entirely new direction, the original channel becoming permanently blocked. It generally, however, happens from natural causes, such as strong winds or increased heading-up of the water, that these blocks burst, and the obstacle is carried away. On such occasions a great wave passes down the channel, carrying everything before it, and sweeping away any similar blocks which may have been formed down-stream. Only in this way can the clearance of the sudd in certain years which has undoubtedly occurred be explained. Many of these blocks extend for a considerable length, some being as much as several miles long. It is easy to understand that such closures of the river channel cause not only a complete bar to navigation, but also a very serious obstacle to the free passage of the water. More than this, each block thus formed assists in the formation of others, by raising the water level up-stream, and thus assisting the flotation of further areas of papyrus and reed, much of which eventually finds its way into the river.
The movement of these great masses of weed, and the way in which they burst into the river, bears a striking resemblance to the descriptions given of an icefield when in motion. Their steady and resistless movement, the manner in which the fields break up, and the way in which they pile upon one another when an obstruction is encountered to their course, recall irresistibly what travellers relate of the action of the ice-floes when the pack is breaking up.
The sudd in this river, and in a less degree that in the Bahr El Ghazal, constitutes a very real danger to navigation. Should a steamer happen to be surrounded by it when in motion, the compression would certainly strain her framework to the risk of crushing it. Even should she escape this she will most probably be imprisoned for an indefinite time, owing to the river blocking on either side of her. During the stormy season, it should if possible always be arranged that two steamers should work in conjunction, one remaining down-stream, so as to be able to go to the assistance of the other if necessary.
As no fuel is to be met with throughout the whole length of the sudd region, a solitary steamer, if detained for some time by a block, may find herself eventually prevented from proceeding, or from making any attempt to free herself, owing to the absence of any means of generating steam in her boilers.
The Bahr El Ghazal sudd is, as has been said, of a different kind to that of the Bahr El Jebel. It is, as a rule, much lighter in consistency and easier to remove. This is doubtless due to the fact that the velocity of this river is very low, and, consequently, the pressure exerted by the water upon a block is small compared with that caused by similar conditions in the Bahr El Jebel. Again, on the Bahr El Ghazal, the papyrus and reeds do not extend on either side to any distance, nor are continuous and large lagoons close at hand. Between miles 42 and 52, up-stream of the junction with the Khor Deleib, there must, it is true, be always a risk of a block. In this reach the river passes through papyrus swamps, which are miniature editions of the Jebel marshes. Even here, however, the obstruction can hardly attain to the same solidity as in the case of the Jebel sudd, as the sluggish current of the Ghazal would fail to wedge the mass between the banks as tightly as would the rapid stream of the other river. Lake Ambadi appears to be a great nursery for the smaller varieties of the sudd plants. In the beginning of the rainy season these are carried down-stream and, as the channel wanders and twists, they form small obstructions. None of these, however, appear to be lasting, and it is rare that the Ghazal river is blocked for any length of time. It may be closed for a few months and then re-open itself. Thus in March and April, 1900, it was clear throughout its entire length, while in September of the same year it was blocked in more than one place. On this river, as on the Jebel, the sudd frequently sinks to the bottom, and decomposes, gradually raising the bed of the river. In this state it is very hard to remove.
AMBACH.
Botanical Composition.The sudd-forming plants may be classed in three divisions.[230]
The first, which contains plants whose roots descend to the river bed, is chiefly composed of the papyrus (Cyperus Papyrus), the common reed or “Bus” (Phragmites communis), and the feathery-headed grass (Saccharum Spontaneum).
The second kind is composed entirely of plants whose roots are in the water, but do not strike down to the ground or bed of river. The principal plant in this class is the “Um sûf” (Panicum pyramidale), grass, so called by the Arabs (“Mother of wool”) on account of the irritant hairs found on its leaf-sheaths which adhere to the skin of anyone touching them. In addition to the above, the wild bean (Vigna Nilotica) and creepers with purple flowers (Ipomœa) are found in profusion.
The third or last class of sudd is composed entirely of plants which swim upon the surface of the water. These form the cementing medium which binds the first two classes together.
The following are the principal components of this class:—
Pistia, a small cabbage-like plant with bright green leaves. Azolla, resembling moss in texture. Utricularia, Aldrovandia and Ceratophyllum, all resembling feathery floating streamers. The first variety has a series of small bulbs, like floats, attached to each streamer. The last is common in the canals and drains of Lower Egypt.
Otellia, a plant with big leaves and a white flower like a lily.[231] It is found everywhere in this class of sudd, and is met with at Damietta, where it is called by the Arabs “Lughmet el Kadi,” or the “Kadi’s pudding.”
In and among the above the blue-flowered creeper (Commellaria) is found.
Detail. (Mr. Broun.)Regarding the detail of the formation, the first point of interest is that all the most important sudd plants propagate themselves by means of tubular rhizomes which run along the surface of the water giving out shoots from point to point. These shoots, after developing, give out other runners which cross the others and weave themselves into them, a further consolidation being given by twiners which bind them all together.
Chief sudd plants.The most important sudd plants are, without doubt, Papyrus, “Um sûf” (Panicum pyramidale), and “Bus” (Phragmites communis).
“Um sûf” is probably the greatest source of blocks in the river courses, as it seems to thrive in deeper water than either the “Papyrus” or “Bus.” But all these give out long rhizomes. Those of the “Bus,” which is a very tall reed, extend sometimes quite 20 yards from the parent plants. These rhizomes either break away when the new shoots have developed and go to form new colonies elsewhere, or they are driven by the side of the others and gradually encroach on the river.
Among the climbers which bind the new growth (as well as the old) together, the principal are three kinds of Ipomœa, one vine and a leguminous twiner Vigna Nilotica. One of the Ipomœas (I. Reptans) deserves special mention, as it is not only a twiner, but possesses also tubular rhizomes, which enable it to float along the rhizomes of Papyrus, “Bus,” or “Um sûf,” and to knit them together as soon as they give out shoots. Among other plants which have also hollow stems are Jussiæa diffusa, which is also supplied with bunches of spine-shaped floats, and Polygonum tomentosum.
When all these floating masses are being tied together by the twiners the river brings down other plants as a packing to fill the interstices. The most common is Pistia Stratiotes, but there is also a constant supply of Ceratophyllum, Utricularia, Vallisneria and other plants of the same family; also Trapa bispinosa (the water-nut), Potomogetum, Azolla, etc. Little nooks are thus enclosed by runners from the Bus reed, the interior spaces of which are crammed with smaller plants.
It appears wonderful that with all this enormous mass of vegetation growing in these vast swamps in which no traces of human habitations can be seen, the natural decay of the plants does not gradually raise the level of the soil and force the water to keep to well-defined channels which, with the greater volume of water which they would contain would soon force for themselves a less winding course than they now follow.
Action of fires.It appears that one of the chief causes of continuation of the old order of things is fire. Sparsely inhabited as the swamps are, they are swept through from end to end by fierce fires which carry everything before them and kill nearly all the trees which attempt to gain a footing. Here and there a few Kakamut, Dôm, Deleib, Dabka or Talh have managed to spring up, but they are so scattered that they do not count. The papyrus and reeds, instead of dying a natural death and forming soil by decay, are burnt down, and what of the ashes is not blown away by the wind is carried away by the next flood. Were it not for these fires it is probable that trees of the species mentioned above would spring out more abundantly, and it would not be a difficult matter to define the banks of the channel by plantations of these or other river-side trees, such as are to be found in Ceylon, for example, lining the river, e.g., Terminalis glabra, Vitex Leucoxylon, Vateria acuminata.
Recent history of blocks and sudd-cutting. (Various.)In 1863, 1864, and 1868, heavy sudds blocked the Bahr El Jebel, and in the first mentioned year they extend to the north of Lake No.
In 1870, Sir Samuel Baker found the Bahr El Jebel closed with sudd at its mouth in Lake No. He attempted to ascend the Bahr El Zeraf but failed to reach the Upper Nile, and was obliged to return.
In 1871 he ascended the Bahr El Zeraf, and eventually forced his way into the main river near Shambe, literally lifting his boats and steamer over the intervening swamps and shallows.
In 1872 both the Bahr El Jebel and Bahr El Zeraf were closed, and in 1874 Ismail Pasha Ayub cleared away the sudd in the former river.
In 1878 Emin Pasha found it impossible to ascend the Bahr El Jebel from the south.
In 1879 and 1880 Marno (an Austrian) cleared the Bahr El Jebel of obstruction, completing his work in April, 1880.
In this same year Gessi Pasha undertook his disastrous journey in the Bahr El Ghazal, his steamer being blocked in that river for many weeks, and his expedition only being extricated by the timely arrival of another steamer under Marno, not, however, before he had lost many men.
In 1881 and 1884 the Bahr El Jebel was again closed by the sudd. During the period of Dervish rule nothing detailed was known regarding the state of the river, but in 1895 it was reported to the Intelligence Department that the White Nile was closed by the sudd. During this period the steamer “Mansurah” sank in the main channel in what is now known as the 15th block. The steamer was discovered during the Sudd operations of 1903-04.
As soon as possible after the battle of Omdurman (2nd September, 1898) steamers were sent up-stream to investigate. Major M. Peake attempted (7th October, 1898) to penetrate the Bahr El Jebel, but in vain. He steamed, however, up the Bahr El Ghazal nearly as far as Meshra el Rek. With Major Stanton he shortly afterwards steamed 157 miles up the Bahr El Zeraf, and was then stopped by shallow water.
In the following year, after a visit by Sir W. Garstin and Lt.-Col. Sparkes in the spring, operations for clearing the Bahr El Jebel were seriously undertaken, and Major Peake left Omdurman at the head of an expedition on 16th December, 1899. The party consisted of five gunboats, five English and some Egyptian officers, some British N.C.O.’s, 100 Sudanese, and a gang of 800 Dervish prisoners.
By the 27th March 1900, by means of hard and continuous labour, 14 blocks had been cleared out of 19, opening up 82 miles of river. Major Peake then avoided the remaining blocks by using side channels, arrived at Shambe, 25th April, 1900, and proceeded in clear water to Rejaf (5th May, 1900). Four (16th to 19th) out of the remaining five blocks were cleared by Lieutenant Drury, R.N., in January, 1901, and only the last one, the 15th, 22 miles long, and just south of Hellet El Nuer, still remained. It was considered, however, desirable to make renewed efforts to clear this block. Accordingly an expedition under the direction of Major G. E. Matthews was sent up in the winter of 1901-02, but did not succeed in completely opening the channel. The work of clearing this block was vastly increased owing to the entire absence of current. Nothing was done in 1902-03, but in 1903-04 Lieutenant Drury, late R.N., was again sent to renew the clearing operations. Practically no traces of Major Matthews’ work were discernible, and when, after dogged perseverance, the accomplishment of the task was well in sight the work had to be again reluctantly abandoned.
The false channel now in use is still liable to slight sudd-blocks, especially from April to June. A monthly steamer and other craft, however, keep the fairway open, as a ride, merely by their passage, and there is little or no danger of the channel being seriously blocked again.
Method of clearing.The following was the method employed by Major Peake in clearing the sudd:—
The first operation was to cut and burn the whole of the vegetation growing on the surface; this was done by a party of men with swords, fasses,[232] and axes. Immediately this was done the line to be taken up for the first channel, generally about 12 yards in length, was marked out; this was trenched by the Dervish prisoners armed with fasses, picks, axes and saws, into pieces 4 yards square. After cutting down about 1 foot from the surface the water infiltrated; the men continued cutting until, owing to the depth of the water, they were unable to get any deeper. Holdfasts of telegraph poles were then driven as far as they would go around the edge of each piece. After this a 1½ inch flexible steel wire hawser was sunk as deep as it would go by means of the pronged poles, all round the piece to be removed; the ends of it were made fast to the bullards in the bow of the gunboat, one on the starboard side and one on the port, leaving sufficient slack wire to allow the steamer to go astern some 20 to 30 yards before she got the strain; “full speed astern” was then ordered. Full speed was kept up continually if the piece showed any sign of becoming detached until it came gradually away; as soon as the piece was quite clear, one end of the hawser was cast off and the piece was allowed to float down the stream; the holdfasts were pulled out by means of a rope, one end of which was made fast to the bow of the steamer, and the other by a hitch to the end of the holdfast. If the piece showed no signs of coming away, the engines were reversed and the steamer was brought close up to the sudd and then went astern again. This was repeated again and again until the piece was detached. Some pieces were known to take as much as two hours to get away. Sometimes with very thin sudd, after it had been trenched, the steamer would be run up with her bow on to the sudd, and on going astern would carry the piece with her; also with light sudd a grapnel anchor fixed to the steamer when going astern was found sufficient to tear away the piece.
Very often the sudd will be found with its roots adhering to the bottom; this is especially the case in a year when there is a very low Nile, like 1899-1900, or close up to the banks, when the first leading channel is being widened.
In this case a grapnel or ordinary anchor sunk to the bottom of the river and then dragged along by the steamer is useful. As soon as the leading steamer has opened up the channel a sufficient length to enable her not to interfere with a steamer working behind her, another steamer is put to work, the same way as the first, to widen the channel. This is generally laborious work, as there is not much current to act on the sudd, and in consequence it takes longer to get it away.
In cutting the trenches care should be taken to cut or saw through all roots.
(For further details of the sudd, see H.B.S., pp. 4 and 207 to 213 inclusive (Dr. Junker’s account); Sir W. Garstin’s invaluable reports (Egypt Blue Books No. 5 of 1899, pp. 15 to 19, No. 2 of 1901, pp. 34 to 43, and No. 2 of 1904); Major Peake’s Reports, 1900; and Mr. Broun’s Note, 27.4.03—from all of which, besides some original work by the Editor, the above description has been compiled.)
THE BAHR EL JEBEL—PAPYRUS.
[228]The writer counted 72 in one lagoon at Shambe.
[229]Such blocks are so solid that elephants have been seen to walk on them.
[230]The Director of Forests, Mr. A. Broun, does not agree with the classification, or all the details, &c., given. He has not found the feathery-headed grass, and states that the Um sûf would not, in any case, come in the second class.—Ed.
[231]Query Boottia Scabra or Nymphaea Lotus?—A. B.
[232]Native hoes.
APPENDIX C.
ZOOLOGY OF THE SUDAN.
ZOOLOGY.
In preparing the following notes on the Zoology of the country, it has been assumed that the Mammals and Birds will present the most general interest. The variety and distribution of the large “game” animals has been briefly sketched, and, to make space for this, reference to the Invertebrate animals has been omitted.