APPENDIX
NOTES ON THE VARIOUS TRIBES[19]
Crow
The Crow Indians number about 1750. They now occupy a reservation in southeastern Montana between Billings, Montana and Sheridan, Wyoming. This is near the center of their historic habitat, for their two main bands, the River Crow and Mountain Crow, roamed respectively from the Yellowstone-Missouri confluence southwards, and from east-central Montana southward into Wyoming.
In point of language, the Crow belong to the Siouan family, forming together with the Hidatsa of North Dakota a distinct subdivision. There is no doubt that some centuries ago they must have formed one tribe with the Hidatsa, since the languages are very closely related. In culture many differences have developed between the two tribes; e. g., the Hidatsa were always semi-sedentary tillers of corn as well as hunters in historic times, while the Crow remained pure nomads before white influence. On the other hand, some important traits persisted in both groups after their separation. The principal enemies of the Crow were the Dakota; to a somewhat lesser extent the Blackfoot and Cheyenne.
The most important publications on the Crow are:
Curtis, Edward S. The North American Indian, vol. IV, New York, 1909.
Lowie, Robert H. Social Life of the Crow Indians (Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. IX, part 2.). New York, 1912.
Societies of the Crow, Hidatsa and Mandan Indians (ibid., XI, part 3.). New York, 1913.
The Sun Dance of the Crow Indians (ibid., XVI, part 1.). New York, 1915.
Notes on the Social Organization and Customs of the Mandan, Hidatsa and Crow Indians (ibid., XXI, part 1.). New York, 1917.
Myths and Traditions of the Crow Indians (ibid., XXV, part 1.). New York, 1918.
The Tobacco Society of the Crow Indians (ibid., XXI, part 2.). New York, 1919.
Blackfoot
At the time of discovery, these Indians resided east of the Rocky Mountains in what is now Montana, and Alberta, Canada, and were grouped into three tribes: Blackfoot, Blood, and Piegan. The Piegan were the largest and dominant tribe, but all were in the habit of speaking of themselves as Blackfoot. How this name originated is not known, though there is a story that it was given them by other Indians because their moccasins were always stained with the black loam of the rich prairies of Alberta.
Closely affiliated with the Blackfoot were the Sarsi, a small Athabascan-speaking tribe, and the Prairie Gros Ventre, closely related to the Arapaho. Thus the Blackfoot group—confederacy of early writers—was composed of at least five distinct tribal units. Their nearest cultural contemporaries are the Plains-Cree, Assiniboin, Crow, and Shoshoni.
The Blackfoot speak a language belonging to the great Algonkian family of eastern North America. The presumption is, therefore, that they migrated from the woodlands of the east to the western plains, but this was very long ago.
The surviving remnants of the tribe now number less than 5,000, fully half of whom live in the State of Montana, and less than half of these are of pure descent.
For further information on the Blackfoot and other Plains tribes, the reader is referred to:
North American Indians of the Plains (Handbook series, No. 1 American Museum of Natural History, 1912), by Clark Wissler, and the following monographs by Dr. Wissler, published in the Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History:
Mythology of the Blackfoot Indians. vol. II, part 1.
The Material Culture of the Blackfoot Indians. vol. V, part 1.
The Social Life and Ceremonial Bundles of the Blackfoot Indians. vol. VII.
Societies and Dance Associations of the Blackfoot Indians. vol. XI, part 4.
Sun Dance of the Blackfoot Indians. vol. XVI, part 3.
Some Protective Designs of the Dakota. vol. I, part 2.
Societies and Ceremonial Associations in the Oglala Division of the Teton-Dakota. vol. XI, part 1.
Riding Gear of the North American Indians. vol. XVII, part 1.
Costumes of the Plains Indians. vol. XVII, part 2.
Structural Basis to the Decoration of Costumes among the Plains Indians. vol. XVII, part 3.
Decorative Art of the Sioux Indians (Bulletin, American Museum, vol. XVIII, part 3.).
Menomini
The Menomini are a small tribe (1745 in number) of the Algonkian stock, who formerly lived on the west shore of Green Bay, Wisconsin, and who now dwell on their reservation, about forty miles inland from their former headquarters, on the upper waters of the Wolf River, one of their old hunting grounds.
In culture the Menomini belong to the Central Algonkian group of Woodland Indians, and have long been closely associated with the Siouan Winnebago and the Algonkian Sauk, Fox, Potawatomi, and Ojibwa.
Dr. Skinner’s publications on the Menomini are as follows:
In the Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. XIII which is composed of:
Social Life and Ceremonial Bundles of the Menomini Indians.
Societies and Ceremonies of the Menomini.
Folk Lore and Mythology of the Menomini Indians,[20] and in Indian Notes and Monographs, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation:
Medicine Ceremony of the Menomini Indians, vol. IV, 1920.
Material Culture of the Menomini Indians, (unnumbered), 1921.
Winnebago
The Winnebago number to-day about 3000 people of whom 1100 to 1500 live in Nebraska directly north of the Omaha reservation, and the rest in Wisconsin, mainly in Jackson county but scattered all over the region directly to the north, east and west of that county, also. When first discovered, toward the middle of the seventeenth century, they occupied the region between Green Bay and the Wisconsin River to the west, and their villages extended to the southern portions of Lake Winnebago to the south. Toward the end of the seventeenth century and beginning of the eighteenth century, we find them as far west as the Mississippi and as far south as Madison, Beloit, and even northern Illinois. While, unquestionably, they had been in part forced into this region by the warlike activities of the Fox Indians, there seems sufficient evidence to show that they had always roamed over the greater part of this country.
After their discovery by the French, much of their time was spent in fighting with the Foxes by whom they seem generally to have been defeated. They were, from the beginning, exceedingly faithful to the French. To what degree they were influenced by the French missionaries and traders, it is difficult to say, but in all probability this influence was greater than has generally been supposed. After the cession of the old Northwest to the United States, they remained rather quiet but were definitely implicated in the Black Hawk War.
About the middle of the nineteenth century, they were forcibly transferred to Nebraska but many of them made their way back to Wisconsin, and these, together with scattered Winnebago, who had managed to escape the enforced transference to Nebraska, form the majority of those now living in Wisconsin. Since their partial removal to Nebraska, a number of minor differences in dialect and customs have developed between the two divisions. The division in Wisconsin is undoubtedly the more conservative.
The immediate neighbors of the Winnebago were the Menomini to the north, and the Fox to the south; with these tribes they were always in intimate contact. With the Menomini they seem always to have been on peaceful terms, but with the Fox they were frequently at war. They seem to have known the Potawatomi quite well, and the Ojibwa fairly well. The eastern Dakota they also knew to a certain extent. In the main, however, they knew their Algonkian neighbors (Menomini, Fox, Potawatomi) best and they were profoundly influenced by these tribes in their material culture. The mythology and certain religious notions of their Central Algonkian neighbors they also adopted, but these seem to have been kept apart and distinct from their old Winnebago mythology and religion. In their social organization, they were totally uninfluenced and, on the contrary, influenced their neighbors profoundly.
They present the interesting spectacle of a people entirely surrounded by alien tribes, absolutely cut off from all communication with groups speaking related languages and having similar civilizations, who nevertheless have preserved many archaic Siouan cultural traits. What they have, however, they have in part completely assimilated, in part kept distinct.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Radin, Paul. The Ritual and Significance of the Winnebago Medicine Dance. (Journal of American Folklore, vol. XIV, pp. 149-208. 1911.)
Winnebago Tales. (Journal of American Folklore, vol. XXII, pp. 288-313, 1909.)
Social organization of the Winnebago Indians. In Geological Survey of Canada. (Museum Bulletin, 10. Anthrop. ser. 5. 1915.)
The Peyote Cult of the Winnebago. (Journal of Religious Psychology, vol. VII [1914], pp. 1-22.)
Autobiography of a Winnebago Indian. (University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, XVI [1920], No. 7.)
The Winnebago Indians. (Report of Bureau of American Ethnology.) (In press.)
Meskwaki
The Meskwaki Indians at present live in the vicinity of Tama, Iowa, and are 350 in round numbers. Officially, all are listed as full-bloods, but the fact is that there is a good deal of old white (French and English) mixture—practically none within the last sixty years. And many have Sauk, Potawatomi, and Winnebago blood. On the rolls the Meskwaki are carried as Sauk and Fox of the Mississippi; but this is due to the fact that the Federal government long ago legally consolidated the two tribes, though they are, even to-day, distinct in language, ethnology, and mythology. Fox is but one of the many synonyms for the Meskwaki Indians.
Their native name, me sgw A ki A ki, in the current syllabary, means “Red-Earths.”
The Meskwaki linguistically are closely related to the Sauk and Kickapoo, more remotely to Shawnee, and to the Penobscot, Malecite, etc., of Maine and adjacent parts of Canada. They are also comparatively close to the Cree and Menomini. Culturally the Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo are very near each other, and show woodland traits predominantly, with touches of those of the plains. They are also close to the adjacent Siouan tribes. The physical type of the Meskwaki has not been worked out; from Michelson’s unpublished data it would appear that beside a mesocephalic tribe, a brachycephalic one also occurs. This last is probably due to intermarriage with Winnebagos. Moderate occipital deformation occurs owing to the use of hard cradle boards; and so the problem is not simple, for moderate deformation is not always easy to detect.
A practically complete bibliography on the Meskwaki is given by Michelson, Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, vol. IX, pp. 485, 593-596. Since that time (1919) but little has appeared. A number of volumes on the Meskwaki by Michelson will eventually be published by the Bureau of American Ethnology.[21] The most important publications on the Meskwaki are:
Major Marston. Letter to the Rev. Jediah Morse, 1820.
Forsyth, Thomas. Account of the Manners and Customs of the Sauk and Fox Nations of Indians’ Traditions, 1827. (This, and the preceding are readily accessible in E. Blair’s Indian Tribes of the Upper Mississippi and Great Lakes Region, vol. II, pp. 137-245).
Jones, William. Fox Texts, 1907.
The Algonkin Manitou (Journal of American Folklore, vol. XVIII, pp. 183-190 [1905]).
Mortuary observances and the adoption rites of the Algonquin Foxes of Iowa (Congrès International des Americanists, XVI: 263-277 [1907]).
Algonquian (Fox) (revised by Truman Michelson: Handbook of American Indian Languages, Bulletin 40, of the Bureau of American Ethnology part 1; pp. 735-873 [1911]).
Michelson, Truman. Preliminary report on the linguistic classification of Alqonquian Tribes (28th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, pp. 221-290b [1912]).
Montagnais
The Indians of the Algonkian linguistic stock known in literature as the Montagnais, inhabit the vast region north of the St. Lawrence river from the coast of Labrador on the Atlantic, westward through to the St. Maurice river near Quebec, and northward to the height of land dividing the Arctic watershed from that of the St. Lawrence. They number not far from 3,000 souls widely scattered in small bands comprising certain dialectic and ethnical groupings. Within certain limits they are nomadic, subsisting entirely by hunting and fishing, never warlike except in their resistance to the Iroquois, docile and orderly. They were visited early in the 17th century by Jesuit missionaries who have left us the only specific literature dealing with their mode of life. Their culture is characterized by extreme simplicity, almost barren in its social, political and ceremonial aspects though rich in the field of activity concerned with hunting, fishing and traveling. Roughly speaking, the Montagnais group lends itself to a threefold division, the ethnological and dialectic peculiarities following somewhat the same limits: those of the coast, the typical so-called Montagnais; those of the interior of the northwestern part of the Labrador peninsula, and those of the northeastern interior. The latter have come to be known as the eastern Naskapi. The whole group is closely related to the Cree of Hudson’s Bay, outside of which area its next closest affinities lie with the Wabanaki group of the region south of the St. Lawrence, from New Hampshire to Newfoundland.
Iroquois
The Iroquois Confederacy consisted of five, later six, tribes, speaking the Iroquois language. In addition to these tribes there were others belonging to the same linguistic stock, such as the Hurons, the Cherokee, and others. The Confederacy or League of the Iroquois was formed towards the end of the sixteenth century and embraced, at that time, the following tribes: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca. In the beginning of the eighteenth century they were joined by the Tuscarora.
The original area occupied by these tribes embraced the following district: nearly the entire valley of the St. Lawrence, the basins of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie, the southeast shores of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay, all of the present New York State except the lower Hudson valley, all of central Pennsylvania, and the shores of Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, as far as Choptank and Patuxent Rivers.
According to some computations, the number of Iroquois villages about 1657 was about twenty-four; towards 1750 their number may have grown to about fifty. Towards the end of the seventeenth century, the total number of confederated Iroquois may have reached 16,000, which is also the approximate number of the present Iroquois, including numerous mixed breeds, who occupy a number of reservations in northwest New York and southeastern Canada.
The tribes of the League are usually classed in the so-called Woodlands culture area. They have, however, developed a civilization which is greatly specialized when compared with other tribes of that area, especially in social and political organization. The Iroquois exerted a powerful influence on some of their neighbors, notably on some of the eastern Algonkian tribes, whose socio-political organization bears unmistakable traces of Iroquois influence. The Iroquois of the League greatly developed a consciousness of what to-day might be designated as a historic mission. Their leaders believed that the Great Peace, for which the League stood, was fated to spread over all of the Indian tribes. In their attempts to induce other tribes to accept the principles of the League, they carried on an almost unceasing warfare against such tribes as the Neutrals, the Algonkians and the Sioux, and their combined forces proved irresistible to their less efficiently organized neighbors. Ultimately, they were checked in the south by their own relatives, the Cherokee.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hale, Horatio. The Iroquois Book of Rites.
Morgan, Lewis H. The League of the Iroquois (The 1904, one volume edition.)
Parker, A. C. The Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants.
Handsome Lake Doctrine.
The Constitution of the Iroquois League.
Hewitt, J. N. B. Orenda and a Definition of Religion. (American Anthropologist, vol. IV, 1902.).
Iroquoian Cosmology (21st Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.).
Seneca Fiction, Legends and Myths (32nd Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.).
Goldenweiser, Alexander A. Summary Reports on Iroquoian Work (Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada, 1912-13, 1913-14.).
Lenape or Delaware Indians
The Lenape or Delaware Indians were once a numerous people forming a confederacy of three closely related tribes: the Unami or Delawares proper, the Unalachtigo or Unalatko, and the Minsi or Muncey, first encountered by the whites in what is now New Jersey, Delaware, eastern Pennsylvania, and southeastern New York, but at last accounts reduced to some 1900 persons, scattered about in Oklahoma and in the Province of Ontario, Canada, with a few in Wisconsin and Kansas.
Algonkian in language, their culture was typical of the northern half of the Eastern Woodland area, being most nearly related, as might be expected, to that of the Nanticoke and other Algonkian tribes adjoining them to the south, and that of the Mohican of the Hudson valley and of the Long Island tribes; and resembling in many general features the cultures of the New England tribes, of the Central Algonkian peoples, and of the Shawnee. The culture of the Lenape, that of the Minsi, in particular, also shows some special resemblances in addition to the general ones common to the whole Eastern Woodland, to that of the Iroquois tribes, although the latter speak dialects of an entirely different language.
Among the works dealing wholly or mainly with Lenape ethnology are the following:
Brinton, Daniel G. The Lenape and their Legends, Philadelphia, 1885.
Harrington, M. R. Some Customs of the Delaware Indians. (Museum Journal of the Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, vol. I. No. 3.).
Vestiges of Material Culture among the Canadian Delawares. (American Anthropologist, N. S. vol. X, No. 3, July-Sept., 1908.).
A Preliminary Sketch of Lenape Culture. (American Anthropologist, N. S. vol. XV, No. 2, April-June, 1913.).
Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape (in press).
Political and Social Organization of the Lenape (in Ms.).
Material Culture of the Lenape (in Ms.).
Lenape Folklore (in Ms.).
Heckewelder, John. An Account of the History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations who once inhabited Pennsylvania and the neighboring States. (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. I, Philadelphia, 1819.).
Loskiel, George Henry. History of the Mission of the United Brethren among the Indians in North America, London, 1794.
Skinner, Alanson. The Indians of Greater New York, Cedar Rapids, 1915.
The Lenape Indians of Staten Island. (Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. III, New York, 1909.).
The Indians of Manhattan Island and vicinity. (Guide leaflet No. 41, American Museum of Natural History.)
Zeisberger, David. David Zeisberger’s History of the Northern American Indians. Edited by Archer Butler Hulbert and William Nathaniel Schwarze. (Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly, vol. XIX, Nos. 1 and 2, Columbus, 1910.)
Creeks
The Creek confederacy was based upon a number of tribes speaking the Muskogee language, usually called Creek, but many other tribes were taken into the organization in course of time, most of them speaking related tongues but a few of entirely distinct stocks. From estimates made by early writers it would seem as though the Creek population had increased from about 7000 in 1700 to 20,000 at the time of the removal (1832). This shrunk again after that date so that the Indian Office report of 1919 gives 11,952 “Creeks by blood,” to which must be added 2141 “Seminole by blood,” 585 “Florida Seminole,” and 192 Alabama in Texas. The Seminole and Alabama formerly belonged to the Confederacy. Probably this includes a great many individuals with very little Indian blood, because the Census of 1910 returned only about 9000 all told.
When first known to Europeans the tribes of this connection occupied the eastern two-thirds of Alabama and all of what is now Georgia, except the northernmost and easternmost parts. Some of the Indians, then found upon the Georgia coast, seem afterward to have moved into the hinterland to unite with the confederate body.
The confederacy was gradually extending itself by taking in smaller peoples driven from their own country or suffering from more powerful neighbors, among them the Yuchi and a part of the Shawnee. Even the Chickasaw, though sometimes at war with them, had a sort of semi-official membership and it is probable that more of the tribes east and south would have been gathered into the league had it not been for the coming of the whites. They were, however, equalled and probably excelled in numbers by the Cherokee on their northeastern border, and the Choctaw to the southwest, with both of which tribes they waged bitter wars as well as with the Apalachee and Timucua southeast of them. These differences were, however, aggravated considerably by the rival Spanish, English, and French colonists. It should be understood that the Creek Confederacy was a growing American national organism, comparable to the Iroquois Confederacy, the states of Central America and Mexico and some of those of the Old World.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adair, James. History of the North American Indians.
Bartram, William. Travels. (His paper in vol. III, American Ethnological Society. Trans.)
Bossu, M. Nouveaux Voyages, etc., (Alabama Indians.), 1768.
Gatschet. A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians, (vol. I in Brinton’s Library of Aboriginal Literature; vol. II in Trans. Academy of Science of St. Louis.).
Hawkins, Benjamin. A Sketch of the Creek Country, (Georgia Historical Society Collections, vol. III, 1848.).
Swan. Schoolcraft, Indian Tribes, vol. V.
Swanton, John R. Early History of the Creek Indians and Their Neighbors. (Bureau American Ethnology [in press]).
Apache
The various Apache tribes of Arizona number about 5000. They are about equally divided between the two adjoining reservations, San Carlos and White Mountain. Their habitat was the upper drainage systems of the Salt and Gila Rivers. Culturally, they are related to the Pima and the Yuman-speaking Yavapai and Walapai to the west. They are related also linguistically, and in pre-Spanish times culturally, to the Navaho who live north of them. In a general way they participate in the social and religious life characteristic of the whole Southwestern area.
Bourke, John G. The Medicine Men of the Apache (9th Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.)
Goddard, P. E. In the Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. XXIV:
Myths and Tales from the San Carlos Apache, part 1.
Myths and Tales from the White Mountain Apache. part 2.
Navaho
The Navaho are an Athabascan tribe of nomadic or semi-nomadic habit occupying a reservation in northeast Arizona, northwest New Mexico and southeast Utah. In 1906 they were roughly estimated at 28,500. Sheep raising and weaving are their main industries. In many ways their ceremonial life appears like that of their neighbors, the Pueblo Indians, but the relationship of the two peoples in ceremonialism, as in other respects, has not been studied.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Matthews, Washington. Navaho Legends (Memoirs American Folklore Society, V. 1897. [See bibliography]).
The Night Chant, a Navaho Ceremony. (Memoirs American Museum of Natural History, VI, 1902.)
Franciscan Fathers, The. An Ethnologic Dictionary of the Navaho Language. 1910.
Goddard, P. E. Indians of the Southwest. (Handbook Series, No. 2. American Museum of Natural History, 1921.)
Zuñi Indians
Zuñi is one of the towns of the Pueblo or Town Indians of the southwest. It is situated about the middle of New Mexico, near the Arizona border. The population of Zuñi and its outlying settlements is estimated at about 1600.
The Pueblo Indians live in about thirty towns in New Mexico and Arizona, and number about 10,000. They are usually classified according to language into four or five stocks, the Hopi of Arizona, the Ashiwi or people of Zuñi, the Keres of Acoma and Laguna to the west and, to the east, of five towns on the Rio Grande, and, also in the east, the Tanoans including the Tewa and the people of Jemez.
When the Spanish conquistadores came up from Mexico into this country, they found the people distributed more or less as they are to-day, although since that time many old sites have been deserted and new sites built upon. With increasing protection for life and property, there has been a tendency to move down from the mesa tops to the better watered and more fertile valleys.
At the arrival of the Spaniards, and no doubt long before, the people were not only builders, but skillful potters and farmers, practising alike dry farming and irrigation. From their economy and complex ceremonial life, they may be considered the northernmost fringe of the maize culture area of Middle and South America, that great reach which included the Inca Kingdom of Peru and the Mayas and Aztecs of Mexico.
Wheat, peach trees and watermelons were brought to the Pueblo Indians by the Spaniards, as well as sheep, cattle, horses and donkeys. And the Spaniards established Franciscan missions and a secular governorship, thereby affecting religion and form of government, to what extent is still an open question. Less obscure, but no less interesting is the effect that modern industry is having upon the culture; as might be expected, American trade has been disintegrating, but entirely destructive it has not been, as yet.
The ceremonial Mr. Culin describes, belongs either to the Thlewekwe Society or to the Big Fire-brand Society. See “The Zuñi Indians,” pp. 483-8, 502-1. After the dance, the saplings with butts tapered and painted red are thrown down a rocky pitch in one of the buttes of the mesa to the north. Specimens may be seen in the American Museum of Natural History and in the Museum of the University of California.
That the skull acquired by Mr. Cushing was of questionable authenticity is a fact at present known at Zuñi; for it is said there that it was because of this Tenatsali came to his premature death.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Culin, Stewart. American Indian Games. (24th [1906] Annual Report of Bureau of American Ethnology.)
Cushing, F. H. Zuñi Fetiches. (2nd [1880-1] Annual Report of Bureau of American Ethnology.)
My Adventures in Zuñi. (The Century Magazine, N. S. III, 1882.)
Outlines of Zuñi Creation Myths. (13th [1891-2] Annual Report of Bureau of American Ethnology.)
Zuñi Folk Tales. New York & London, 1901.
Zuñi Breadstuffs. (Republished in Indian Notes and Monographs, vol. VIII. Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, 1920.)
Dumarest, N. Notes on Cochiti, New Mexico. (Memoirs American Anthropological Association, vol. VI, No. 3. 1919)
Fewkes, J. W. (For Hopi monographs see his Biography and Bibliography.)
Kroeber, A. L. Zuñi Kin and Clan. (Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. XVIII, part 2. 1917.)
Parsons, E. C. Notes on Zuñi. (Memoirs, American Anthropological Association, vol. IV, Nos. 3, 4. 1917.)
Notes on Ceremonialism at Laguna. (Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. XIX, part 4. 1920.
American Anthropologist, vols. XVIII, XIX, XX, XXI, XXII, XXIII.
Journal American Folklore, vol. XXIX No. 113; vol. XXXI, No. 120; vol. XXXIII, No. 127.
Man, vol. XVI, No. 11; vol. XVII, No. 12; vol. XIX, No. 3; No. 11; vol. XXI, No. 7.)
Stephen, A. M. (For articles on Hopi ceremonials see American Anthropologist, vol. V; Journal American Folklore, vols. V. VI.)
Stevenson, M. C. The Zuñi Indians (23rd [1901-2] Annual Report of Bureau of American Ethnology.)
The Sia. (11th [1889-90] Annual Report of Bureau of American Ethnology.)
Voth, H. R. (Several valuable monographs on Hopi ceremonials in the Anthropological Series of the Field Museum.)
Havasupai
The Havasupai are a small Yuman-speaking tribe whose permanent village is in Cataract Canyon, a southern tributary of the Grand Canyon of Colorado, in northern Arizona. Their hunting territory is that portion of the Arizona Plateau seen by tourists to the Grand Canyon. The tribe numbers 177 (214 in 1881) and is therefore dependent on friendly relations with the neighboring Walapai, who share their tongue, to the west, and the Navaho and pueblo-dwelling Hopi to the east. Their enemies were the Yavapai and Apache south of their range and the Paiute, north across the Grand Canyon. Of the little that has been written about these people, the following are dependable:
Coues, Elliot. On the Trail of a Spanish Pioneer. The Diary and Itinerary of Francisco Garcés. (A curious record by their discoverer, written in 1776), vol. II, pp. 335-347, 403-409. New York, Francis P. Harper, 1900.
Cushing, F. H. The Nation of the Willows. (A vivid account of the country and the first description of its people.) Atlantic Monthly, vol. I, Sept., Oct., 1882, pp. 362-374, 541-559.
Shufeldt, R. W. Some Observations on the Havesu-pai Indians. (Proceedings, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C., 1891, vol. XIV, pp. 387, et seq.)
Spier, Leslie. The Havasupai of Cataract Cañon. (American Museum Journal, New York, December, 1918, pp. 636-645.)
(A full account of tribal customs is to be published by the same author in the Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History.)
Mohave
The Mohave are of Yuman stock. They have lived for more than three centuries in the bottomlands of the Colorado river where the present states of California, Nevada, and Arizona adjoin. Down-stream to the mouth of the Colorado were half a dozen kindred but often hostile tribes, of whom the Yuma proper are the best known survivors. The mountains to the east, in Arizona, were held by still other Yuman groups—Yavapai, Walapai, Havasupai—of rather different habits from the river tribes. To the north and east, the deserts of Nevada and California were occupied by sparse groups of Shoshonean lineage.
The Mohave may have numbered 3000 in aboriginal times. In 1910 the government counted 1058. Part of these had been transferred to a reservation down-stream at Parker.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bolton, H. E. Spanish Exploration in the Southwest. (pp. 268-280 contain a translation of Zárate-Salmerón’s Relacion or account of Oñate’s expedition of 1604-05.) New York, 1916.
Coues, Elliot. On the Trail of a Spanish Pioneer. The Diary and Itinerary of Francisco Garcés, 1775-1776. New York, 1900.
Whipple, A. W., Ewbank, T., and Turner, W. W. Report of Explorations for a Railway Route near to the 35th Parallel of North Latitude from the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean. part 1, Itinerary; part 3. Report upon the Indian Tribes. Washington, 1855.
Stratton, R. B. The Captivity of the Oatman Girls. New York, 1857.
Bourke, J. G. Notes on the Cosmogony and Theogony of the Mojave Indians. (Journal of American Folklore, vol. II, pp. 169-189, 1889.)
Curtis, E. S. The North American Indian, vol. II.
Kroeber, A. L. Preliminary Sketch of the Mohave Indians. (American Anthropologist, N. S., vol. IV, pp. 276-285, 1902.)
Yuman Tribes of the Lower Colorado. (University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. vol. XVI, pp. 475-485, 1920.)
Chapters L and LI, “The Mohave,” of “The Indians of California,” (in press as Bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, D. C.).
Tepecanos
The Tepecanos were formerly a tribe of some importance, occupying considerable territory on the southern slopes of the Sierra Madre range in Western Mexico. Here they were found by the early Spanish conquerors who refer to them as Chichimec tribes. Their subsequent history is yet to be culled from prosy Mexican records. They probably fought valiantly against the white invaders but were defeated. As the country became settled and European blood introduced, the conservative members of the tribe continually retreated, until to-day they occupy but one village, Azqueltán, in the northern part of the state of Jalisco, and a few square miles of surrounding territory. Their numbers are reduced to a few hundred and many of these are mixed-bloods.
Physically the Tepecanos are closely akin to the other native tribes of western Mexico. The same may be said as regards their language, though in this respect the differences are greater. The Tepecano language is very closely related to the Tepehuane, Papago and Pima of northwestern Mexico and Arizona and more distantly related to Huichol, Cora, Aztec and Ute.
Little of a connected nature has been written on the Tepecano. The following list includes practically all the extant literature:
Orozco y Berra, Manuel. Geografía de las lenguas y carta etnográfica de México; México, 1864. pp. 49, 279, 282.
Lumholtz, Carl. Unknown Mexico, vol. II, p. 123, New York, 1902.
Hřdlička, Aleš. The Chichimecs and their Ancient Culture. (American Anthropologist, N. S., vol. III, 1903.)
Physiological and Medical Observations. (Bulletin 34, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1908.)
León, Nicolás. Familias Lingüísticas de México, Mexico, 1902.
Thomas, Cyrus, and Swanton, John R. Indian Languages of Mexico and Central America. (Bulletin 44, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1911.)
Mason, J. Alden. The Tepehuan Indians of Azqueltán. (Proceedings 18th International Congress of Americanists, London, 1912.)
The Fiesta of the Pinole at Azqueltán. (The Museum Journal, III, University Museum, Philadelphia, 1912.)
Tepecano, A Piman Language of Western Mexico. (Annals of the New York Academy of Science, vol. XXV, New York, 1917.)
Tepecano Prayers. (International Journal of American Linguistics, vol. I, II, 1918.)
Four Mexican Spanish Folk Tales from Azqueltán, Jalisco. (Journal of American Folklore, vol. XXV, 1912.)
Folk Tales of the Tepecanos. (Journal of American Folklore, vol. XXVII, 1914.)
Aztecs
For general account and bibliography see Spinden, H. J. Ancient civilizations of Mexico and Central America. (American Museum of Natural History, Handbook series. No. 3. 1917.)