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OUTLINES
OF
MINERALOGY,
TRANSLATED
FROM THE ORIGINAL,
OF
Sir TORBERN BERGMAN,
KNIGHT OF THE ORDER OF WASA,
PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY AT UPSAL, &C.
By WILLIAM WITHERING, M. D.
MEMBER OF THE ROYAL MEDICAL SOCIETY
AT EDINBURGH.
Itum eſt in viſcera terræ;
Quaſque recondiderat ſtygiiſque admoverat umbris
Effodiunter opes, irritamenta malorum.
Ovid.
BIRMINGHAM:
PRINTED BY PIERCY AND JONES,
FOR T. CADELL, AND G. ROBINSON, LONDON,
J. BALFOUR, AND C. ELLIOTT, EDINBURGH.
M,DCC,LXXXIII.
TRANSLATOR’s
PREFACE.
The pleaſure and inſtruction I received myſelf from this excellent little work of Profeſſor Bergman, inſpired me with a wiſh to make it more generally known to others. A ſyſtem like this, founded upon the constituent principles of things, may be improved, but never can be exploded. Engliſh names are given, but the Latin ones of the original are ſtill retained, as an acquaintance with them will enable the reader more readily to conſult other authors. Blank ſpaces are left after most of the ſpecies, for the convenience of inſerting any new ones that may occur. I have added a few new ſpecies, and ſome notes; the utility of which will be ſufficiently obvious. The table of metals, at page 71, and the index at the end, will alſo, I hope, be conſidered as uſeful additions.
Birmingham,
1ſt September, 1783.
N. B. The centenary (centenarius) of Professor Bergman is equal to 60 Swediſh grains, or nearly 63 Engliſh grains.
THE
AUTHOR’s PREFACE.
In compliance with the requeſt of my learned and amiable friend, the celebrated Mr. Ferber, I tranſmitted to him a ſlight ſketch of mineralogy, in which the ſubjects were arranged according to their conſtituent or component parts. After peruſing it, he requeſted my permiſſion to publiſh it. At firſt I thought it better to ſuppreſs a work that was ſo imperfect, eſpecially when I conſidered the number of analyſes that yet remained to be made. He replied, that a perfect method was not yet to be expected in a ſubject ſo extenſive, but that having once laid a good foundation, I might occaſionally make ſuch additions and corrections, in new editions of the work, as future experiments might render neceſſary. Indeed, I was fully aware, that the ſyſtem would ſooner be rendered perfect, if ſubmitted to the inſpection of other more diſcerning chemiſts, than if the completion of it reſted upon myſelf only. The different remarks of others, will correct errors, which, by a further attention, I might have amended; but if the intereſt of ſcience be promoted, no matter by whom.
This little work contains Genera and Species, except in the appendixes, which, as not properly belonging to my deſign, contain Genera only.
The Genera are founded upon the prevalent component parts; the Species upon the diverſity of the composition. Varieties depend upon external appearances, and therefore are at preſent omitted.
After this manuſcript was ſent away, I diſcovered two species of ſtannum ſulphuratum (tin combined with ſulphur), one of which contains about forty per cent. of ſulphur, the other only twenty. The firſt has the appearance of aurum muſivum; the latter partly reſembles antimonium ſulphuratum (crude antimony), but does not contain antimony. Both are contaminated by a ſmall quantity of copper. I got them from Nerchinſkoi in Siberia[[1]].
As to the Terra Ponderosa (heavy earth), I have long been aware of its great reſemblance to calx of lead, and have even lately found a method of precipitating it by the phlogiſticated alkaly[[2]]; ſo that I verily believe it to be of a metallic nature, although it has never yet been made into a regulus, and, therefore, I ſtill place it with the earths, until its ſituation be better aſcertained.
If providence allots me life and health, I hope, a few years hence, to republiſh this imperfect ſketch, corrected and enlarged.
OF A
NATURAL SYSTEM
OF
MINERALOGY.
The Mineral Kingdom conſiſts of the foſſil ſubſtances found in the earth. Theſe are either entirely deſtitute of organic structure, or, having once poſſeſſed it, poſſeſs it no longer: ſuch are the petrefactions.
It is requiſite, for the proper diſcrimination of foſſils, to eſtabliſh certain characters, whereby they may, at all times, and in all places, be diſtinguiſhed from one another. The ſcience that teaches theſe is called Mineralogy.
As in the vegetable kingdom different methods have been formed upon the roots, the leaves, the flowers, the fruit, &c. ſo alſo in Mineralogy many methods may be deviſed, and there is no doubt of the utility of contemplating inorganic bodies in every point of view; for the more compariſons are multiplied, the more evidently do reſemblances or differences appear.
But as the chief object of the ſcience is to render foſſils ſubſervient to the uſes of man, it is evident that that method muſt be the beſt which diſplays their component parts: for theſe being well underſtood, we know what to expect from them; we accommodate our deſigns to their nature, and ſpend not our labour and money in vain attempts inconſiſtent with their inherent qualities.
There is a power implanted by the creator in organized bodies, which, upon the acquiſition of proper nutriment, unfolds and evolves the ſtructure which before lay concealed in the fecundated egg or ſeed. Similar veſſels, in each ſpecies, abſorb, convey, and aſſimilate the nouriſhment in the ſame manner; ſo that the appearance and ſtructure remain the ſame, unleſs peculiar cauſes prevent the accuſtomed courſe of things, and produce monſters: but this very rarely happens. Hence it is that the leading features or the external parts agree with the internal properties, and when judiciouſly choſen, form ſufficient characteriſtic diſtinctions.
But the formation of foſſils is totally different. Here no ſyſtem of veſſels collects, diſtributes, ſecretes or changes the concurrent particles, but they run together by chance, and are ſolely connected by the power of attraction; they are generally, too, of different kinds, rare and denſe, figured and ſhapeleſs, admitting of every poſſible variety. This general view of the ſubject ſhews us how little external characters can be depended on; but we ſhall more particularly conſider the principal of theſe.
Colour varies exceedingly, as does alſo the ſize of bodies. We cannot ſufficiently wonder at the violence done to nature by the ſtudied ſeparation of earths from ſtones. The conſequence is, that a ſtone of a certain ſize muſt conſtitute one genus, whilſt the ſame thing, reduced to powder, muſt be placed under another genus, which ſhall not be found even in the ſame claſs.
Hardness not unfrequently varies even in the ſame ſpecimen. Soft clay dries in the fire, and at length acquires the hardneſs of flint. Steatites (ſoap-rock) which may be ſcraped with the nail, and many other matters harden in the ſame manner, and that ſometimes without any notable loſs of weight; ſo that bodies paſs through every different degree of hardneſs, without any other change of their mixture.
Texture, and external form of the particles, may ſeem at firſt ſight to depend more upon the conſtituent parts; but a calcareous particle, globular or ſhapeleſs, is found, upon the moſt ſcrupulous examination, to poſſeſs the ſame properties as a piece of ſpar; and in another place I have clearly ſhewn, that the ſchirl-like, garnet-like, hyacinthine, twelve-ſided, and other figures, are not unfrequently formed by nature out of the ſame materials[[3]]. And if we are liable to deception where ſo great a difference in external forms exiſts, what can we expect from leſs conſtant external qualities?
Superficial characters are therefore inſufficient. They cannot even enable us to diſtinguiſh calcareous from other earths, for the efferveſcence with acids is a chemical mark, and happens, too, in matters of very different natures. To paſs over other inſtances, let him who is able diſtinguiſh the plumbum aeratum and plumbum phoſphoratum (§ 182. § 183.) by external appearances only!
But let us not altogether deſpiſe external characters: it is of moment to know and mark them well[[4]]. They frequently enable the accuſtomed eye without troubleſome trials to acquire a degree of certainty, which wants only a few ſelect experiments to confirm it. Sometimes alſo the uſe depends upon external properties, evident to our ſenſes, as the hardneſs, the colour, the pellucidity, &c. Theſe therefore may with propriety be joined to thoſe which point out the conſtituent principles.
Claſſes, Genera and Species are therefore to be formed upon the internal nature and compoſition; the varieties upon the external appearances. In ſuch a ſyſtem both methods conveniently agree.
Cronstedt firſt attempted this method, and with great ſucceſs; but afterwards the liquid analyſis, in which the illuſtrious Margraaf took the lead, better opened the internal ſecrets of nature; ſo that the excellent work of Cronſtedt now appears to contain many errors; theſe however are not to be attributed to any fault in the author, but to the inſufficiency of his experiments. The attempts of Mr. Pott by fuſion have long been known; but theſe however uſeful in other reſpects, rather tend to confound than to lay open the component parts of bodies.
In methodizing foſſils, compounds ſhould rank under the moſt abundant ingredient. Thus let a and b repreſent the component parts; if the former be the heavier, the compound muſt be placed under the genus of that: but this rule admits of ſeveral exceptions.
Thus, the properties of all ingredients are not of the same intenſity, if I may be allowed the expreſſion; ſome are more powerful or efficacious, ſo as to impreſs the maſs with their own genus and character, though forming leſs than half the weight. In ſuch a caſe the qualities are rather to be conſidered than the quantity, eſpecially if b ſo far from preponderating hardly ever amounts to half the weight.
Argillaceous earth (earth of allum) and magneſia are never found ſeparate, but almoſt always mixed with other things ſo that their weight conſtitutes the ſmaller part of the maſs: therefore if the above rule (§ 14.) was rigourouſly adhered to, theſe primitive earths would not be found amongſt the Genera, which would doubtleſs be an abſurdity.
The value of a thing muſt likewiſe be conſidered. Minerals containing gold or ſilver muſt be ranked with thoſe noble metals although they hold three, four, or more times the quantity of heterogeneous matter. Not to mention other examples, pyrites are placed under the genus copper although they contain a much greater quantity of iron. This cuſtom, eſtabliſhed with the univerſal conſent of mineralogiſts, wants indeed a natural foundation, but it ſeems uſeful to miners to retain it; and the more ſo as it is certain that otherwiſe many minerals would be to be sought for under ſtrange and improper titles.
Laſtly, it muſt be remarked, that the ſolid ingredient determines the genus although the menſtruum be greater in quantity. Thus in magneſia vitriolata (Epſom ſalt) the earth gives the Generic name, although the vitriolic acid be the more ponderous. The same holds good in gypſum, allum, &c.
CLASSES
OF
FOSSILS.
Fossils are of four kinds, viz. ſaline, earthy, inflammable, and metallic; hence ariſe four claſſes.
Salts, or ſaline ſubſtances are more or leſs ſapid, and when finely powdered diſſolve in at leaſt 1000 times their weight of boiling water. They melt in the fire, which for the moſt part changes or deſtroys them[[5]].
Earths are inſipid, not ſoluble in water in the degree mentioned above (§ 20) though perhaps water in Papin’s digeſtor will diſſolve ſome if not all of them, eſpecially if their ſurface be greatly increaſed by a previous ſolution in and precipitation from ſome other menſtruum. In the chain of nature they are by inſenſible gradation joined to the ſalts, ſo as not to be diſtinguiſhed without artificial limits. Their form is not changed by a moderate heat, nor are they diſſipated by a violent one. Their ſpecific gravity is to water, leſs than 5 to 1.
Inflammable foſſils abound with phlogiſton, do not unite with water, but when pure diſſolve in oils; expoſed to the fire, they ſmoke, generally inflame, are for the moſt part conſumed, and ſometimes totally vaniſh.
Metals when perfect do not diſſolve at all in water; only a few of them in oils, and then only when in part deprived of their phlogiſton. They are the heavieſt of all known ſubſtances, the lighteſt of them weighing more than ſix times its bulk of water.
They melt in the fire with a ſhining ſurface, and in clay veſſels the ſurface is convex.
CLASS I.
SALTS.
We begin with the nature and properties of ſaline bodies, for unacquainted with theſe our knowledge of other bodies muſt be exceedingly imperfect. Native ſalts are either acid, alkaline, neutral, earthy or metallic.
Acids may be diſtinguiſhed by their proper taſte; they efferveſce with mild alkalies; and change the blue juices of vegetables and tincture of heliotropium to a red colour[[6]].
We are acquainted with many ſpecies of acids, but they are hardly ever found pure in the bowels of the earth, nor can we expect to find them ſo when we conſider how ſoon ſuch powerful menſtrua muſt meet with ſubſtances to ſaturate them. Their great abundance and their properties ſhew their various and indiſpenſible uſes in the œconomy of nature.
As mineralogy treats of thoſe bodies which are found under the ſurface of the earth, and as acids in an uncombined ſtate are not found there, it would ſeem proper to exclude them; but the ſame reaſon would likewiſe exclude the primitive earths, ſome of which have never yet been found pure. Therefore in a ſyſtem formed upon the component parts of bodies, a ſhort deſcription of the principal of theſe is not to be diſpenſed with, although they hardly ever preſent themſelves in a ſeparate ſtate.
Vitriolic ACID. When moſt concentrated by artificial means its ſpecific gravity is 2, 125. When pure, has neither colour nor ſmell. Cold ſometimes though very rarely concretes it into a ſolid form; it may be coagulated by nitrous air. This as well as the other acids is beſt known from the compounds it forms with other ſubſtances.
Mr. Vandelli[[7]] ſays that it is ſometimes mixed with the ſtreams from the hills in the neighbourhood of Sienna and Viterbo, raiſed no doubt by ſubterranean fires; but in general it is united to alkalies (§§ 44, 47, 50,) to earths (§§ 58, 59, 63, 67,) to metals (§§ 69, 70, 72, 73,) or to phlogiſton (§§ 134, 136.)
Phlogiſticated vitriolic ACID (volatile vitriolic acid) is frequently thrown out by the craters of volcanoes; its ſmell ſuffocating and penetrating. The union to phlogiſton and the matter of heat gives it an aerial form, but does not prevent its union with water.
Nitrous ACID is by ſome excluded from the foſſil kingdom, becauſe they ſuppoſe it to be produced from the putrefaction of organic bodies. But theſe bodies when deprived of life are again received amongſt the foſſils, from whence their more fixed parts were originally derived.
In the moſt concentrated ſtate that art can procure it, its ſpecific gravity is 1, 580. Colourleſs when pure; but its ſtrong attraction to phlogiſton renders particular management neceſſary to procure it ſo[[8]]. With different proportions of phlogiſton it forms phlogiſticated acid and nitrous air.
It has never as far as I know been met with diſengaged, unleſs perhaps in water precipitated out of the atmoſphere, but is found united to alkalies (§§ 45, 47, 51 ) or to earths (§§ 60, 64.)
Muriatic ACID (ſpirit of ſalt) is found in great quantity at and under the ſurface of the earth. The ſtrongeſt prepared by art hardly attains a ſpecific gravity of 1, 150. It has a very peculiar and volatile ſmell. Deprived of its ſuperfluous water it aſſumes an aerial form, for phlogiſton ſeems to be one of its conſtituent parts[[9]].
It has never been found uncombined (unleſs perhaps like the nitrous acid in water precipitated from the atmoſphere[[10]])[[11]] but united to alkalies (§§ 46, 49, 52), to earths (§§ 61, 65), or to metals (§§ 74, 161, 175, 191).
Fluor ACID, is obtained by art; its ſpecific gravity never exceeds 1,500, it is very volatile. Its vapours when hot, corrode glaſs; and meeting with moiſture generate, or at leaſt depoſit ſiliceous earth. When deprived of its ſuperfluous water it aſſumes an aerial form[[12]]. It has never been found diſengaged, but united to calcareous earth forming ſparry fluor[[13]] (§ 96) and if I am not miſtaken it enters into the compoſition of ſiliceous earths.
Arſenical ACID, dry; prepared by art; ſpecific gravity 3,391; fuſible and fixed in the fire, until it acquires from the matter of heat ſo much phlogiſton as is neceſſary to convert it into white arſenic. In a moiſt air it deliqueſces.
It is not found uncombined, but united to calx of cobalt (§ 228), and alſo to phlogiſton, forming a brittle arſenical metal (§ 220), and its calx (§ 222).
Molybdæna ACID. This is very probably of metallic origin, though it does not yet appear to which metal it belongs. Seeing that arſenic, a brittle metal, by dephlogiſtication only is changed into an acid, different from all other acids, it is not improbable that other metals may have an acid baſis, although their phlogiſton adhering more ſtrongly has not yet been completely ſeparated.
How this ſubſtance may be obtained by art does not belong to this place to deſcribe[[14]]; but that the acid got from Molybdæna has a metallic nature, and as yet has not been perfectly freed from phlogiſton, is probable from the following conſiderations. 1, Its taſte is acid and at the ſame time metallic. 2, Microcoſmic ſalt and borax are coloured by it, and theſe ſalts are hardly coloured by any thing but metallic calxes. 3, Its decompoſition by means of the phlogiſticated fixed alkaly, which always indicates the preſence of a metal. 4, Its concrete form, and not deliqueſcing, analogous to white arſenic. 5, Its ſpecific gravity 3,460. And very lately M. Hielm by my perſuaſion attempted the reduction and obtained a regulus, ſeemingly different from every other metal, but not yet ſufficiently examined.
An acid conjoined to the calx ponderoſa (ponderous calx or lime) is nearly allied to the preceding, but dropped into lime water produces a different compound, though in a number of other circumſtances theſe two acids agree. I apprehend that this is likewiſe of a metallic nature.
Phoſphoric ACID, evidently exiſts in the animal kingdom,[[15]] much more plentifully in the vegetable, but in the foſſil very rare. Mr. J. G. Gahn firſt detected it united with lead;[[16]] but probably it may be found in many other foſſils. It is fuſible in the fire. Its ſpecific gravity when deprived of water 2,687.
Boracic ACID, (acid of borax, or ſedative ſalt.) Many people ſtill think this to be an artificial production, but not long ſince Mr. Hoefer[[17]] found it in a lake near Sienna in the great dutchy of Hetruria, and it has long been known to be united to the foſſil alkaly in native borax. It acts like an acid, though very feebly. It melts in the fire and volatilizes with water. Its ſpecific gravity is 1,480.
Amber ACID, is a concrete ſalt obtained from amber; it acts like a feeble acid. It is yet doubtful whether amber be of vegetable origin; many reckon it foſſil.
Aerial ACID (fixed air) is not only combined with water but with many other foſſil ſubſtances, as alkalies (§§ 54, 56), earths (§§ 62, 66), and with ſome metals (§§ 71, 183, 192, 217, 234, 243). It floats uncombined in the atmoſphere. Its ſpecific gravity 0,0018[[18]].
ALKALIES are known by their peculiar lixivial taſte, by their vehement attraction to acids, and by their changing the blue colours of vegetables to a green. In a pure ſtate, as was before obſerved of acids, their attraction to other ſubſtances is ſo ſtrong that they cannot long remain uncombined; and if other acids were wanting, the aerial acid, every where preſent in the atmoſphere, would unite with them: therefore they are always found in a ſtate of combination, unleſs prepared by art.
New acids are daily detected, but no additions have been made to the three ſpecies of alkaly long ſince known.
Vegetable fixed ALKALY, deprived of every acid is not found on the face of the earth; but it is ſometimes met with in combination with the vitriolic acid (§ 44) or the muriatic (§ 46), generally with the nitrous, (§ 45) rarely with the aerial (§ 54).
Foſſil fixed ALKALY is only found in combination with acids, rarely with the vitriolic (§ 47) or nitrous (§ 48), principally with the muriatic (§ 49) or aerial (§ 55).
Volatile ALKALY is frequently found in clays, doubtleſs in a mild ſtate, for the help of art is required to render it cauſtic. It is alſo found united to the vitriolic (§ 50) and the muriatic acids (§ 52.)
ACIDS united to alkalies form NEUTRAL SALTS. Theſe diſſolved in water are no ways diſturbed by the addition of an alkaly, and generally by evaporation concrete into cryſtals. If by proper teſts they ſhew neither acid nor alkaline properties they are ſaid to be perfect neutrals, but imperfect when from defect in quantity or ſtrength of one ingredient the peculiar properties of the other more or leſs prevail.
We now proceed to conſider the native ſalts of both kinds.
NEUTRAL
SALTS.
Alkali vegetabile vitriolatum (tartar of vitriol) ſeldom occurs ſpontaneouſly, unleſs where tracts of wood have been burnt down.
Alkali vegetabile nitratum (common nitre) forms upon the ſurface of the earth where vegetables, eſpecially when mixed with animal ſubſtances, putrify. The alkaline baſis previously exiſts in the plants[[19]], but the origin of the acid is not ſo well underſtood: whether it lies concealed in the vegetable acid, and by means of the putrefactive proceſs ſufficiently dephlogiſticating it, is evolved; or whether the purer part of the atmoſpheric air contains nitrous acid fully ſaturated with phlogiſton, which[[20]] upon the alkaly being ſeparated by the putrefaction is attracted and extricated by it, and upon loſing its inflammable principle aſſumes its accuſtomed form. Nature perhaps operates in both ways; the latter however ſeems clearly confirmed by a very remarkable experiment (§ 60.)
As nitre is annually produced in large quantities, it cannot but ſometimes be found in ſprings or wells, as has been obſerved at Berlin[[21]], London[[22]], and elſewhere[[23]]. Sometimes it abounds in ſuch quantities that fleſh boiled in theſe waters turns red.
ALKALI vegetabile ſalitum (digeſtive ſalt) is ſometimes though rarely met with; generated perhaps by the deſtruction of animal and vegetable ſubſtances.
ALKALI minerale vitriolatum (Glauber’s ſalt) is ſometimes found in waters. Some of the lakes in Siberia and Astracan contain it, and many ſprings in other places.
ALKALI minerale nitratum (cubic nitre) rarely occurs but where maritime plants putrify.
ALKALI minerale ſalitum (common ſalt) plentiful every where as well in the earth, where it forms ſtrata more or leſs thick (ſal gem), as alſo diſſolved in ſprings and lakes, and in the ſea. (ſea ſalt.)
ALKALI volatile vitriolatum (vitriolic ammoniac) is ſcarcely found any where but in places where the phlogiſticated fumes of vitriolic acid ariſe from burning ſulphur, and in putrid places are abſorbed by the volatile alkaly.[[24]] Thus at Fahlune the acid vapour from the roaſted minerals produces this ſalt in the neceſſary houſes. It is ſometimes alſo formed in the craters of volcanoes.
ALKALI volatile nitratum (nitrous ammoniac) is generally found along with common nitre.
ALKALI volatile ſalitum (ſal ammoniac or common ammoniac.) I have examined ſome from Veſuvius, and ſome from the Solfaterra near Naples.
The ſalts hitherto enumerated are perfect neutrals, thoſe which follow are imperfect (§§ 53, 56.)
ALKALI FOSSIL, only in part ſaturated with a peculiar acid is called tinkal; after depuration, borax. It is dug out of the earth in the kingdom of Thibet[[25]]. Borax takes nearly an equal weight of acid before the alkaline properties entirely diſappear[[26]].
I believe no one has yet found the acid of borax united either to the vegetable or volatile alkalies.
ALKALI VEGETABILE aeratum (mild vegetable alkaly) is hardly ever found native, unleſs in the neighbourhood of woods deſtroyed by fire.
In the year 1774, at Douai in Flanders, a ſpring was diſcovered ſurrounded by a wall, whoſe waters, beſides other impregnations, contained 11 grains of vegetable alkaly in a pint[[27]].
ALKALI MINERALE aeratum (mild foſſil alkaly, natron, the nitre of the ancients) is found plentifully in many places, particularly in Africa and Aſia, either concreted into chryſtallized ſtrata, or fallen to a powder; or effloreſcing on old brick walls, or laſtly, diſſolved in ſprings. It frequently originates from decompoſed common ſalt. I am not ignorant that the acid of common ſalt adheres ſtrongly to its baſis ſo as not to be expelled by fire; but perhaps the viciſſitudes of the atmoſphere continually acting for ages, may be more powerful. In immenſe plains covered over with this alkaly, ſcarcely any common ſalt is found upon the ſurface, but the deeper you dig the more it is contaminated by it, the common ſalt being yet undecompoſed for want of acceſs of air.
ALKALI VOLATILE aeratum (mild volatile alkaly) has been found in pump waters in London[[28]], in Lauchſtadt[[29]], at Frankfort on the Mayne[[30]], and copper immerſed therein is ſaid to have been diſſolved into a blue liquor.
The three alkalies mentioned above as ſaturated with aerial acid, differ greatly from cauſtic alkalies, in the mildneſs of their taſte, in their property of chryſtallizing, and in their efferveſcing with acids which expel the aerial acid, but they ſtill change vegetable blues to greens, though not ſo powerfully as the cauſtic alkalies do. Therefore, although the ſubtil aerial acid in other reſpects gives them neutral properties, yet in this it does it but imperfectly.
The compounds of earths and acids which poſſeſs ſolubility mentioned at § 20, are decompoſed and precipitated by mild, but not by phlogiſticated alkalies.
TERRA PONDEROSA vitriolata, (heavy ſpar, marmor metallicum, calk) is placed with the earths (§ 89.) Terra ponderoſa nitrata i. e. terra ponderoſa united to the nitrous acid, perhaps exiſts ſomewhere, but has never been met with; neither has the terra ponderoſa united to the aerial acid, yet been found[[31]]. Terra ponderoſa ſalita i. e. terra ponderoſa with the muriatic acid Mr. Hielm ſays[[32]] is diſſolved in the waters of the lake Vettern and its neighbourhood.
CALX vitriolata (gypſum, ſelenite) is not only found diſſolved in various waters, but alſo in many places forms immenſe ſtrata. It is placed by all mineralogiſts amongſt the earths, but I think improperly. When burnt it generates heat with water, but in a leſs degree than lime does.
CALX nitrata (nitre of lime; terrene nitre) is ſometimes found in water, but very ſparingly. It is ſaid that the chalk hills in ſome parts of France become ſpontaneouſly impregnated with nitrous acid, which may be waſhed out, and after a certain time they will become impregnated with it again.
CALX Salita (fixed ammoniac) occurs very frequently in waters.
CALX aerata (marble, limeſtone, chalk, ſpar) is very commonly found diſſolved in waters in conſequence of an exceſs of the aerial acid. When it greatly abounds, the water is ſaid to be hard (cruda). By boiling, or by evaporation, it depoſits ſtreaks or cruſts of calcareous matter.
Calx aerata is not ſoluble in water without an exceſs of the ſubtil acid, and therefore might properly be referred to the earths (§ 21).
MAGNESIA vitriolata (Epſom ſalt) is not unfrequent in the waters of England, Bohemia, and other countries. This ſalt is preſently decompoſed by lime water, which circumſtance readily diſtinguiſhes it from the alk. min. vitriol. or Glauber’s ſalt.
MAGNESIA nitrata (magneſia and nitrous acid) is uſually found together with nitre.
MAGNESIA ſalita (magneſia and muriatic acid) is found diſſolved in various waters, but plentifully in ſea water, to which it gives a diſagreeable bitterneſs.
MAGNESIA aerata (common magneſia) with an exceſs of aerial acid it becomes ſoluble in cold water, otherwiſe it is ſcarce ſoluble at all, and therefore ſhould be claſſed with the earths. (§ 21.)
ARGILLA vitriolata (alum) is ſometimes ſpontaneouſly generated by the decompoſition of pyrites lodged in clay, or in argillaceous ſchiſtus.
It is found in a ſpring at Steckenitz in Bohemia[[33]], in Eaſt Bothnia and elſewhere. What is commonly called plumoſe alum is not a ſaline ſubſtance.
ARGILLA (clay) united to the nitrous, muriatic[[34]], or aerial acids has not to my knowledge hitherto been found in any waters.
METALLIC
SALTS.
The native ſalts belonging to this diviſion, may be diſtinguiſhed by the phlogiſticated alkaly which precipitates them all. The few which have ſaline properties (§ 20.) we ſhall mention here, referring the reſt to the mineralized metals.
CUPRUM vitriolatum (vitriol of copper, blue vitriol) is found in the mines of Herregrund, Fahlune, and others which contain copper pyrites.
FERRUM vitriolatum (vitriol of iron, green vitriol) is formed from the decompoſition of the more common pyrites.
FERRUM aeratum (iron with aerial acid) diſſolved by an exceſs of acid in the lighter chalybeate waters.
FERRUM nitratum, and ſalitum (iron with nitrous and muriatic acids) have never yet been found native.
NICCOLUM vitriolatum (vitriol of Nickel) ſometimes exiſts from the decompoſition of ſulphureous ores of Nickel.
ZINCUM vitriolatum (vitriol of zinc, white vitriol) is ſometimes, though rarely, produced By the decompoſition of pſeudogalena, or black Jack, becauſe this ſubſtance does not very readily decompoſe ſpontaneouſly.
[[35]]MANGANESIUM ſalitum (manganeſe united to muriatic acid) exiſts in ſome waters Mr. Hielm ſays.
Whether manganeſe be ever united to waters like iron, by means of an exceſs of aerial acid, we know not.
TRIPLE
SALTS.
The compound ſalts hitherto enumerated are ſuch as are compoſed of two ingredients only; but ſometimes three or more are ſo united as not to be ſeparated by chryſtallization. The vitriols that we are acquainted with are hardly ever pure, and two or three of them ſometimes are joined together.
Sometimes likewiſe it happens that neutral ſalts join earthy ſalts, and earthy ſalts metallic ones. I generally diſtinguiſh compound ſalts according to the number of their principles, whether the ſame acid be joined to ſeveral baſes, or the ſame baſis to different acids; or laſtly, whether ſeveral menſtrua and ſeveral baſes are joined together. Hence ariſe ſalts triple, quadruple, &c. which the diligence of after times muſt illuſtrate. I ſubjoin the moſt remarkable examples of triple and quadruple native ſalts which have occurred to me.
ALKALI MINERALE Salitum (common ſalt) contaminated by magneſia ſalita. The common ſalt when pure does not deliqueſce, but this degree of purity is ſeldom found, and in the native foſſil production (ſal gem) never.
MAGNESIA vitriolata (Epſom ſalt) contaminated by ferrum vitriolatum[[36]] (vitriol of iron.)
ARGILLA vitriolata (alum) native, contaminated by vitriol of iron. In the aluminous ſchiſtus it ſometimes effloreſces in a feathery form. Is this the plumoſe alum of the antients?
ARGILLA vitriolata (alum) native; contaminated by ſulphur and vitriolic acid.
At the places about Wedneſbury and Bilſton, in Staffordſhire, where the coal pits are on fire, this ſubſtance ſublimes to the ſurface, and may be collected in conſiderable quantity during dry or froſty weather. I cannot be certain that this is a true chemical union, but the eye cannot diſtinguiſh the parts. Perhaps the ſulphur volatilizes the alum and ſo becomes intimately mixed with it. The exceſs of vitriolic acid keeps it in a deliqueſcent ſtate.
I believe a ſimilar compound ſubſtance ſublimes at the Solfaterra near Naples. W.
ARGILLIA vitriolata (alum) native, contaminated by vitriol of cobalt. In the mines of Herregrund and Idra this may be ſeen, ſhooting out into long ſlender filaments. Perhaps this is the trichites of the Greeks. Diſſolved in water it immediately betrays the preſence of vitriolic acid, upon the addition of terra ponderoſa ſalita (muriatic acid ſaturated with heavy earth.) By the addition of phlogiſticated alkali a precipitate of cobalt is thrown down, which makes a blue glaſs with borax or microcoſmic ſalt.
CUPRUM vitriolatum (vitriol of copper) contaminated by iron.
FERRUM vitriolatum (vitriol of iron) contaminated by nickel.
CUPRUM vitriolatum (vitriol of copper) and vitriol of iron contaminated by zinc. Such is found at Fahlune.
CLASS II.
EARTHS.
Before we can underſtand the nature of earths, we muſt know their component parts. Thoſe earths which cannot be further decompoſed we call primitive, and thoſe which conſiſt of two or more of theſe intimately united, derivative. By this union we do not mean a mere mechanical diffuſion, at leaſt not ſuch as can be diſtinguiſhed by the eye, as is the caſe in ſtones, (ſaxa.)
It is evident that the primitive earths will conſtitute ſo many natural Genera, and different mixtures of theſe the Species.
They who would make ſeveral Genera out of one primitive earth, muſt ſeparate the glaſſy, red, white, horny ſilver ores, and other different compoſitions into as many Genera, or elſe act inconſiſtently with their own principles.
At preſent we only know five primitive earths. They who reckon fewer, reſt their opinions upon fanciful metamorphoſes unſupported by faithful experiments[[37]]. As experiments teach us that there are five primitive earths, it is evident that the Species ariſing from the mixture of theſe cannot exceed twenty-four, viz. 10 double (conſiſting of two earths) 6 triple, 3 quadruple, and the 5 primitive.
Although theſe different mixtures are poſſible, and probably do exiſt, they have not yet been all found. The natural compoſitions of acids with the earths, forming ſubſtances not ſoluble in 1000 times their weight of boiling water, and which may be called ſaline earths, muſt be added to the ſpecies, as they are certainly chemical combinations.
The primitive earths hitherto detected are,
| TERRA PONDEROSA, or | heavy earth. |
| CALX, | calcareous earth. |
| MAGNESIA, | magneſia. |
| ARGILLA, | argillaceous earth. |
| TERRA SILICEA, | ſiliceous earth. |
And we muſt believe theſe to be primitive, until it ſhall appear by proper experiments that they may be ſeparated into others ſtill more ſimple, or changed into one another by art.
Theſe are firſt to be conſidered in their greateſt ſimplicity and purity, although nature never preſents us with ſuch, nor can they even by art be rendered abſolutely free from all heterogeneous mixture. Water and aerial acid readily unite with the four firſt, and when expelled by fire, a little of the matter of heat is added, and remains until driven out by a more powerful attraction. But in this ſtate they poſſeſs a degree of purity not to be attained by any other known method. Therefore it is neceſſary to examine them when ſufficiently burnt in order to diſtinguiſh better what properties depend upon adhering heterogeneous matters.
HEAVY EARTH,
OR
TERRA PONDEROSA.
To obtain this as pure as poſſible, the ſpathum ponderoſum § 89 (heavy ſpar) muſt be reduced to a fine powder, and with equal parts of fixed alkaly and charcoal duſt roaſted for an hour in a covered crucible. Powder the maſs, and add nitrous or muriatic acid diluted until all efferveſcence ceaſes, and the liquor be ſenſibly acid. To this liquor add mild fixed alkaly, and the heavy earth will be precipitated in a mild ſtate. If the acids or the alkaline ſalt contain any vitriolic acid, the heavy ſpar will immediately be regenerated. What remains undiſſolved by the acid is heavy ſpar, not decompoſed. The proceſs may be repeated upon this, but the product will then contain ſome martial earth and ſome clay from the crucible, therefore the firſt part will be the moſt pure.
TERRA PONDEROSA aerata, (heavy earth) has a ſpecific gravity of 3, 773[[38]]. 100 parts of it contain about 28 of water, 7 of aerial acid, and 65 of pure earth. It efferveſces with acids: with the vitriolic acid forms heavy ſpar, not ſoluble in water; with the nitrous and muriatic acids, it yields chryſtals, not very readily ſoluble; but with the vegetable acid the chryſtals deliqueſce.
When free from all contamination of acid or alkaly it ſcarcely melts in the fire, but loſes ³⁵⁄₁₀₀ of its weight. When united with the matter of heat, (i. e. rendered cauſtic) it diſſolves in 900 times its weight of water; and when this ſolution is expoſed to the atmoſphere, a cream or cruſt ſeparates at the top, which efferveſces with acids. After burning, it unites to acids without efferveſcence; but heat is produced, and the union is more tardy than when it is in a mild ſtate[[39]].
When cauſtic, it expels the volatile alkaly from ſal ammoniac, and forms a hepar with ſulphur, the watery ſolution of which is but imperfectly decompoſed by the nitrous or muriatic acids, upon account of the remarkable attraction betwixt this earth and the acid of the ſulphur, which it even takes from the vegetable alkaly[[40]].
When we compare theſe properties with thoſe which belong to common calcareous earth, mentioned at (§§ 92, 93), we ſhall readily ſee wherein they agree, and wherein they differ.
TERRA PONDEROSA vitriolata (heavy ſpar) is full four times as heavy as an equal bulk of water. It diſſolves entirely, though ſparingly, in concentrated boiling vitriolic acid, but the addition of a ſingle drop of water occaſions a precipitation. The ſame thing happens to gypſum; but that requires much leſs acid to diſſolve it, and the precipitation is made more ſlowly. If the heavy ſpar contained any ſulphur, it muſt certainly have appeared when the whole was diſſolved, but I never could find any thing like it.
Cronstedt, Min. § 18. 2.
Marmor metallicum druſicu § 19 C. Ponderous Spar.
TERRA PONDEROSA vitriolata, impregnated with bitumen, and mixed with gypſum, alum, and ſiliceous earth.
Cronstedt Min. § 24. Lapis hepaticus. Liver Stone.
A nucleus of this kind, taken out of a piece of alum ore from Andrarum in the province of Skone, yielded, in 100 parts, by analyſis, 33 of ſiliceous earth, 29 of cauſtic heavy earth, earth of alum about 5, and quick-lime from 3 to 7, beſides the water and vitriolic acid. By calculation it appears, that theſe baſes, together with vitriolic acid enough to ſaturate them, ought to weigh 71, which, with the addition of 33, exceeds the amount of the original 100. This increaſe points out the difference of a maſs newly chryſtallized, and of one carefully dried.
When we conſider that the terra ponderoſa was altogether unknown before the year 1774, and that many mineralogiſts are even now unacquainted with it, we cannot wonder that we know ſo few ſpecies of it. I have ſcarce a doubt but the terra ponderoſa aerata may be found mixed with other earths in many ſpecimens, when they come to be examined by chemical means more accurately than they could be heretofore. (See notes to §§ 58 and 88.)
CALCAREOUS EARTH,
OR
CALX.
As calcareous earth united to the aerial acid is found native, it requires but little trouble to have it pure. Let ſelected pieces of chalk, reduced to fine powder, be repeatedly boiled in pure water: this diſſolves any calx or magneſia ſalita which it may contain. This done, it holds no heterogeneous matter but what mechanically adheres to it, the quantity of which is generally extremely ſmall. If we deſire to be free from this likewiſe, diſſolve the waſhed chalk in diſtilled vinegar, precipitate with volatile alkaly, and after waſhing the precipitate well, dry it.
The ſpecific gravity of calcareous earth thus purified, is 2,720. 100 parts of it contain about 34 of aerial acid, 11 of water, and 55 of pure earth.
Acids unite with it efferveſcing, and a centenary (centenarius) excites about 22 degrees of heat. The vitriolic acid forms gypſum, difficult to diſſolve, (§ 59). The nitrous and muriatic acids form deliqueſcent ſalts (§§ 60, 61), and the acetous acid permanent chryſtals.
Pure calcareous earth does not melt in the fire, but loſes ⁴⁵⁄₁₀₀ of its weight. It diſſolves in 700 times its weight of water, generating heat[[41]]. Acids diſſolve it, producing from a centenary 252 degrees of heat, but without any efferveſcence. This laſt circumſtance may be beſt obſerved by immerging the burnt earth in water, to diſſipate a part of the heat, which would otherwiſe make the acid boil. The water likewiſe expels the atmoſpheric air from the pores of the lime. In this ſituation, if nitrous or muriatic acid be poured upon it, and if it was previouſly well burnt, no efferveſcence will take place. The ſolution proceeds ſlowly[[42]], but the ſaturation becomes as perfect as if the calcareous earth had been in a mild ſtate. This burnt earth, or lime, expels the volatile alkaly from ſal ammoniac in a cauſtic ſtate, and it diſſolves ſulphur; but this compound is ſeparated upon the addition of any acid, even the aerial.
Amongſt the native Species of this genus, we muſt firſt mention the Calx aerata (marble, limeſtone, chalk) which conſtitute immenſe ſtrata. Its chief properties are enumerated above (§ 92). It is very rarely found entirely free from iron, which exiſts even in the pureſt Icelandic ſpar, and indeed in almoſt every foſſil production; upon which account only the more remarkable impregnations with iron will be noticed in the following pages.
Cronstedt Min. §§ 5–12.
CALX aerata (calcareous earth mild), with more or leſs petroleum. It efferveſces with acids, and diſſolves; with the vitriolic acid frequently turning brown. Is fœtid when heated or rubbed. The oil is not in ſufficient quantity to be collected, by diſtillation, in drops; it only fouls the inſide of the veſſels, unleſs a very great quantity be operated upon. In an open fire the colour preſently vaniſhes, from the petroleum drying up. It generally contains a portion of martial clay.
Cronstedt Min. §§ 22, 23. Lapis ſuillus. Fœtid ſtone.
CALX fluorata (calcareous earth and fluor acid), when pure, is wholly ſoluble in nitrous and muriatic acids. Expoſed to heat, below ignition, it emits a phosphoreſcent light. Fluor acid, dropped into lime water, precipitates a powder which has all the properties of the calx fluorata. It is ſometimes, but not always, contaminated by a ſmall proportion of ſiliceous earth and muriatic acid.
Cronstedt Min. §§ 97–101. Sparry fluor. Blue John.
CALX (calcareous earth) ſaturated with a peculiar acid, perhaps of a metallic nature (§ 33). In acids, particularly in the muriatic, it aſſumes a remarkable yellow colour, but is not very ſoluble.
Cronstedt Min. § 210. Lapis ponderoſus. Tungſten.
CALX aerata (calcareous earth mild), contaminated by a ſmall proportion of magneſia ſalita.
Magneſia.
CALX aerata (calcareous earth mild) contaminated by clay.
Argillaceous.
CALX aerata (calcareous earth mild), contaminated by ſiliceous earth.
Siliceous.
CALX aerata (calcareous earth mild), contaminated by clay and ſiliceous earth. (See § 115.)
Cronstedt Min. §§ 25. 28. Calcareous Marle.
CALX aerata (calcareous earth mild), contaminated by iron and manganeſe. Martial.
Cronstedt Min. §30. See alſo §203. Hæmatites.
There can be no doubt that the four firſt (§§ 94–97.), if not the laſt (§ 102), are genuine and diſtinct ſpecies; there is ſome difficulty as to the reſt, dependent, perhaps, only upon mechanical mixtures. If the heterogeneous matters can be diſcerned by the eye, we cannot heſitate to refer the ſubſtance to the ſaxa (ſtones); but in theſe the eye cannot diſcern them. Moreover, we know that the earths have a mutual attraction to each other, and form combinations more intimate than mechanical ones. Earth of alum, precipitated by a cauſtic alkali, and thrown into lime water, preſently loſes its pellucid and ſpongy texture, turns white, and condenſes, abſorbing the lime from the water, and forming an union not to be ſeparated but by chemical means.
From theſe conſiderations, I dare not venture to exclude doubtful ſpecies.
We ſay a thing is contaminated by another, when the mixture is of the mechanical kind; but when things are joined by the ſtronger power of attraction, we ſay they are united.