CHAPTER II
GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS
Happily, the grape in its great diversity of forms accommodates itself to many conditions, so that some variety of the several cultivated species will produce fruit for home use, if not as a market commodity, in every part of America adapted to general agriculture. But commercial grape-growing on this continent is confined to a few regions, in each of which it is profitable only in ideal situations. In fact, few other agricultural industries are more definitely determined by environment than the grape-industry. Where are the grape regions of America? What determines the suitability of a region for grape-growing? Answers to these questions furnish clews to the culture of this fruit and help in estimating the potentialities of a new region or of a location for grape-growing.
The Grape Regions of America
There are four chief grape-growing regions in North America, with possibly twice as many more subsidiary ones. These several regions, each of which has its distinct varieties and to less extent distinct species, and in each of which grapes are grown for somewhat widely different purposes, give a great variety of industrial conditions to the grape-growing of the continent. Nevertheless, the regions have much in common in their environment. It is from their differences and similarities that most can be learned in the brief discussions of the regions that follow.
The Pacific slope.
The Pacific slope takes precedence among the grape regions of the continent, exceeding all others combined in the production of grapes and grape products. California is the viticultural center of this great region, grapes being grown within her bounds from the foot of Mount Shasta on the north to Mexico on the south and from the foothills of the Sierras on the east to the forest that borders the coast on the west. So outlined, California might appear to be one vast vineyard, but it is only in favored valleys, plains and low hills in the territory bounded that the vine is sufficiently well suited to be productive. Outliers of this main region of the Pacific slope run north into Oregon, Washington, Idaho and even into British Columbia, forced more and more eastward the farther north to escape humidity from the ocean which northward passes farther and farther inland. Other outliers of the main region are found eastward in Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico and even Utah and Colorado, though for the most part in these states grape-growing is still insignificant. [Plate I] shows typical vineyards in California.
The grapes grown on the Pacific slope are almost exclusively Vinifera varieties, though a few American grapes are planted in the Pacific Northwest. This is not because American varieties cannot be grown, although they succeed rather less well here than on the eastern seaboard, but because the Viniferas are liked better, and climate and soil seem exactly to suit them. Viticulture on the Pacific slope is divided into three interdependent industries which are almost never quite independent of each other—the wine industry, raisin industry and table-grape industry. Each of these industries depends on grapes more or less specially adapted to the product, the special characteristics being secured chiefly through somewhat distinct types of grapes but depending partly on soil and climatic conditions. The manufacture of unfermented grape-juice is not yet a success in this region for the reasons that Vinifera grapes do not make a good unfermented juice, and American grapes are not grown in sufficient quantities to warrant the establishment of grape-juice plants.
Bioletti gives the extent of the grape-growing industry in California as follows:[1]
"The vineyards of California covered in 1912 about 385,000 acres. Of this total, about 180,000 acres were producing wine-grapes. Roughly, 50 per cent of the wine was produced in the great interior valleys, including most of the sweet wines; 35 per cent was produced by the valleys and hillsides of the Coast ranges, including most of the dry wines; the remaining 15 per cent was produced in Southern California and included both sweet and dry.
"The raisin-grape vineyards covered about 130,000 acres, of which about 90 per cent were in the San Joaquin Valley, 7 per cent in the Sacramento, and 3 per cent in Southern California.
"The shipping-grape vineyards are reckoned at 75,000 acres, distributed about as follows: 50 per cent in the Sacramento Valley, 40 per cent in San Joaquin, 6 per cent in Southern California, and 4 per cent in the Coast ranges."
The Chautauqua grape-belt.
The Chautauqua grape-belt, lying along the northeastern shore of Lake Erie in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, is the second most important grape region in America. The "belt" is a narrow strip of lowland averaging about three miles in width, lying between Lake Erie and a high escarpment which bounds the belt on the south throughout its entire length of a hundred or more miles. Here climate and soil seem to be exceptionally favorable for grape-growing. Climate is the chief determinant of the boundaries of this belt, since there are several types of soil upon which grapes do equally well in the region, and when the climate changes at the two extremities of the belt where the escarpment becomes low, or when the distance between the lake and the escarpment is great, grape-growing ceases to be profitable.
The growers of this region are organized into selling associations so that estimates of acreage and yields are obtainable. At present writing, 1918, there are in this belt in New York about 35,000 acres of grapes; in Pennsylvania and Ohio, about 15,000 acres, much the greater part of which is in Pennsylvania. The average yield of grapes to the acre for the region is about two tons. The average total production for the past five years has been about 100,000 tons, of which 65,000 tons are shipped as table-grapes, and 35,000 tons are used in the manufacture of wine and grape-juice. Among varieties, Concord reigns supreme in the Chautauqua belt. The writer, in 1906, made a canvass of the region, vineyard by vineyard, and found that 90 per cent of the acreage of the belt was set to Concord, 3 per cent to Niagara, 2 per cent to Worden and the remaining 5 per cent to a dozen or more varieties of which Moore Early and Delaware led.
The manufacture of grape-juice on a commercial scale began in the Chautauqua belt and most of this product is still produced in the region. Here, only Concord grapes of the best quality are used for grape-juice. The growth of this industry is most significant for the future of grape-growing in the region. Twenty years ago grape-juice was a negligible factor in the grape industry of this region; at present, the annual output is in the neighborhood of 4,000,000 gallons. Grape-juice-makers now determine the price of grapes for the region, and while the quantity used is less than that for table-grapes, the time is not distant when it will be greater.
The Niagara region.
Fifty miles due north of the Chautauqua belt, across the end of Lake Erie and the narrow isthmus of Niagara, is a smaller belt on the southern shore of Lake Ontario so similar in soil, climate and topography that in these respects the two regions might be considered as identical. This is the Niagara region, Canada's chief grape-producing area. It is bounded on the north by Lake Ontario; on the south, at a distance of one to three miles by the high Niagara escarpment; to the east it crosses the Niagara River into New York; and in the west tapers to a point at Hamilton on the westward extremity of Lake Ontario. Here, again, is the influence of climate distinctly manifested. As this belt passes into New York, it widens and the influence of Lake Ontario is less and less felt to the eastward, and in consequence grape-growing becomes less and less profitable.
There were, according to the Ontario Bureau of Industries, in 1914, about 10,850 acres of grapes in the Niagara region in Canada, and possibly 4,000 acres more near the Niagara River and along the shore of Lake Ontario in New York. The Niagara grape originated on the American side of the Niagara region and is here planted more extensively than elsewhere. Grape-growing in this region is similar in all respects to that of the Chautauqua belt, the same varieties and nearly identical methods of pruning, cultivation, spraying and harvesting being employed. The crop is chiefly used as table-grapes but the grape-juice industry is growing.
The Central Lakes region of New York.
In the central part of western New York are several remarkable bodies of water known as the Central Lakes. Three of these are large and deep enough to give ideal climatic conditions for grapes, and about these lakes are grouped several important areas of vineyards, making this the third most important grape region in America. The region assumes further importance because most of the champagne made in America is produced here, and it is the chief center of still wines in eastern America as well. It is further distinguished by its distinctive types of grapes, Catawba and Delaware taking the place of Concord and Niagara, the sorts that usually predominate in eastern grape regions.
The main body of this region lies on the steep slopes of the high lands surrounding Keuka Lake. On the shores of this lake there are, approximately, 15,000 acres of grapes. Adjacent to this main body are several smaller bodies about the neighboring lakes. Thus, at the head of Canandaigua Lake and on its shores are about 2500 acres; near Seneca and between Seneca and Cayuga Lakes there are probably 1500 acres more. In a few specially favored places on other of these Central Lakes, there are possibly 1000 acres, making all told for this region, about 20,000 acres. Again it is climate that sets the seal of approval on the region for viticulture. In addition to the benefits of deep bodies of water, high and sloping lands cause the frosts to cease early in the spring and hold them in abeyance in the autumn, giving an exceptionally long season.
Champagne-making began here about 1860; at present there are a score or more manufacturers of champagne, wine and brandy, the output being annually about 3,000,000 gallons of wine and 2,000,000 bottles of champagne. Recently the manufacture of grape-juice has begun and the industry is now flourishing.
Minor grape regions.
Viticulture is commercially important in several other regions than those outlined. Thus, in the valley of the Hudson River, grapes have been grown commercially for nearly a hundred years, the industry reaching its height between 1880 and 1890, when there were 13,000 acres under cultivation. For some years, however, grape-growing along the Hudson has been on the decline. Another region in which viticulture reaches considerable magnitude is in several islands in Lake Erie near Sandusky, Ohio, the product going largely for the manufacture of wine. At one time grapes were grown commercially on the banks of the Ohio River about Cincinnati and westward into Indiana. The industry here, however, is a thing of the past. Another region in which grape-growing was once of prime importance but now lags has its center at Hermann, Missouri. The newest grape-producing area worthy of note is in southwestern Michigan about the towns of Lawton and Paw Paw. A small but very prosperous grape-growing region has its center at Egg Harbor, New Jersey. Ives is the mainstay among varieties in this region. In the southern states, Muscadine grapes are grown in a small way in every part of the cotton-belt and varieties of other native species are to be found in home vineyards in the upland regions, but nowhere in the South can it be said that grape-growing is a commercial industry.
The Determinants of Grape Regions
Climate, soil, site, the surface features of the land, insects, fungi and commercial geography are the chief factors that determine regions for money-making in grape-growing. This has been made plain in the foregoing discussion of grape regions, but the several factors must be taken up in greater detail. To bound the regions is of less importance than to understand why they exist—less needful to remember, more needful to understand. From what has been said, the reader has no doubt already concluded that successful grape-growing is in largest measure due to kindliness in climate.
Climate
Under the assumption, then, that climate, of all factors, is chief in playing providence to the grape, let us examine somewhat critically the relations of climate to grape-growing. When analyzed, the essentials of climate, as it governs grape-growing, are found to be six: first, length of season; second, seasonal sum of heat; third, amount of humidity in summer weather; fourth, dates of spring and autumn frosts; fifth, winter temperature; sixth, air currents.
Length of season.
To reach true perfection, each grape variety has a length of season of its own. With each, if it is grown in too low a latitude, the vine is uninterrupted in growth; its leaves tend to become evergreen; and not infrequently it produces at the same time blossoms, green fruits and ripe fruits. This is, of course, the extreme to which grapes pass in the far South. Again, many northern varieties fail where southern grapes succeed because the fruits pass too rapidly from maturity to decay. On the other hand, very often southern grapes are hardy in vine in the North, but the season is not sufficiently long for the fruit to mature and to acquire sufficient sugar to give them good keeping quality, properly to pass through vinous fermentation, or even to make a good unfermented grape-juice. In the uneven topography of this continent, it is not possible to state the range in latitude in which grapes can be cultivated to advantage, for latitude is often set aside by altitude. Thus, isothermal lines, or lines of equal temperature, are much curved in America and do not at all coincide with the parallels of latitude.
Other factors, of course, than length of season enter into the ripening of grapes. The daily range in temperature, not always dependent on latitude, affects ripening. Cool nights may offset warm days and delay ripening. Certainly rains, fogs and humid air delay maturity. The bottom heat of loose, warm, dry gravelly or stony soils hastens maturity. Sunshine secured by a sunny aspect or shelter hastens maturity.
The seasonal sum of heat.
Successful cultivation of the grape depends on a sufficient amount of heat during the summer season. The theory is that buds of the grape commence to start when the mean daily temperature reaches a certain height, and that the sum of the mean daily temperature must reach a certain amount before grapes ripen. Manifestly, this sum must vary much with different varieties, low for the earliest sorts, high for the latest. There have been many observations as to the temperatures at which buds of the grape start growth, so that it is now known that the temperature varies in accordance with locality and degree of maturity. Roughly speaking, grape buds start at temperatures from 50° to 60° F. The seasonal sum of heat for ripening is probably 1600 to 2400 units. A variety ought not to be planted, therefore, in a region in which the average seasonal sum of heat is not sufficiently high. The seasonal sum of heat can be determined for a locality from data published by the United States Weather Bureau; and by comparing with the sum of heat units in localities where a variety is known to thrive, the grape-grower can determine whether there is sufficient heat for any particular variety.
The grape seldom suffers from hot weather in a grape region. The fruit is sometimes scalded in the full blaze of a hot sun, but the ample foliage of the vine usually furnishes protection against a burning sun. At maturing time, the heat of an unclouded sun, if the air circulates freely, insures a finely finished product. Deep planting helps to offset the harmful influences of warm climates.
Humidity of summer weather.
The grape is very sensitive to moisture conditions, and grows best in regions where the summer rainfall is comparatively light. A damp and cloudy summer brings disaster to the vineyard in several ways; as small growth of vine, small set of fruit, a crop of poor quality, and the development of the several fungous diseases. Although the grape stands drought, a superfluity of moisture in the soil may do little harm, as is shown in irrigated vineyards, but a humid air is fatal to success especially if the air is both warm and wet. Moist weather during the time of maturity is particularly disastrous to the grape, as are frequent fogs. Cold wet weather in blooming time is the grape-grower's vernal bane, since it most effectually prevents the setting of fruit. It may be laid down as a rule that the grape lives by sunlight, warmth and air—it often thrives on the desert's edge. These considerations make it manifest that the monthly and seasonal means of precipitation must be considered in selecting a locality to grow grapes.
Spring and autumn frosts.
The average date at which the last killing frost occurs in the spring often determines the limit in latitude at which the grape can be grown. Even in the most favored grape region of the continent, killing frosts occasionally destroy the grape crop, and there are few seasons in which frost does not take some toll. Thus on May 7, 1916, frost all but ruined the crop of wine- and table-grapes in the great grape region of northern California where frosts are seldom expected in May. Little or nothing can be done to protect grapes from frost. Windbreaks as often favor the frost as the vine, and smudging or heating the vineyards is too expensive to be practical. In growing grapes, therefore, the commonly recognized precaution of selecting a site near water, on slopes or in a warm thermal belt must be exercised.
The limits of grape culture are also determined by early autumn frosts. The grape stands two or three degrees of frost, but anything lower usually destroys the crop. Here, again, the only precaution is to take pains in selecting the site.
The use of weather data and dates of life events of the grape.
These considerations of length of season, humidity and spring and fall frosts make it plain that the grape-grower must synchronize these phases of climate with the life events of the grape. In particular, he must study weather data in relation to the blooming and ripening of grapes. Usually, the necessary weather data may be secured from the nearest local weather bureau, while the date of blooming and ripening may be obtained from the state experiment stations in the states where the grape is an important crop.
Winter temperature.
Varieties of native grapes are seldom injured in America by winter-killing, since they are usually planted in climates in which wild grapes withstand winter conditions. Native varieties follow the rule that plant and climate are truly congenial in regions in which the plant thrives without the aid of man. A few varieties of native grapes fare badly in the winter's cold of northern grape regions, and the tender Vinifera vine is at the mercy of the winter wherever the mercury goes below zero. In cold climates, therefore, care must be exercised in selecting hardy varieties and in following careful cultural methods with the tender sorts. If other climatic conditions are favorable, however, winter-killing is not an unsurmountable difficulty, since the grape is easily protected from cold, so easily that the tender Viniferas may be grown in the cold North with winter protection.
Air currents.
Currents of air are of but local importance in growing tree-fruits, but are of general and vital importance in growing the grape. The direction, force and frequency of prevailing winds are often controlling factors in the suppression of fungous diseases of the grape, and the presence of fungi often means success or failure in regions in which the grape is planted. Winds are beneficial, too, when they bring warm air or dry air, and when they keep frosty air in motion. The air must move in all grape regions, whether from cañon, mountain, lake or sea. Sunlight, warmth, and air in motion are life to the grape. Sometimes winds may be detrimental; as when too cold, too blustering, or when they bring hail, the latter being about the most disastrous of all natural calamities. Windbreaks are of small value and are often worse than useless. Having planted his vineyard, the grape-grower must take the winds as they blow.
Soils for grapes
A prime requisite for a vineyard being earth in which vines will grow, successful grape-growing is eminently dependent on the selection of soil. Many mistakes are made in the great grape regions in planting on unsuitable soils, the planter going on the assumption that any soil in a grape region should be good enough for the grape. But the crust of the earth in grape regions is not all grape soil. In New York, for example, much of the land in the three grape regions is better fitted for producing crops for the mason or road-mender than for the grape-grower. Other soils in these regions are fit for vineyards only when tiled, and tiling does not make all wet land fit for tilling. Heavy, clammy clays, light sands, soils parched with thirst, thin or hungry soils—on all of these the grower may plant but will seldom harvest.
The ideal soil.
Grapes may be well grown in a wide range of soils if the land is well drained, open to air and if it holds heat. But without these essentials, whatever the soil, all subsequent treatment fails to produce a good vineyard. Generally speaking, the grape grows best in a light, free-working, gravelly loam, but there are many good vineyards in gravelly or stony clays, gravel or stone to furnish drainage, let in the air and to hold heat. Contrary to general belief, the grape seldom thrives in very sandy soils unless there is a fair admixture of clay, considerable decomposing vegetable matter and a clay subsoil. The latter, however, must not come too close to the surface. Some of the best vineyard lands in the country are very stony, the stones hindering only in making the land difficult to till. Nearly all grapes require a friable soil, compactness being a serious defect. Virgil, writing in Christ's time, gave good advice as to soil for the vine:
"A free loose earth is what the vines demand,
Where wind and frost have help'd the lab'rer's hand,
And sturdy peasants deep have stirr'd the land."
Cold, churlish, sticky or clammy clays are never to the liking of the grape.
Great fertility is not necessary in grape lands. Indeed, the grape is conspicuous among cultivated plants for ability to nourish itself where the food supply is scant. Soils naturally too rich produce an overgrowth of vine, the season's wood does not mature, the crop does not set, and the grapes lack sugar, size, color and flavor. Good physical condition and warmth in a well-watered, well-aired soil enable the grape to search far and wide for its food.
Drainage.
No cultivated grape endures a wet soil; all demand drainage. A few sorts may thrive for a time in moist, heavy land, but more often they do not live though they may linger. The water-table should be at least two feet from the surface. If by chance this comes naturally, so much the better, but otherwise the land must be tile-drained. Sloping land is by no means always well drained, many hillsides having a subsoil so impervious or so retentive of moisture that under-drainage is a necessity. The texture of the land is usually improved so greatly by good drainage that the grower has little need to rely on the clemency of the season in carrying on vineyard cultivation in well-drained land.
Soil adaptations.
In the refinement of viticulture, grape-growers find that particular varieties grow best in a particular soil, the likes and dislikes being determined only by trial, for the peculiarities which adapt a soil to a variety are not analyzable. Some varieties, on the other hand, the Concord being a good example, grow fruitfully in a great variety of soils. Each of the several species with their varieties has quite distinct adaptations to soils. This is taken advantage of in planting varieties on uncongenial soils after they have been grafted on a vine which finds itself at home in the particular soil. Much has been accomplished in growing varieties on uncongenial soils by consorting them with other stocks, an operation which has brought forth volumes of discussion as to the adaptabilities of cions to stocks and stocks to soils, subjects to receive attention on a later page.
Insects and fungi
The profitable grape regions of the country have all been established in regions comparatively free from grape insects and fungi. If pests came later in considerable numbers, the industry, in the old days, perished. Here and there in the agricultural regions of the country may be found a sorry company of halt and maimed vines, remnants of once flourishing vineyards, brought to their miserable condition by some scourge of insects or fungi. The advent of spraying and of better knowledge of the habits of the pests has greatly lessened the importance of parasites as a factor in determining the value of a region for grape-growing; but even in the light of the new knowledge, it is not wise to go against Nature in regions where pests are strongly intrenched.
Commercial factors
The dominant factors that lead to the planting of large areas to any one fruit are often economic ones; as transportation, markets, labor, facilities for making by-products, and opportunity to join in buying and selling organizations. All of these factors play an important part in determining the bounds of grape regions, but a lesser part than in the establishment of large areas of other fruits, for the reason that the grape is so largely grown for raisins, wine, champagne and grape-juice, products condensed in form, made with little labor, easily transported, which keep long and find ready market at any time. Again, where natural conditions are favorable for grape-growing, the crop comes almost as a gift from Nature; whereas, if the grower must breast the blows of unfavorable natural circumstances, no matter how favorable the economic factors may be, the vineyard is seldom profitable. Natural factors, therefore, outweigh economic ones in grape-growing, but the latter must be considered in seeking a site for a vineyard, a task discussed under several heads to follow.
Accessibility to markets.
Markets ought to be accessible in commercial grape-growing. A location in which there is a good local market, and at the same time ample facilities for shipping to distant markets, is desirable. If there are also opportunities to dispose of any surplus to makers of raisins, wine or grape-juice, the grower has well-nigh attained the ideal. Further to be desired are good roads, short hauls, quick transportation, reasonable freight rates, refrigerator service and coöperative agencies. The more of these advantages a grower has at his disposal, the less likely he is to fail in commercial competition.
General versus local markets.
The grower must be reminded rather than informed that he must decide in locating his vineyard whether he will grow for distant markets, for manufacturing into grape products, or for local markets. Determination to grow grapes once made, subsequent procedure at every step depends on the disposition to be made of the product. Summarized, the differences in growing grapes for the two markets are: For the general market: the acreage should be large; the market may be distant; the varieties few; the cost of production low; sales large and prices low; the dealings are with middlemen; and extensive culture is practiced. For the local market: the acreage may be small; the market must be near and prices must be high; the sales are direct to the consumer; there must be succession in ripening; and intensive culture is practiced. For the general market, the vineyard is the unit; for the local market, the variety should be the unit. In this discussion, however, "large acreage" and "extensive culture" set against "small acreage" and "intensive culture" may mislead. This is a case in which a large endeavor may be a small endeavor, and a small endeavor a large one; or, in which it may be well to take the advice of Virgil, who advised Roman vineyardists, "Praise great estates; farm a small one."
The grape-growing of the times tends more and more to growing for general markets. The grower plants to skim a comparatively small return from a large area. This division of grape-growing is now well developed in America. Intensive grape-growing for local markets is not well developed. There are, however, many opportunities in America for easy triumphs in fruit-growing in the planting of vineyards for local markets. No other fruit responds to fine art in culture so well as the grape. Given choicely good varieties and a finely finished product, and the grower may have almost what he desires for the produce of his skill. With the grape, too, palm of merit goes with skill in culture; among all who grow plants, only the florist can rival the viticulturist in guiding the development of a plant to a special end. In cultivating, fertilizing, training, grafting, pruning, spraying, in every cultural operation, the grape-grower has opportunities to sell his skill not given in so high degree to the grower of other fruits.
Labor.
A great advantage in the congregation of vineyardists in grape regions is found when labor must be obtained. Skilled labor is required to cultivate the vine, and such labor can be freely secured only in centers of viticulture. Grape-growing is a specialists' business, and it takes more than a day or a season to make a vine-dresser out of a farmer, gardener or an orchardist. Expert labor is most easily obtained and is of best quality where grapes abound. Common labor must be somewhat abundant, also, in good vineyard locations, for such rush tasks as tying and picking. In these two operations, women, children or other unskilled labor may be employed to advantage. The grape harvest must often be hurried, and to keep it in full swing a near-by city from which to draw pickers is a great asset.
Vineyard sites.
Within a grape region, the site is important in determining where to plant. The site is the local position of the vineyard. Sites cannot be standardized, and therefore no two are alike. The cardinal natural factors to be secured in a site are warmth, sun, air and freedom from frost. These factors have been discussed in a general way under the climate of grape regions, but one needs to particularize a little more closely to ascertain how they affect individual vineyards. Warmth, sun, air and frostlessness are best secured by proximity to water, high land and proper exposure.
Proximity to water.
The favorable influences of water are well illustrated in the grape regions of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Canada. All of the grape districts in these regions are bounded on one or more sides by water. The equalizing effects of large bodies of water on temperature, warmer winter and cooler summer, are so well known as scarcely to need comment. Hardly less important than the effects of water on temperature are the off-shore breezes of night and the in-shore breezes of day which blow on large bodies of water. These keep the air of the vineyard in constant motion and so prevent frosts in spring and autumn, and also dry foliage and fruit so that spores of fungi have difficulty in finding foothold. But if water brings fogs, dews and humidity, as does the Pacific, grapes must be planted inland; otherwise leaf, bloom and fruit are born in the blight of fungi. The benign influences of water are felt in the eastern grape regions at distances of one to four miles, seldom farther. These narrow belts about the eastern waters are bounded on the landward side by high bluffs over which many showers fail to pass and which protect the belts below from heavy dews. Where the background of bluffs in these regions sinks to level land, vineyards cease.
Vineyards are usually some distance above the water, the range in altitude running from fifty to five hundred feet. Where the altitude is much higher, immunity to frosts and winter freezing ceases, for the reason that the atmosphere is rarer and drier so that heat radiates rapidly from the land. As the height increases, also, the revels of the wind play havoc with the vines. Yet, one is often surprised to find good vineyards at the level of the lakes or, on the other hand, crowning high hills. Altitude in grape-growing must, therefore, be determined by experiment. We know very little of the formation of the thermal belts on high land so favorable to the grape.
The lay of the land.
We associate the grape with rugged land; as the vines on the banks of the Rhine, the rolling lands of Burgundy, the slopes of Vesuvius and Olympus, the high hills of Madeira, the cloud-capped mountains of Teneriffe, mountain slopes in California and the escarpments of grape regions in eastern America. These examples prove how well adapted rolling lands, inclined plains and even steep and rocky hillsides are to the culture of the vine. Virgil long ago wrote, "Bacchus is partial to broad, sunny hills." Yet rolling lands are not essential to the culture of the grape, for in Europe and America very good grapes are grown on unsheltered plains, provided the land has an elevation on one or more boundaries above the surrounding country. If the conditions of soil and climate which the grape requires can be found on level land or moderate slopes, such situations are much better than steep declivities, since on these the cost of all vineyard operations is greater and heavy rains erode the soil. The soil on hills, too, is often scant and niggardly. Level land, however, must not be shut in on all sides by higher land as untimely frost will often lay waste vines in such a situation.
Exposures.
The exposure, or the slope of the land toward a point of the compass, is important in choosing a site for the vineyard, although the value of particular exposures is often exaggerated. Let it be remembered that good grapes may be grown in vineyards exposed to any point of the compass, but that slight advantages may sometimes come, depending on the particular environment of the plantation, and then solve the problem according to conditions. The following are theories as to exposure: A southern exposure is warmer and hence earlier than a northern, and is, therefore, the best slope for early grapes as well as for very late ones liable to be caught by frost. Northward and westward slopes retard the leafing and blooming period, thus often enabling the grape to escape untimely spring frosts; though to plant on such slopes may be robbing Peter to pay Paul, as what is gained in retardation in spring may be lost in the fall with the result that the vines may be caught by frost and may fail to ripen their crop. Frost damage is usually greatest on a bold eastern slope, and vines suffer most in winter freezes on this exposure, since the direct rays of the rising sun strike the frozen plants so that they are more injured than otherwise by rapid thawing. In locations near bodies of water, the best slope is toward the water, regardless of direction. The exposure may sometimes be selected to advantage with reference to the prevailing winds.
Plate II.—Fitting the land for planting.