Early Quaker education in Pennsylvania

by Thomas Woody

SUMMARY

The origin of the Quakers and the organization and discipline of the Society are due almost entirely to the influence which first came from the founder, George Fox. He extended his belief in his native country and even into foreign countries by (1) preaching, (2) letters, (3) extensive travels on his own part, and (4) through the agency of many capable men whom he attracted to his service. For this service the leading of the inner light was deemed the only preparation which was absolutely necessary. The society experienced a rapid growth in numbers and, due to the policy of its founder, laid great stress on the moral and practical education of their youth. A great similarity existed between the beliefs of Quakers and those of the Mennonites, both of which came to form a large part of the population of the colony of Pennsylvania. The Mennonite beliefs are thought, by some special students of their history, to have been the determining influence in forming those of Friends; but this is not clearly proven. It is pointed out, by certain references to utterances of George Fox, which to a great extent formed the basis for Quaker practices, that the common belief in their objection to education is erroneous. The system of moral education was exacting and full of sweeping prohibitions, and, in those respects, according to modern ideals, quite inadequate.

CHAPTER II
MEETING ORGANIZATION: ITS CONNECTION WITH EDUCATION

An organization developed

The organization of meetings in the Society of Friends was based almost entirely on the recommendation of its founder, and still obtains without many variations from the type which was thus early begun. The organization thus planned was not developed completely at one time, but depended rather on the growth of the society in this or that section of the country. Meetings, as at first established, were not so specialized in their functions as they came to be later; there were those for worship and sufferings, the latter becoming in due time a specialized part of the yearly meeting, and for taking action in regard to poor members. The time was further occupied in disciplining those members who were not faithful to the doctrines of the church.

The place of organization in the establishment of schools

It is of particular importance for us to understand the ordinary arrangement of the meetings and their relation to each other, since it was by virtue of this organization of the church that its schools were set up. Perhaps no other factor played so important a part in the success which was met with in setting up schools, as that through the organization of the meetings all localities were kept in closer touch with each other than would otherwise have been possible at that time. As it was, the local meetings were literally forced to listen to the school-proposition, even though they were in the backwoods of America, or inhabited the Barbados. The chief means of communication established were church letters, travelling ministers, representatives from the constituent meetings, and reports of general meetings which were distributed to all those belonging thereunto.[38]

Purposes of the organization

Originally the purpose of the church organization seems to have been twofold. It was realized that among those who became members some would be less constant in their behavior than others; hence some sort of oversight was necessary to keep each and every one in line. In the second place, there were many adherents in limited circumstances and the Quakers’ belief made it imperative that these people be taken care of in the best manner possible.[39] Realizing the existence of these conditions among members, it was clear to Fox that a definitely organized meeting was necessary whereby (1) the necessary assistance could be extended to those in need, (2) discipline could be enforced for the maintenance of the religious life of the organization, and (3) new meetings could be officially established when and where they became necessary.

Early meetings established

The earliest mention that is made of a meeting established for these purposes is in the case of Balby, in Yorkshire, in 1658.[40] This statement is not exactly accurate, it seems, for we have also mention made of a general meeting, or what came to be known as a yearly meeting, as early as 1654 when one was held at Swannington in Leicestershire.[41] The meeting at Balby seems to have been of considerable importance and is frequently mentioned as one of the stopping places of George Fox. He recounts a meeting held at that place in 1660 “in a great orchard of John Killam’s where it was supposed some thousands of people and Friends were gathered together.”[42] The business of the yearly meeting seems to have been to devote some time to the affairs of the church; at any rate, this idea is expressed by Fox in writing of a similar meeting held at Skipton in 1660.[43] The characteristic of these meetings, that is always mentioned, is that they were attended by representatives from various towns and counties. The yearly meeting is still a representative body.

Meetings develop from larger to the smaller

The smaller meetings for worship were, of course, the first established. Aside from the question of worship, however, the development of the organization was from the larger unit to the smaller. We have noted above the beginning of the general or yearly meeting. As the sect grew in numbers, and the labor of caring for these, sometimes in a physical sense and again in the religious, increased, it became necessary to have a finer organization, the smaller units of which would reach the smallest communities. By 1665 there were established (1) the yearly and (2) the quarterly meetings, and in 1666 Fox recommended the establishment of a smaller unit, the monthly meeting, saying:

Then I was moved of the Lord to recommend the setting up of five monthly meetings of men and women in the City of London (besides the women’s meetings and the quarterly meetings) to take care of God’s glory, and to admonish and exhort such as walked disorderly or carelessly, and not according to the truth. For whereas Friends had had only quarterly meetings, now truth was spread, and Friends were grown more numerous, I was moved to recommend the setting up of monthly meetings throughout the nation. And the Lord opened to me what I must do, and how the men’s and the women’s monthly and quarterly meetings should be ordered and established in this and other nations; and that I should write to those where I did not come, to do the same.[44]

Number of monthly meetings set up

Immediately after this, there is mentioned the establishment of monthly meetings in Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk, Huntingdonshire, Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire and Warwickshire and many others.[45] Three years later (1669) he reports fourteen monthly meetings in the county of York.[46] The rapid increase in the number of meetings and the extent of territory covered by them is a fair indication of the phenomenal growth of the society.

Following his resolve and subsequent exertions toward setting up of monthly meetings, during which he made very extensive campaigns, there came the great step which was taken to organize all under the general leadership of a yearly meeting, that of London. This was accomplished in 1672.[47] This general meeting of ministers drew up a resolution or minute to this effect:

London Yearly Meeting established

It is concluded agreed and assented to by Friends present that for the better ordering, managing and regulating of the public affairs of Friends relating to the Truth and the service thereof, there be a general meeting of Friends held at London once a year, in the week called Whitsun-week, to consist of six Friends for the City of London, three for the city of Bristol, two for the city of Colchester and one or two from each of the counties of England and Wales respectively.[48]

The meeting convened in the year following, in accordance with the above resolution. Many of the duties performed by the General Meeting of Ministers were transferred to the representatives of the various meetings. The ministers, though in fact subject to the approval or disapproval of monthly meetings, did not relinquish their oversight of each other.

The preparative meeting the smallest unit

The smallest unit in the organization was the particular or preparative meeting. This meeting is not mentioned in all localities, though it is clear from Fox’s statements that he recognized this as a part of the organization, for in a letter of 1669 he writes concerning the representatives of the quarterly meetings that,

none that are raw or weak and are not able to give a testimony of the affairs of the church and Truth, may go on behalf of the particular meetings to the quarterly meetings, but may be nursed up in your monthly meetings.[49]

Details of organization worked out by Fox

This statement is given here merely for the purpose of pointing out how completely the ideas of Fox were embodied in even the smallest unit of church organization. There is adequate proof of their existence in all sections occupied by the Quakers in Pennsylvania, and of their great importance in carrying out the details both of relief work for the poor, and in the establishment of schools.[50]

There have been noted different phases of the development of the meeting organization. When finally it was complete in all its parts, there existed a hierarchy of meetings, the lower and smaller units of which were subject to and under the direction of the higher. This resultant organization may be made somewhat clearer by means of a diagrammatical representation.

Functions of yearly meeting

The above diagram represents the relation of the various kinds of meetings in the organization of the Society of Friends. The yearly meeting (Fig. 1, Y) is the general head of the entire organization. Its functions are of a general directive nature and its influence of very wide extent. For example, it will be shown a little later that the Yearly Meeting of London issued, very early, certain communications concerning education which were sent to each meeting belonging to the London Yearly Meeting. In the same manner it exercised its influence along other lines than education. There is no special virtue in the number of meetings represented above; for example, the three Q’s do not mean that each and every yearly meeting had three quarterly meetings under its care. The number is not specified. In the case of the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting there are at present nine quarterly meetings and two half-yearly meetings.[51] The same variation is also true in the number of monthly meetings in a quarter, Caln Quarterly having only one monthly meeting, while Western Quarterly has six.[52] The same is true as to the number of preparative meetings.

Functions of the quarterly meeting

The quarterly meeting is representative of the monthly meetings which comprise it. Its functions are chiefly directive and advisory, though it may often occur that a bad case of discipline may be turned over to it by the monthly meeting. In the case of school regulations, its chief concern was to pass on the recommendations of the yearly meeting to the monthly meetings and to repeat them frequently, that the lower meetings might be stirred up to action.[53] It was also through the quarterly meetings that the reports on the conditions of schools in the monthly meetings were collected and sent to the yearly meeting. It was also quite customary for the monthly units to pass any of their decisions on a matter up to the quarterly unit for its formal approval or disapproval. Especially is this marked in educational affairs, and particularly in the Philadelphia Quarter.[54] This is most marked in the earliest years after establishment, and is due, no doubt, to a lack at that time of a very close differentiation in the functions of the meetings.

Monthly meeting the business unit

The monthly meetings are primarily the business units of the organization. Before them come all cases of care for the poor, apprenticing of children, enforcement of discipline, establishment of schools, requests for permission to marry, to remove to a new location and still many others. They may settle some of these finally, or they may act in connection with their superior meeting as mentioned above.

Function of the preparative meeting

The preparative meeting is the smallest organization unit and has its finger on the pulse of the local community at all times.[55] Officially it acts as the agent of the monthly meeting in carrying out the details of any piece of work that must be done, and which the monthly meeting is willing to delegate thus far.[56] Thus in the case of Horsham, for instance, the business of the schools in the scope of the preparative meeting is turned over to it and their organization and maintenance are under the care of its school committee.[57] The preparative meeting is at all times cognizant of breaches of discipline among its members and responsible to report such to the monthly meeting for settlement. One might go to great length to enumerate and explain all the detailed duties of each of these branches of the organization, but it is believed sufficient has been said of them, to make their action in educational matters intelligible.

We have noted, somewhat briefly to be sure, the organization and interrelation of the meetings in the Society of Friends. It is now necessary to point out what connection existed between this organization and the program put forward for the establishment of schools. This will be done by the presentation of certain extracts from meeting records which seem in all cases to have been responsible for kindling an interest in education in near and distant meetings, and keeping that interest alive by virtue of many advices until some material results were forthcoming. The selections presented are not continuous; they are chosen because they are representative and illustrative of the point in question.

Attention of yearly meeting to education in 1690

The Yearly Meeting of London was established (see page [17]) in 1672. Consistent with the purpose of its establishment, as then stated, it began at once to busy itself with certain important problems of the church. Among the first that received a considerable amount of attention was the education of the youths of members in the society, which was, of course, soon extended to include others. For instance, in 1690, there is given out this educational advice.

And, dear Friends, it is our Christian and earnest advice and counsel to all Friends concerned (so far as they are able or may be capable) to provide schoolmasters and mistresses who are faithful Friends, to teach and instruct their children, and not to send them to such schools where they are taught the corrupt ways, manners and fashions of the world and of the Heathen in their authors and manners of the heathenish gods and goddesses....[58]

And again in the year following we find the following advice:

1691

We are glad to hear that care is taken in some places, according to former advices, for the providing of schoolmasters and mistresses who are faithful Friends to instruct Friends’ children in such method as Truth allows. And we desire that Friends may go on in the care to provide such education and schools, for the advantage of their children and posterity.[59]

More specific instructions follow in 1695.

1695

And it is desired ... to take special care for the good education and order of Friends’ children in God’s holy fear, ... and also to see that schools and schoolmasters who are faithful Friends, and well qualified, be placed and encouraged in all counties, cities and great towns, or places where they may be needed; and that such schoolmasters, as much as may be, sometimes correspond with one another for their help and improvement in such good and easy methods as are agreeable to the Truth and the children’s advantage and benefit; and that care be taken that poor Friends’ children may freely partake of such education, in order to apprenticeship.[60]

At a much later date, 1745, very similar instructions are found among those issued.

and 1745

And, dear Friends, though frequently and repeated advices have been given from this meeting, respective of the education of our youth in sobriety, godliness and Christian virtues; yet, this being a matter of very great moment for the welfare of the present and future generations, we think it our incumbent duty again to recommend an especial care therein.... We also recommend to schoolmasters and mistresses, to educate the children committed to their charge, in the frequent reading of those sacred writings and such other good books as tend to their instruction in true Christianity; whereby their minds are in danger of being corrupted and led aside from the way of truth and holiness.[61]

A casual reading of the above statements, or any of numerous others like them, will suffice to point out to what great extent they are similar to the statements of Fox and other Quakers who were interested in education.[62] For convenience, the content of these extracts from the yearly meeting minutes may be summarized in something like the following:

1. To educate morally, according to Friends’ standards.

2. To train the individual in some practical employment.

A summary of important points in the extracts

They are accompanied by:

1. Select schools.

2. Teachers of approved morality.

3. Selected subject matter.

4. Apprenticeship training.

5. Schools to be in all communities, the stronger assisting the weaker.[63]

Exemplified in schools set up

The influence of these fundamental ideas about education is clearly reflected in the type of schools that were first set up in England. Those recommended by Fox at Waltham and Shacklewell in 1667, for both boys and girls, represent the first attempt.[64] At a later date, 1702, Clerkenwell was established under the oversight of London and Middlesex Quarterly Meetings, and in the latter part of the century the Ackworth School, founded by John Fothergill in 1779.[65] In all the schools established, of which those mentioned are representative, there is always found this primary emphasis on moral and useful training.[66]

Influence exerted by means of ministers, epistles and tracts

The great influence of English Quaker education on that in America was made secure by virtue of the very intimate relation between the meetings in both countries; this relation being constantly maintained through the traveling ministers, and tracts and epistles sent out by the yearly meetings. The same alertness, characteristic of London Yearly Meeting in these affairs, was likewise assumed by the Burlington and Philadelphia Meetings, from whence came numerous advices. As concrete evidence of this close relation existing, and the consequent communications, a few extracts thereof are inserted.

There was brought to this meeting (Middletown Monthly) the last London printed epistle, which was read, containing sundry weighty advices and exhortations with some comfortable account of the prosperity of the Truth in divers places, as also the extracts of our last yearly meeting (Philadelphia) wherein is recommended amongst other things, a half collection for the next year, and some proposals concerning the settling of schools in the country....[67]

That these letters of advice were not mere formalities but were really seriously considered and acted upon favorably or unfavorably, as in the first case below, is shown adequately in the following:

This meeting taking into consideration the proposals of last yearly meeting concerning the settling of schools in the country, are of the opinion that the method proposed will not answer for the Friends who live remote from each other in the country....[68]

Had definite results

In the case of Darby Monthly Meeting, later in the century, there is an instance in which the recommendations of the yearly meeting (1778) are followed most minutely in the reorganization.

In consideration of improving our school, agreeable to the recommendations of the last Yearly Meeting in 1778, and subsequent advices down to this time having been spread in this meeting and so and several remarks made thereon, pointing out the advantages which may arise therefrom to the present rising and succeeding ages, and the loss sustained for the want thereof, tending to animate a desire to pursue the interesting prospect. It is therefore now agreed that in future five Friends be appointed and called the overseers of the Darby School, three of whom shall be deemed a sufficient number to transact any business within their appointment, viz.: to have the oversight of and visit the school, examine the progress the scholars make in their learning, remark thereon as appears to them necessary; inspect the teachers’ conduct, and from time to time as occasion may be, with the approbation of the meeting, agree with and employ a teacher or teachers, and on sufficient cause appearing, discharge any such teacher or teachers, as also any unruly scholars who cannot be brought to submission to the rules and orders of the school; hear and determine upon all differences relative to the school which may arise between any teacher and employer, take into consideration and endeavor out after some eligible plan for raising a fund for the benefit of the school and as way shall open for it, pursue the same accordingly, and every matter and thing tending to promote a settlement for a school agreeable to the recommendations before cited; and as some of our deceased brothers have made donations to this meeting for the benevolent purpose of schooling children of the poor, therefore, the aforesaid overseers are hereby empowered and directed to receive and collect from the trustees thereof for the time being, the interest arising from the said donations, dispose thereof agreeable to the intentions of the Donors, and when necessary, advise and assist the trustees in taking better securities for the principal, and as future donations may be made for the benefit of the school, the overseers are directed to extend care therein, as the same shall become necessary, and keep fair minutes of all moneys received and expended and other matters of importance which come before them, to be produced in this meeting when called for, and preceding the quarterly meeting in the 8th month annually make to this meeting a clear statement of the amount received, expended and remaining in hand and outstanding and of the capital under their care; what donations made within the year past and for what purposes; and of such other matters as they may judge needful to enable this meeting to transmit the true estate of the school to the Quarterly Meeting, and as a fundamental of their proceedings they transcribe a copy of their minutes, together with such other writings as are necessary for their government in what is now constituted their cares.[69]

A committee was accordingly appointed and directed to choose their officers, that their business might be begun at once and properly performed.

Works of Penn, Barclay, Sewell, Turford, and others distributed

In addition to the advices sent out in the form of letters from the yearly sessions, the meeting also furthered regularly the distribution of books, tracts and pamphlets, usually the expression of prominent Friends, such as, for example, Penn’s Advice to His Children, Barclay’s Apology, Sewell’s History of Quakers, Barclay’s Catechism, Turford’s Grounds of a Holy Life, and many others of similar nature. Works of this kind were frequently sent over in lots, sometimes for free distribution, or to be sold to members; as witness the following:

Joseph Kirkbride and Walter Faucit, having been lately in London upon the service of Truth, did subscribe for 100 of Barclay’s Apologies on behalf of this yearly meeting, which the said meeting approves of; and agreed that Samuel Carpenter pay for them out of the yearly meeting stock and distribute them to each meeting according to their proportion of books that they usually receive, that so they may be given away by the several meetings for the service of truth.[70]

Sam Nixon informs the meeting that he brought from last quarterly meeting ten small books, entitled Reflections and Maxims, wrote by William Penn and printed for the use of schools, which he desired us to take the care of and to apply to the use intended as occasion may require.[71]

Produced at this meeting, 6 Barclay’s Apologies, 12 Richard Davis’ Journals, 7 Daniel Stanton’s Journals, 4 Hugh Turford’s Grounds of a Holy Life, 8 Barclay’s Catechisms; 37 books under care of Thos. Pickering, Thos. Watson, and Robert Kirkbride—to lend to the poor or others, as they think useful.[72]

The foregoing presentation of conditions within the church organization, their method of interaction, has been made so that the reader may understand that whatever activities may be later noted among the Quakers in Pennsylvania in connection with the establishment of schools, were intimately connected with and were in fact the result of the English influence.