TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

Some minor changes to the text are noted at the [end of the book.]

AVIATION
IN CANADA

1917–1918

Being a brief account of the work of the ROYAL AIR FORCE CANADA the Aviation Department of the Imperial Munitions Board and the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited

COMPILED BY
ALAN SULLIVAN, LT., R.A.F.

PRINTED BY
ROUS & MANN LIMITED
TORONTO..............CANADA

While the contents of this volume present an accurate history of the R.A.F. Canada, it is to be understood that the Air Ministry is not responsible for any statements made herein.

[CONTENTS]

	PAGE
The Western Front in 1916	[7]
Official Preliminaries	[16]
Aviation Department, Imperial Munitions Board	[25]
Canadian Aeroplanes Limited	[44]
Cost of Training	[57]
Headquarters Staff	[61]
Training in General	[76]
North Toronto	[85]
Beamsville Camp	[89]
Inspection	[93]
The Instructor	[100]
The Medical Service	[108]
Winter Flying	[125]
Recruits’ Depot	[135]
Records and Recruiting	[139]
The Cadet Wing	[155]
School of Aeronautics	[162]
Armament School	[170]
Aerial Gunnery	[180]
Camera Gunnery	[193]
Wireless	[197]
Photography	[205]
Armour Heights System	[211]
School of Special Flying	[220]
Flying Accidents	[224]
Royal Flying Corps in Texas	[233]
Engine Repair Park	[251]
Aeroplane Repair Park	[256]
Stores Depot	[261]
Pay Office	[266]
Mechanical Transport Section	[275]
Assistant Provost Marshal	[279]
Royal Engineer Section	[280]
Camp Borden	[284]
Long Branch	[288]
Deseronto	[289]
Sports	[294]
Acknowledgments	[302]

[AERIAL CONDITIONS ON THE WESTERN FRONT, 1916.]

The battle of the Somme in the latter half of 1916 was the principal factor leading to the formation of the Royal Flying Corps, Canada. Aerial conditions on the Western Front were at this period of so tense a nature that they may well be noted before proceeding to the actual history of the Canadian brigade.

The following sketch makes no pretence of absolute accuracy. The data available at the moment are not official, but are compiled from the memories of several flying officers serving on the Western front at the time. They may, however, be taken as fairly presenting not only the development of the Royal Flying Corps, but also that of opposing enemy aircraft at the period under consideration.

The British Expeditionary Force commenced operations in 1914 with a flying arm of four squadrons or some fifty machines, of which no less than thirty were destroyed during a severe storm at Christmas time by the collapse of a large hangar at St. Omer, leaving on the following day approximately 14 serviceable machines. At this time all aeroplanes in both forces were unarmed.

It is difficult to say whether British or German made the first aerial attack on an opposing machine, but it is undoubted that this type of combat, coming how it may, found both sides unequipped with the exception of such offensive power as might be secured with rifle or revolver. British machines had been thus armed for months, probably in anticipation of forced landings behind the German lines and, without question, enemy aircraft were similarly provided. There ensued a series of sporting encounters out of which grew the necessity of arming aeroplanes with rapid-fire guns mounted mostly on the top of the centre section so that bullets might clear the propeller blade. This gun was operated by the pilot, who supplied the sole method of forward shooting, while the observer, who was at that time placed in the front seat, fired to the rear. A year and a half afterwards, the method of shooting practically through the propeller was evolved, which, gradually developing, has long since reached mechanical perfection.

In the early summer of 1916, the British strength had grown to some 28 or 30 squadrons in France. These numbered approximately 450 machines, distributed fairly equally along the entire front. A view of our aerial equipment as contrasted with enemy aircraft in the battle of the Somme gives the following data, but it must be understood that this was a period during which every effort was strained on either side and type followed type in rapid succession.

BRITISH.	GERMAN.
BE2C 2-seater tractor biplane.	Fokker Scout tractor monoplane.
1 or 2 Lewis guns.	1 gun shooting through propeller, with deflectors.
Observer in front.	Speed 85 m.p.h.
Speed 70 miles.	Climb 10,000 feet in 17 mins.
Climb to 10,000 ft. in 50 mins.
Service ceiling 11,000 feet.

FE2B 2-seater pusher biplane.	Albatross Scout tractor biplane.
2 Lewis guns.	2 gun synchronized in line of flight.
Observer in front.	(First machine thus equipped.)
Speed 75 miles.	Speed 100 m.p.h.
Climb to 10,000 feet in 40 mins.
Service ceiling 12,000 feet.	Also 2 seater Albatross machine.

Morane 2-seater tractor	Roland Scout tractor biplane,
(French) both mono and biplane.	armed as Albatross but not quite as fast.
Same guns as BE2C, but with deflectors.	Also Roland 2-seater fighter, speed 90 m.p.h.
Speed 80 m.p.h.	Climb 10,000 feet in 20 mins.
Climb 10,000 feet in 30 mins.	Halberstadt Scout tractor biplane,
Service ceiling 15,000 feet.	similar to Albatross.

DH2 Scout pusher biplane.	LVG 2-seater tractor.
1 Lewis Gun on line of flight or swivelled.	Albatross and Aviatik, reconn. bombing, and photo.
Speed 90 m.p.h.	1 gun synchronized and 1 swivelled.
Climb 10,000 feet in 18 mins.	Speed 85 m.p.h.
Service ceiling 16,000 feet.	Climb 10,000 in 25 mins.
	Service ceiling 18,000 feet.


FE8 Scout pusher biplane.
1 Lewis Gun swivelled in line of flight.
Speed 100 m.p.h.
Climb 15,000 feet in 19 mins.
Service ceiling 18,000 feet.

Nieuport Scout tractor(French).
1 Lewis Gun over top of prop. or swivelled.
Speed 100 m.p.h.
Climb 10,000 feet in 12 mins.
Service ceiling 19,000 feet.

This was the first allied machine to have a synchronized Vickers or Lewis gun in 1916.

Spad Scout tractor biplane.
1 synchronized Vickers gun firing in line of flight through propeller.
Speed 120 m.p.h.
Climb 10,000 feet in 9 mins.
Service ceiling 20,000 feet.

In addition the British had a squadron or so of Sopwith 1½ Strutters, very fast and handy 2-seater tractors with observer in rear. Also some Bristol Scouts, Vickers pushers and Martynsydes.

ONE LESS HUN!
RICHTHOFEN’S CIRCUS.

GERMAN “ALBATROSS.”
GERMAN “HALBERSTADT.”

The German was in 1916 provided with a gun which did fire through the propeller. This was on the Fokker. The advantage thus held by the enemy was also increased by the fact that their two-seaters carried pilots in front, thus affording the observer a better opportunity of firing to the rear. Our BE2C, for instance, found itself under a handicap in this respect. The downfall of the Fokker rests with the DH2, a pusher machine, which gave the forward-seated pilot a clear field of fire to the front. The DH2, in turn, yielded supremacy to the German Albatross Scout, a fast and efficient fighting machine. Thus went the battle, till in December, 1916, the Nieuport, Spad and Sopwith Scouts were our kings of the air.

In April of this year began a concentration of British aerial force on the Somme, where artillery observation was for the next three months carried to the utmost in preparation for the great offensive staged to commence in July. At first it seemed as though our machines had the air to themselves, for up till the first week in June our registration proceeded with practically no counter-battery work. So quiet was this front, that one pilot reports that he cannot remember seeing more than two German aeroplanes for six weeks.

In June came greater activity on the part of the enemy, but it is without question that we held superiority until September, if at considerable cost. From September, however, to the middle of October, the Royal Flying Corps had its work cut out to cope with the increase in numbers and efficiency of German pilots, and the introduction of two fast and improved fighting scouts, the Halberstadt and Albatross D3 and D5.

On the Somme front, approximating twenty-five miles, we had about twenty squadrons, equalling about 300 machines; these constituting the majority of our aerial force in France. Twelve were disposed for artillery work, the remainder for photography, reconnaissance and fighting.

GERMAN PARABELLUM MOUNTING.
FIRST “FOKKER” MONOPLANE WITH SYNCHRONIZED GUN BROUGHT DOWN ON WESTERN FRONT.

LOADING POSITION.
LEWIS GUN ON NIEUPORT SCOUT.

The battle proceeded with unprecedented intensity, and with it a never-ending aerial warfare. Pilots were rushed from England with a few hours’ solo work and absolutely no gunnery practice, to find themselves instantly in the thick of the combat. It is, therefore, not astonishing that the wastage of our fighting men ran up to twenty-five per cent. per month.

The filling up of the Royal Flying Corps combatant strength was made additionally difficult, as the Corps could no longer draw from regimental officers now needed for the coming offensive by which it was proposed to relieve the tremendous pressure on the French at Verdun.

It is true that the strength of the Force was, in anticipation, more than doubled during the three weeks which preceded the Somme, but this largely exhausted the available supplies of fighting personnel.

How reasonable, therefore, that the established success of Canadian pilots, and the fact that in Canada lay an almost untapped reservoir of future strength, should turn the eyes of the War Office to that Dominion. Double operations were planned for the Spring of 1917. The need was instant and imperative.

[OFFICIAL PRELIMINARIES.]

Authority for the Royal Flying Corps, Canada, was given at the War Office in December of 1916, and shortly after, on December 21st, an important meeting took place at Adastral House, the headquarters of the Air Board. Representatives from various branches of the service were present, and the situation in Canada was fully discussed with the following results.

Formation of squadrons was to be pushed at once, and personnel sent out as opportunity offered. Recruiting offices were authorized, also one large aircraft park, its location to be fixed later. As to equipment, Curtiss machines had already been ordered and delivery would commence almost at once from Buffalo. An establishment of 400 engines with a monthly wastage of 100 was considered reasonable.

The use of other machines was discussed but left in abeyance for the meantime, and the meeting closed with the opinion that training could be carried on in Canada the year round except in February, the weather in that month being doubtful.

It was decided at the outset that everything of a business nature, such as the erection of buildings, preparation of aerodromes, purchase of supplies, etc., was to be handled by the Imperial Munitions Board, through a Department of Aviation. This conclusion was largely influenced by the fact that in correspondence with the Ministry of Munitions, the Imperial Munitions Board had placed itself at the disposal of the War Office to aid in the formation of a Canadian training wing. Two engineer officers would be detailed to act as advisers on buildings and aerodromes.

Such was the formal birth of the Royal Flying Corps, Canada. It may be asked why it was purposed to recruit and train in Canada by the agency of an Imperial wing, but it suffices to say that the work of this unit has been only one of the countless instances of coöperation between the mother country and the Dominion, that furthermore all arrangements entered into carried not only the consent and approval of the Canadian Government, but also the promise of every assistance, and that the utter fullness of the discharge of this promise is known best to those who are personally conversant with the various phases of the history of this unit of the Royal Flying Corps.

At the further meeting of the Air Board, held at Adastral House, January 1st, 1917, the personnel of the advance party was selected. The administration section consisted of the Officer Commanding, at that time lieutenant-colonel; two squadron commanders—a major and a captain; one flight commander—a captain; one flying officer—a lieutenant. The supply section consisted of one park commander, one first-class equipment officer and two second-class equipment officers; these a major, captain and two lieutenants. Two engineer officers, both majors—one of whom was of the Canadian Engineers and the other from the Royal Engineers services—followed a little later. The recruiting section, composed of a captain and three lieutenants, completed the party. Mechanical transport of 21 vehicles was also sent.

At this meeting the general premises governing the future operations of the wing were outlined, such as the intention to give only lower training in Canada, and liaison between the unit and the Imperial Munitions Board. It was further determined to organize twenty training squadrons. Owing to conditions in England at the moment, the question of personnel for the formation of the Canadian wing was difficult of solution, and it was stated quite frankly that the Royal Flying Corps, Canada, would be obliged to do its utmost to train both officers, non-commissioned officers and airmen for the various duties to be performed.

General and personnel equipment was arranged to be sent from England, but all machines and additional transport were to be obtained locally. The general purport of the meeting was, in brief, to provide the skeleton of a training unit, put this scanty personnel under the direction of the O.C. and trust to their united efforts to provide for that expanding output of partially trained pilots for which at the time there was such insistent demand.

Coincident with all this, matters in Canada had already begun to take shape. There was in Toronto a small aeroplane factory, which for the past year or two had been turning out machines used at a private flying school some nine miles from the city. Authority was received by the Imperial Munitions Board from the Air Board to acquire this organization, which, although its output was necessarily limited, afforded an opportunity for future expansion, once suitable premises were secured. The machinery and equipment of this undertaking were forthwith moved into much larger buildings leased from a local engineering works, and took shape as the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited, an organization owned by the Imperial Government, whose product was intended primarily to meet the requirements of the new Canadian wing.

Simultaneously there was formed the Aviation Section of the Imperial Munitions Board, to which section detailed reference is made elsewhere. Such, in short, were the arrangements which had been completed when on January 22nd the advance party of the Royal Flying Corps, Canada, arrived in Toronto.

OBSERVERS’ GUN MOUNTING.
GERMAN GUN MOUNTINGS.

R.A.F. Can.—Flying Duty of Machines.

A word about local conditions will not be amiss. The country was, of course, deep in snow, and the winter period in its most trying phase. Recruiting, for which methods had still to be formulated, was complicated by the fact that no Military Service Act was in force in Canada, and the country had been apparently combed bare of those who desired to enlist voluntarily. It is true that the Royal Naval Air Service had for months been drawing excellent material from Canada, but this unit offered the inducement of a commission on enlistment, while the R.F.C. held no commissions in its outstretched hands, but merely the promise of months of arduous work before qualifying for the distinction. That the Corps was authorized to recruit in Canada was due to an Order in Council passed by the Canadian Government. Application was also made to the Department of Militia and Defence that the unit might be rationed, clothed and medically attended to by that Department.

An excerpt taken from an early report on Canadian conditions to the Air Board notes that the Royal Flying Corps, Canada, was an Imperial unit, paid for by the Imperial Treasury and wholly independent of local military command. Also that instructions in the first instance were very indefinite regarding a host of important details, but that this fact was in the long run a blessing in disguise.

A credit of four millions sterling had been established with the Imperial Munitions Board for the purposes of the wing, and it now remained to take action as quickly as possible.

That no time was lost may be gathered from the fact that the large C.E.F. Camp at Borden, some seventy miles north of Toronto, was inspected on January 26th, and on the following day a contract was let under supervision of the Aviation Department of the Board for the construction of the first Canadian aerodrome on an outlying portion of this area. It was to comprise fifteen flight sheds, with all necessary buildings and equipment. Simultaneously, recruiting got under way. Ground was also provided by the Department of Militia and Defence at Long Branch, some nine miles west of Toronto, where was formed the first flying unit of the Royal Flying Corps, Canada.

During the last week of the month, a contract was let for the construction of a large factory for the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited, supplies of engines and machines were secured from the Curtiss Manufacturing Company at Buffalo, and sites for additional groups of squadrons were selected at Leaside, three miles north of Toronto; Armour Heights, four miles still farther north; Rathbun and Mohawk, 130 miles east of Toronto.

Such was the record for nine days’ work. Thus the first of February found the unit with all major features of its programme settled, and on the threshold of a development which, as it progressed, was destined to realize every anticipation.

TRENCH SYSTEM ON WESTERN FRONT.

G. A. MORROW, ESQ., O.B.E., DIRECTOR OF AVIATION, IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD.

SIR JOSEPH FLAVELLE, BART., CHAIRMAN, IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD.

SIR FRANK BAILLIE, K.B.E., PRESIDENT, CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED.

[AVIATION DEPARTMENT—IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD]

This Department formed a many-sided organization, by means of which the physical and financial wants of the Royal Air Force, Can., were provided. It secured funds from the War Office, spent and accounted for them; designed, built, and equipped innumerable structures; purchased all supplies from the sailmaker’s needle to the aeroplane and bought materials from countless sources for a vast variety of needs.

It delved into electrical and mechanical problems, sowed grass, bored wells, built railways, leased land, secured labour of all descriptions, engaged lawyers and advanced money. If the Royal Air Force was an Imperial brigade, this section of the “I.M.B.” was no less a Canadian civilian battalion, composed of members representing an officer commanding, paymasters, quartermasters, engineers and sappers, etc., and maintaining a constant and helpful liaison, without which a certain history of mutual accomplishments would be the acme of brevity.

The Department, for purposes of efficiency, was subdivided into the following sections: Executive, Purchasing, Construction, Transport, and Aeronautical Supply—all responsible to the Director of Aviation, and through him to the Imperial Munitions Board proper. The officers were:

Director of Aviation	G. A. Morrow, Esq., O.B.E.
Secretary	Mr. Geo. E. Wishart.
Chief Engineer	Mr. J. B. Carswell.
Asst. Chief Engineer	Mr. J. R. Hagelin.
Purchasing Agent	Mr. A. H. Mulcahey.
Asst. Purchasing Agent	Mr. A. S. McNinch.
Supt. Aero. Supplies	Mr. W. B. Cleland.

The first section, composed of the Secretary and accountants, was responsible for all expenditures, and made weekly detailed returns to the Auditor of the Board in Ottawa. They dealt in millions, and submitted vouchers for all disbursements, as well as reporting all executive transactions. The advantage of this coöperation with the parent organization which dealt in hundreds of millions, is obvious.

The Purchasing Section was manned by expert buyers in various branches, and furnished the entire needs of the brigade with the exception of rations, pay and medical service. Machinery, tools, boots, oil—there were some ten thousand articles in Stores Depot—all of which were secured by this section of the Department.

The Construction Section, since the autumn of 1917, erected all buildings used by the brigade, and overhauled and remodelled other premises secured for their use. At the outset of operations, various contractors were employed—but, this practice terminated, the Construction Section was organized under careful supervision of competent engineers of the Aviation Department to perform these and added duties. It purchased its own supplies and was responsible for prices and quantities, as well as for a Commissary Department which supplied employees with meals and accommodation.

Transportation—always a problem and especially so in wartime—was entrusted to an expert railwayman, skilled in harassing railway companies into good delivery. The moving of thousands of men to and from Texas, with hundreds of carloads of supplies, came under this section with most creditable results.

Aeronautical supplies were in charge of an expert in aeroplanes and their parts, who stood between the aeroplane factory and the aircraft equipment section of the brigade. Through him were followed up all machines, engines and spares ordered by the Purchasing Section. Contact was maintained hereby with American factories, to which periodical visits were made when the brigade was dependent on these extraneous sources of supply.

OFFICERS, AVIATION DEPARTMENT, IMPERIAL MUNITIONS BOARD

J. R. HAGELIN, ASST. CHIEF ENGINEER

J. B. CARSWELL, B.Sc., CHIEF ENGINEER.

GEO. E. WISHART, SECRETARY.

G. A. MORROW, O.B.E., DIRECTOR OF AVIATION

W. B. CLELAND, SUPT. AERONAUTICAL SUPPLIES.

A. H. MULCAHEY, PURCHASING AGENT

A. S. McNINCH, ASST. PURCHASING AGENT

FLYING BOAT HULL CONSTRUCTION—CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED.

Such in brief are the fundamentals, but without further detail the service given by the Aviation Department could not be realized. The following notes therefore, should prove of interest.

Accounts were under the immediate direction of the Secretary. So speedily was the Department organized that time did not afford to investigate either the system to be adopted or the number of accounts to be opened. Flexibility was in consequence desirable, and when in October, 1918, a new set of ledger headings were called for by the Air Ministry, there was neither difficulty nor delay in remodelling the existing accounts to the new form.

The Department was authorized to make disbursements from an imprest fund when immediate payment was necessary, but this method was only used when unavoidable, as for instance, outlay in staff payrolls, initial payments for leases, and in cases where a discount period had nearly lapsed. For such outlay repayment cheque to the fund was always subsequently issued.

The standard method of meeting obligations was by sending certified bills to the Finance Department, Imperial Munitions Board, at Ottawa, where cheques were issued therefor. These bills were listed in alphabetical order, and also chronologically under each creditor’s name. Confusion of any kind was entirely avoided.

During those months when contractors were employed in the erection of buildings and other work, the Aviation Department was continually represented at the contractor’s office by an auditing staff. These officials checked all time worked, and all disbursements of every nature on the part of the contractor. Such obligations were paid by the latter, who then forwarded the receipted bills to the Department. There they were recorded and sent on to Ottawa for payment.

Extraneous accounting was done in the United States. When a large part of the brigade went to Texas in November, 1917, the omnipresent “I.M.B.” accompanied in the person of the Chief Purchasing Agent, fortified with an imprest fund. This, deposited in the National City Bank, permitted local payments, which in turn were submitted to the Toronto Office with the necessary vouchers. In addition to all the foregoing, the Board at Ottawa was represented by a travelling auditor who checked all expenditure before it was submitted to Ottawa. Thus the Chief Auditor was kept constantly informed, and enabled to make regular reports to the Ministry of Munitions in England of all disbursements by the Aviation Department.

On [page 58] will be found a monthly total of these amounts, as apart from expenditure by the brigade. It is impossible to make comparisons, but it is nevertheless believed that in no section of any military organization has better value been secured for the amount involved.

The Purchasing Section, up to January 1st, 1919, issued 15,700 orders and handled 37,300 invoices. Business of this magnitude demands system, and in this case got it. On [page 35] is a diagram showing not only the procedure of purchase, but also the history of invoices when received, reflecting the coöperation between consumer and purchaser to secure assurance of the delivery of what has been ordered, before payment.

Mention has been made of the variety of the purchases arranged by this section, and to this might be added the fact that extremely large quantities were involved.

BARRACK BLOCKS—CAMP MOHAWK.

TAPPING A SPRUCE FOR AEROPLANE TIMBER.
(Note axe swinging from belt).

IN FLIGHT.
FLYING BOAT HULL UNDER CONSTRUCTION.

GETTING IT OUT.

(Procedure of Purchase)

Indents from Units
				\|
Stores Depot
Indents Collected into Requisitions
				\|
Headquarters
(Approved by O. I/C A.E.)
				\|
Purchasing Department I.M.B.
				\|
Recorded in File Room as to Date of Receipt
				\|
Distributed to Purchasing Staff
				\|
Tenders Asked by Mail, Wire or Telephone
according to urgency
				\|
		———	————	————	————	———
	\|					\|
	Orders Given (6 Copies Made)					Requisitions Filed Consecutively
	\|
	——	————	————	————	————	———
\|		\|		\|		\|
Contractor		Permanent File		For Checking of Invoices		3 Copies to Stores Depot
Orders show quantities, prices, delivery dates, etc.

(History of Invoices)

Invoices
			\|
File Room, Invoice Dept.
(dated and arranged alphabetically)
			\|
Recorded in Invoice Ledger
			\|
Checked against Orders
			\|
	————	————	————	————	——
\|	\|		\|		\|
File	Stores Depot		Stores Depot		Stores Depot
	\|		\|
	Returned		Returned
	(Inspection note Attached)		(Inspection note Attached)
	\|		\|
	File		Accounting Dept.
			\|
			Payment

Fuel requirements for the current year, for instance, were estimated at nearly 30,000 tons, and, in spite of certain official privileges extended to the Department, shipments of this magnitude called for very special attention, particularly at a time when great public anxiety was felt in securing fuel supply.

Gasoline requirements comprised about 16,000 gallons per month, and this, owing to the limited storage capacity at the various wings, was very carefully watched and traced in transit. It speaks well for the Department that during a period when the railway system was congested with freight, flying was not at any time interfered with owing to shortage of this supply.

The Transportation Section was indebted to the wonderful coöperation of contractors and railway companies for assistance in overcoming delays due to this congestion, as well as to the great shortage of raw material.

Business between the Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Corporation and the British Ministry of Munitions was carried in the Section’s purchasing ledgers, as well as records of all shipments from the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited to the Signal Service of the U.S. Government. The amount of material shipped to Texas in 1917 from the factory amounted to not less than four and a half million dollars. This was a mutually acceptable arrangement by which training in the U.S. was carried out most successfully and the output of the factory maintained at a satisfactory point.

Conjointly with the Purchasing Section, there must be considered its kindred bureau, the Traffic Branch. This body traced and delivered all materials to their proper destination, checked all freight and express bills, and applied them against their proper invoices and orders. Investigation of conditions governing freight rates was a special study, and in one instance the Traffic Branch was able to prove to the Canadian Freight Association that the minimum carload weight previously required on shipments of aeroplanes and spares was in point of fact unjustified considering the light nature of the material. This was subsequently increased, resulting in a marked saving in the transportation of such material to and from the various camps. The Texas movement involved 375 cars and 5,000 men. This was an admirably managed undertaking, so successful that within five days from the date of leaving Canada our machines were climbing into the air above Texas aerodromes.

CONSTRUCTION OF SWIMMING POOL, CAMP BORDEN.
(Under Direction of Aviation Department.)

RANGES CONSTRUCTED BY AVIATION DEPARTMENT AT BEAMSVILLE.

The Section of Aeronautical Supply, as has been stated, maintained liaison between the Aircraft Equipment Branch of the brigade and the factory; also it acted as a buffer state between the brigade and the manufacturer of such technical equipment as cameras, wireless instruments, machine guns, etc., and the tremendous number of spare parts involved.

The progress in the training of pilots has from time to time demanded new equipment of multitudinous variety. The advanced nature of the work of both aeroplane and engine repair park called for a steady stream of those individual members which when assembled constitute the completed machine. The selection, purchase, and delivery of the technical equipment of the brigade, fell in short to this section, which executed the business transactions involved as required by the Aircraft Equipment Branch at headquarters.

Liaison between the two has been admirable, and the result, therefore, eminently satisfactory.

The Construction Section has, in the course of its strenuous existence, carried out the following work:

6½	miles of railways.
22½	miles of roadways.
18	miles of water mains.
10	miles of sewers.
27	miles of aerodrome drainage.
300	miles of telephone and power lines.
26	individual steam heating plants.
6	central steam heating plants.
400	buildings using 18 million feet of lumber.

It had, furthermore, put in five thousand plumbing fixtures; cleaned, rolled and seeded nearly four thousand acres of land for flying purposes, and done a commissary business which touched forty thousand meals a week.

In these activities it spent five and a half million dollars.

From all of which it may be seen that what was accomplished equals the building of a modern town with streets, sanitation of every description and every physical equipment.

Had it been a town the work had been easier, but as it was there were many areas, with two hundred miles between extreme points.

In dispensing with contractors and assuming itself all obligations the Department was swayed by but one fact. The requirements of the brigade were so varying and so subject to training considerations, that it seemed impossible to adequately provide for all contingencies by contract. The change took place in the autumn of 1917, and in the months that followed the Munitions Board profited by unity of control, by the opportunity of large bulk purchases of material, and by every consequent advantage accruing to a single organization which directs many scattered operations.

R.A.F. Can.—Employes on Construction Work Superintended by I.M.B.

Canadian Aeroplanes Limited—Monthly Value of Output
Grand Total $13,577.000.00

The Chief Engineer of this section directed executive work, his assistant supervised construction. With them were the heads of the draughting room, the estimating section and the construction purchasing department, together with the chief electrician, the plumbing superintendent, the heating superintendent, road superintendent and the head of the commissary and transport section. In the section office a staff of fifty was employed, when in the middle of October, 1918, there were 2,200 men on the payroll. The following diagram illustrates the organization:—

Chief Engineer
			\|
	————	————	————	————	————	————
\|		\|		\|		\|
Resident Engineers		Assistant Chief		Chief Draughtsmen		Secretary
(Maintenance)		Engineer		\|
		\|		Estimating
		\|
——	————	————	————	————	————	————	——
\|	\|	\|	\|	\|	\|	\|	\|
Production	Chief	Plumbing	Heating	Roads	Buyer	Commissary	Accountant
Clerk	Electrician	Sup’t.	Sup’t.	Sup’t.		Manager
						\|
					——	————	——
					\|	\|	\|
					Commissary	Stores	Transport

The Construction Section was, in fact, pivoted so that it might at any moment turn its attention to new work without departing from its main and central programme, and to this flexibility is attributable the unquestionable success it achieved.

[CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED.]

This organization saw the light officially in December, 1916, and in twenty-one months had turned out some 2,900 aeroplanes, valued at nearly fourteen million dollars. Incidentally, the factory covered about six acres, and employed something over two thousand hands.

It was some time before Canadians realized that the undertaking was that of the Imperial Government acting through the Imperial Munitions Board, more familiarly known as the “I.M.B.” The primary purpose was that of supplying aeroplanes for the Royal Flying Corps, but actually some four and a half millions’ worth of output went to aid training in the United States.

The officials of the Company were:—

President	Sir Frank Baillie, K.B.E.
Vice-president	Mr. Frank P. Wood.
Director	Mr. W. Parkyn Murray.
Manager	Mr. E. T. Musson.
Secretary	Mr. P. H. Brooks.
Chief Engineer	Mr. M. R. Riddell.

Work commenced in leased premises, where the plant of a small factory which had a year or so before turned out a few experimental machines was for three months utilized. This, admittedly a makeshift, expanded in April into permanent premises on Dufferin Street, covering ultimately some six acres of floor space, with innumerable mechanical appliances specially designed for the work. The building of this factory proved something of an achievement, being completed in about two and one-half months, a notable record even in a country where quick construction was the rule of the day. The site, carefully chosen, lay surrounded by the homes of large numbers of technical tradesmen, and this helped in no small degree to ensure at all times a full force of highly skilled employees.

OFFICIALS AND EXECUTIVE STAFF OF CANADIAN AEROPLANES LIMITED.

G. A. COOPER	H. R. BRISTOW	C. E. PEARSON	W. E. TREGENZA
CHIEF INSPECTOR.	ASST. SUPT. FINAL	SUPT. WOOD MILL.	MASTER MECHANIC.
	ASSEMBLY AND
	PANEL DEPTS.

L. W. COLLIER	E. ASHWORTH	G. N. DUFFY	P. H. BROOKS
SUPT. METAL	SUPT. FINAL	GENERAL SUPT.	SECRETARY.
DEPARTMENT.	ASSEMBLY AND
	PANEL DEPTS.

E. T. MUSSON	SIR F. W. BAILLIE,	W. P. MURRAY	M. R. RIDDELL
MANAGER.	K.B.E. PRESIDENT.	DIRECTOR.	CHIEF ENGINEER.

G. A. AULT	D. J. NEWSON	H. R. CHOATE	G. R. C. MERRIAM
DESPATCH	CHIEF DRAUGHTSMAN.	ASST. SUPT.	CHIEF ACCOUNTANT.
DEPARTMENT.		METAL DEPT.

W. B. MACDONALD	J. M. WATERMAN	A. H. SALTER	F. L. SHILLINGTON
PLANT ENGINEER.	ASST. CHIEF ASST.	SUPT. WOOD MILL	ASSISTANT
	ENGINEER.		SECRETARY.

FUSELAGE ASSEMBLY.
SAILMAKING ON WINGS.

The machine adopted for use by the Royal Flying Corps was the Canadian JN4, of simple design and presenting no unusual difficulty in manufacture. As work progressed, however, it became apparent that the type could be largely improved by change of design and fabrication, and there was evolved a machine which, while presenting the same appearance as its predecessor, contained nevertheless certain fundamental and radical alterations. Among other points remodelled were the landing gear—the substitution of the “joy stick” for the former control wheel, the adoption of split trailing edge instead of flattened tubing, and, most important, tail units made principally of metal instead of wood, resulting in an increased factor of safety, especially in the rudder and vertical stabilizer. Progress without change is impossible, and thus it proved in this undertaking.

It will be understood that given soundness of design there remains to be provided good workmanship and the best and most suitable materials. The former was procured without much difficulty, but the supply of the latter involved much thought and experiment, it being always remembered that the ideal machine combines a maximum strength with a minimum weight.

Linen for the covering of wings, etc., was imported first from Ireland, but submarine activity made it imperative that a substitute be secured. It was found at the Wabasso Cotton Company’s mills in Three Rivers, Quebec. Here was secured, for the special purpose required, a cotton fabric of remarkable strength. One inch in width is able to support some eighty pounds, and this with a weight which does not exceed four and a half ounces a square yard. Its adoption was at once successful, and it proved capable, when treated with “dope”—a waterproof and windproof solution with celluloid-like finish—of performing the same service as that of the most expensive Irish linen.

After fabric came wood, the quality of which was required to be above anything hitherto known in the lumber trade. Free from knots, of extreme length, with no “wind shakes,” swirly grain or “pitch pockets,” it seemed at first unprocurable. Ash for the longerons or longitudinals of the fuselage, and spruce for wing beams, wing edges, etc., was of imperative necessity. The market was searched, but what material was available proved to yield but a fraction of its total in satisfactory timber. Then, driven by urgent need, the “I.M.B.” organized a department in Vancouver and began to buy for itself on the shores of the Pacific. That its first purchase was rushed by express in carloads from the Western Coast will indicate how extreme was the pressure for sound material. The illustrations on [pages 32] and [34] give some idea of the magnitude of the operations required to produce that exact quality of lumber which the modern aeroplane demands.

It is interesting to note that even with this admirable supply secured, it was found that certain members were so long that it proved necessary to build them up, and, in the building, the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited evolved a scarfed, saw-toothed splice, since adopted as standard by Britain and the United States. Repeated tests proved that greater strength was thus secured than that of solid lumber of the same dimensions.

The Canadian Aeroplanes Limited propeller is five-ply white oak, glued, compressed and formed up by machinery that is almost human—and took its origin from a lathe designed by Peter the Great to make gun stocks. It is a far cry from Russia to Toronto, but the principle is identical. No “C.A.L.” propeller has shown manufacturing or engineering defect. The successor of Peter’s lathe carves them, four at a time, to one thirty-second of their finished form, and the final touches and balancing are hand work. To anyone who has seen a nine-foot propeller running at 1,500 revolutions per minute, its blade points cutting the air at the rate of eight miles a minute, it will be apparent how fine a workmanship and accurate a design is embodied here.

From wood pass to metal. Fuselage and internal wing bracing is with piano-wire which will stand a pull of a ton, though the members to which it is anchored weigh but a few pounds. Inter-plane bracing will live up to a ton and a half, and the control wires will stand the same test. So accurate are these latter that in process of their manufacture the heated metal is drawn through a forming die made of an aperture in a diamond.

In the autumn of 1918 it was decided to undertake the manufacture of a faster and more modern type of machine—the Avro—and to this object the factory diverted its energies. At the date of the armistice two had been turned out. These machines, equipped with 130 horse-power Clerget engines, promised excellent service, and underwent all tests to the complete satisfaction of all concerned. No less than one hundred additional had been fabricated and were ready for assembly when hostilities ceased.

Design—material—workmanship—inspection! These are the four cardinal features of the modern machine. That all have been amply provided in the output of the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited is best evidenced by the fact that not a single one of nearly three thousand aeroplanes turned out has been charged with any accident attributable to any fault in design or manufacture.

From aeroplane to flying boat was a natural transition in an organization so finely balanced and completely equipped, and in April, 1918, the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited undertook to build for the United States navy a fleet of 30 F-5 flying boats, the largest produced to date on this side of the Atlantic. The contract involved competition with two other companies. The latter had been in the business from two to four years, and had on hand not only ample material but also a large staff of assembling mechanics. In the race that followed, the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited finished three weeks ahead—an illustration of the fact that the best type of organization is that which is not so wedded to one class of output as to be unable to adapt its methods and its plant to kindred, if varying, undertakings. So satisfactory was the work to the U.S. authorities, that it called forth the following letter from the American admiral in charge:—

“On account of the excellent workmanship of Canadian Aeroplanes shown in the construction of navy flying boats, the bureau is glad to recommend the facilities of your plant, and it is hoped that additional work in aircraft construction may be secured elsewhere.”

The feat was not without effort. The thirty boats contracted for have been delivered, the first being turned out within three months from receipt of order. The shipments included spares to the extent of one additional boat in every three, exclusive of hull. It was not necessary to engage any additional staff, but it was necessary to give the training required to convert the aeroplane builder into the boat builder. This construction filled in a period between orders for machines for the Royal Air Force, but it involved the purchasing of special material from the United States, in which market the U.S. competitors of the company were already firmly established.

TEST OF FIRST C.A.L. MACHINE.
FIRST AVRO MACHINE OF C.A.L.

FINISHING PROPELLERS.

Boat building was, however, but a side issue of the primary purpose of the organization. It was formed to supply an Imperial brigade with ample and satisfactory aeroplanes. That this was done is unquestionable; but it is questionable whether those responsible for its organization and those under whose guiding hands it grew so amazingly foresaw the proportion the business was to assume or the peculiarly intimate relationship it established with the work of the brigade. The various reports of the General Officer Commanding on this subject pay unstinted tribute to the excellence of the service rendered. More than this, it is due to the qualities of the Canadian JN4 machine as manufactured in Toronto by the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited that training in flying by the Royal Air Force was so advanced that it covered the practice of all aerial manoeuvres and “stunts” possible on any machine.

In the graphs on [pages 54] and [55] will be found certain data of interest giving the progress of manufacture, etc., but the essential figures are those not written. They are to be found, if computable, in the service rendered to the Empire by some three thousand pilots who first took to the air in machines made by this great national plant.

Canadian Aeroplanes Limited—Monthly Output of Machines
In Addition 30 Flying Boats for U.S. Navy

Canadian Aeroplanes Limited—Monthly Strength of Employes

A WOODLAND SCENE.
A COMFORTABLE CRASH.

[THE COST OF TRAINING]

Herewith is given a diagram presenting the net cost of the work of the brigade in Canada. The disbursements indicated include the total of all sums paid out both by the Corps and the Aviation Department of the I.M.B.

This cost, being $9,835 per pilot trained, will, it is estimated, be reduced to $9,660 when the various assets of the brigade have been liquidated. It will be seen that no amount has been apportioned against the complete training of 137 observers, and the partial training of 3,500 cadets who were on the strength and in various stages of ground tuition in November, 1918.

From December, 1917 to April, 1918, both brigade and Imperial Munitions Board expenditures show a decrease. This is due to the fact that for these months the cost of aeroplanes, engines, spares, etc., were met by the U.S. Signal. Service, for whom the Corps trained a large number of pilots. The amount thus saved by the Corps may be considered as approximately equal to that spent on the partial training of 3,500 cadets and included in the gross sum mentioned.

The increase in outlay by the Imperial Munitions Board in the autumn of 1918 was occasioned by a large building programme, designed to accommodate the entire brigade in winter quarters, no further move to Texas being contemplated. When hostilities ceased this accommodation was practically finished.

It will be noted that the winter of 1918 found the brigade with its capital expenditure complete, and subject only to such maintenance charges as rations, pay, repairs, etc. Had training, therefore, been continued, it is without doubt that pilots would have been turned out at a cost very much less than that above indicated.

R.A.F. Can.—Monthly Disbursements and Training Costs

OFFICERS, 81ST SQUADRON, CAMP RATHBUN.

HEADQUARTERS OFFICERS AND STAFF.

[HEADQUARTERS STAFF.]

The duties undertaken by the headquarters staff of the Corps were, in many respects, much more onerous than those which fall to the lot of a similar establishment in Great Britain, and comprised not only the routine work of the brigade, but also very many functions which under home conditions would have been assumed by either the War Office or the Air Ministry.

Looking back at the past two years, it appears that although the headquarters burden was thus increased, the arrangement proved distinctly to the advantage of the Corps, resulting as it did in the centralization of authority and a constant unity of purpose and procedure which otherwise would have been difficult of achievement.

To make the matter perfectly clear, the Royal Air Force, Canada, must be considered as a unit operating outside the boundaries of the usual activities of the Air Ministry, and endowed with special authority and freedom of action, but handicapped, nevertheless, by certain limitations, which, although greatly alleviated by the helpful attitude of the Canadian authorities, made it imperative that extreme care should be used both in policy and action.

It is obvious from the chapter which deals with the [matter of recruiting], that particular judgment had to be used in the means adopted to bring the Corps up to the necessary strength, and it was doubly important that every precaution be taken to avoid enlisting men who were subject to the provisions of the Canadian Military Service Act.

Only in very special cases where the applicant’s qualifications made the enlistment desirable, was any recruit signed on who came under the provision of this Act.

The organization and formation of units was, of course, constantly subject to fluctuations in recruiting, and that these units were so soon brought up to workable strength, speaks well for the care given in this respect.

The arrangements made between Brigade Headquarters and the Department of Militia and Defence in Ottawa were all important; and negotiations for medical service, rations, etc., etc., having been completed with satisfaction to the Canadian government, it fell to headquarters staff to maintain a constant and careful liaison with the various departments involved. In addition there were also many important conferences at Washington, these resulting in a complete understanding between the U.S. Signal Service and the brigade, which understanding took admirable shape in the reciprocal training agreement so successfully carried out by the Corps in Canada and Texas.

Responsibility for training in Canada lay with the officer of headquarters staff on this duty, and constant touch was maintained with Great Britain in order that the methods of the Canadian unit might always reflect every recent advance in the system adopted.

Reference has been made elsewhere to the excellent service given by the Curtiss engine and Canadian JN4 aeroplane. This machine became out of date a little later, but such were its qualifications of strength and manoeuvring capacity, that, during the more recent period of the work of the brigade all pilots were sent overseas with flying instruction practically complete, needing only an introduction to machines, which although faster and more modern, were able to perform few manoeuvres which had not already been done on the JN4.

LT.-COL. J. RUBIE	LT.-COL. F. R. G. HOARE	LT.-COL. A. K. TYLEE

MAJ. O. C. MACPHERSON		MAJOR O’REILLY
	BRIG.-GEN. C. G. HOARE, C.M.G.
MAJ. J. M. MITCHELL		MAJ. H. B. DENTON

CAPT. C. J. BLACKMORE	MAJ. M. A. SEYMOUR	MAJ. J. INWOOD

80TH SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN—OFFICERS AND MECHANICS.

READY FOR THE AIR.
THE TAKE-OFF—WINTER FLYING.

SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICS—CANTEEN.
DINING HALL.

Owing to the fact that one-half of the personnel of the brigade was in a constant state of flux, and moving forward from unit to unit, additional work was thrown upon both the Records and Quartermaster’s department, and the prompt manner in which these organizations adapted themselves to the changing needs is worthy of mention. The move to Texas created an involved situation which was made workable only by a very special effort and complete coöperation with the Imperial Munitions Board, and, in spite of the strain thus occasioned, the success of this move must always be recalled with particular satisfaction by those responsible for its arrangement.

The Quartermaster branch discharged, as well, the duty of a Quartermaster-General’s department, this being but one instance out of many in which the obligations of individual sections of the brigade were enlarged till they paralleled the work elsewhere performed by the Air Board or the War Office.

The composition of the Canadian units decided upon by the War Office, varied considerably from that of units already established in England, and, in consequence, the mobilization and equipment tables heretofore in use proved in most respects inapplicable to Canadian requirements. Thus there was thrown upon the Aircraft Equipment branch the almost unprecedented duty of compiling all the data determining every item of equipment to be supplied for carrying on the work of the Corps.

It was provided from the first that responsibility for price and point of purchase would be borne by the Aviation Department, and the burden of the A.E. branch ceased when requisitions were handed to the former. This, however it eased the situation, still left upon the A.E. branch the constant onus of working out in detail the entire list of engines and aeroplanes, with their multitudinous spares, and the complicated list of stores, technical and otherwise, requisite for the training of a continuous stream of pilots.

The records of the branch show that while the supply of machines from the Canadian Aeroplanes factory was invariably dependable, considerable difficulty was experienced in securing deliveries of engines, and, on occasions, machines were sent to the wings without engines, the latter to be installed when received.

Motor transport being carefully considered, the original orders proved practically sufficient for all needs, and there was purchased only about one half of the equipment officially authorized. Had not the units at Beamsville and Hamilton been organized, the provision made early in 1917 would have proved sufficient. In the supply of aeroplane spares, the excellent service rendered by the repair sections of the various flying units in making broken parts serviceable, steadily reduced the monthly proportional outlay.

It is not possible in the scope of a page to go into the innumerable details, the solution of which rested with the A.E. branch. Sufficient funds were of course available, and an admirable coöperation with the Aviation Department of the I.M.B. always saved the situation—even sometimes at the last moment—but the difficulties overcome were very serious, and there were times when the imperative demands of the flying wings seemed almost impossible to satisfy. Added to this, there was increased difficulty in securing supplies after the United States entered the war and placed embargoes on many classes of goods. In spite of all, however, flying was never practically affected by any lack of material.

Since it is desired only to give an outline of headquarters duties, it is asked that the diagram on [page 71] be referred to. The various subdivisions were found to be satisfactory and workable, and to reflect with accuracy those administrative needs on the fulfillment of which depended both the progress of the unit with its co-related branches, and the quality of the pilots it was privileged to turn out.

GERMAN AERODROME, WESTERN FRONT.

BARRIE, ONTARIO.

Brigadier-general C. G. Hoare, C.M.G.
General Officer Commanding

A.O. 1
Lt.-Col. J. Rubie

General Staff duties.
Organization and formation
of units.
Discipline.
Establishments.
Arrangement for movement
of troops.

Records—Major H. B. Denton

Recruiting all cadets and airmen and records
of all non-commissioned members of the Force.

Works Section—Major O. C. Macpherson

Supervision of all structural and aerodrome work.

Discipline—Major C. R. Huggins

Courts martial.

Courts of enquiry re absentees.

Capt. J. L. Langmuir

Assistant Provost Marshal.

A.O. 2
Maj. J. M. Mitchell

General routine.
General administration.
Headquarters orders.
Officers’ records.
Posting and employment
of officers.
Promotions.

Medical Boards }
Dental Services } Maj. O’Reilly

Organization and control of all medical services.

A.O. 2A.—Capt. F. D. Williams

Pay and allowances.

Examination of unit orders.

Civilian claims.

Transportation Warrants—Capt. G. J. Blackmore

A.O. 1A.
Lt.-Col. A. K. Tylee

General supervision of training.

A.O. 1B.—Maj. M. A. Seymour

All Flying training; syllabus of instruction;
courts of enquiry re flying accidents;
reports and graphs re training progress;
technical matters regarding flying (no material);
technical training of officers, non-commissioned
officers, cadets and men.

A.O. 1C.—Capt. W. H. Farnell

Photography; supervision of this instruction at all units.

A.E.
Col. F. R. G. Hoare

Analysis and provision of all technical supplies.

A.E. 1.—Major J. Inwood

Assisting A.E.

Quartermaster Services—Capt. G. J. Blackmore

RAF. Can.—Total Machines—Machines Serviceable Under Repair and Being Erected
March 1917 To Nov. 1918

87TH SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN.

Y.W.C.A.—CAMP BORDEN.
Y.M.C.A.—CAMP BORDEN.

RAF. Can.—Output of Pilots and Observers

[TRAINING IN GENERAL.]

To achieve a brief review of the progressive instruction received by pilots and observers, it is unfortunately necessary to omit reference to many developments which from time to time built up the system finally secured. This is the more regrettable, since the foundations were laid under strenuous circumstances. Insufficient staffs provided with meagre equipment, much of which they themselves had to evolve, did notable service at a time when the demands upon them were constantly increasing. It is hoped, therefore, that those to whom the brigade is indebted for a vast amount of admirable and constructive effort will realize the impossibility of any descriptive detail concerning it, and will find in the ultimate methods adopted the essential fruit of their early labours.

To the photographic record of training on these pages it is now desired to add certain data concerning the routine of instruction.

The cadet enlisting in the Spring of 1918 proceeded to the Cadet Wing at Long Branch after passing through the Recruits Depot, where he received an initiation into infantry training and buzzing (telegraphic receiving and sending) up to his ability in the period. Here he was clothed, equipped and given lectures on personal hygiene, discipline, and the primary features of the R.A.F. This course did not exceed two weeks.

During the eight weeks at the Cadet Wing the pupil’s horizon broadened. He found also that every inducement was offered to proficiency and hard work, for instruction continued even in hospital, provided he was fit to receive it. Sports and physical exercise kept him in condition, and leave was frequent.

PHOTOGRAPHY.
ARTILLERY OBSERVATION SENDING STATIONS.

TESTING RIGGING.
FILLING UP.

His wireless was carried on to receiving and sending eight words a minute, and instruction was given in such a way that he was untroubled by the presence of the cadet beside him, because that cadet received and sent with a different wave length of transmission current. Panneau (see illustration on [page 199]) was read at four words a minute and practice alternated with the use of Aldis signal lamps. Ground strips, reproduced electrically in miniature, required correct reading. The method of locating flashes (symbolic of shell bursts) on clock coding target ([page 158]) demanded special attention to the point of locating ten successive flashes.

Came then aerial navigation, the knowledge of which is essential to all who travel by air. An extremely interesting study this, covering sketching, compass work—both magnetic and prismatic, definitions and conventional signs used—in fact all such information as is necessary not only to read intelligently and quickly any civil or military map and absorb the information often so vitally necessary, but also to construct one which shall be legible for general military and artillery purposes.

It follows, then, that the cadet when he arrived at the School of Aeronautics had already moulted much of the civilian. The plumage of the pilot was beginning to sprout.

At this point his education was carried still further. He applied his map-reading knowledge to an immense reproduction of part of the actual theatre of war, showing whole battlefields in faithful outline. He studied the plotting of an aerial course from point to point, with a given wind velocity and speed of aeroplane. He delved into air and weather conditions in northern France and learned what targets looked like when seen from the air. He began photography, the study of artillery work, zone call systems and those simple yet enormously important and pre-arranged signals between battery and aeroplane. Here, too, he was introduced to the science of bombing.

Moving on to engines of various types, he absorbed their principles of design and operation—with practical work on the engines themselves which were set up on running stands at Camp Leaside and subjected to every temporary indisposition imaginable in order that the pupil might diagnose and remedy the trouble ([page 83]). With the engines he studied the design of the aeroplane, assembling and dismantling till its structure became simple and familiar ([page 172]). Coincident with all this was his education as a soldier, with lectures in military law, procedure, the organization of various arms of the service, the internal economy of R.A.F. squadrons, wings, parks and depots and the various phases of active service duty.

Congested as it may appear, there was in actuality no congestion. This was due not only to the fact that instruction was invariably progressive, but also such mechanical inventiveness had been displayed by the staff that whenever practical instruction involving mechanics of any nature was given, there was always produced the relative mechanical device which showed the practical application of the theory and demonstrated quite unmistakably its physical character.

From the School of Aeronautics to which further reference is made ([page 162]) the cadet proceeded to the Armament School. In the chapter [under this heading] his course is sufficiently outlined, and by the time he arrived at a flying wing he had mastered the theoretical and mechanical essentials of the principles and appliances which were to control his further development.

It was recognized that if instruction in wireless ceased on arrival at the wings, the pupil at once became rusty in these requirements, and, from the commencement of the Corps, work classes were invariably held in this and kindred subjects at all flying units.

Now came the time to which the cadet had been looking forward since his enlistment. Entrusted to a competent instructor, he embarked on flying tuition. Here also was practice in aerial photography, vertical and oblique, and bomb dropping by wireless, in which the pilot signalled the release of an imaginary bomb, the message being received by an observer in a camera obscura hut, who noted also the position of the machine at the instant of release. Formation and fifty-mile cross-country flights were practised, the former as in active service, the latter giving opportunity for map reading in the air, and the actual collection of a variety of information which paralleled the duty to be performed at the front.

Here, too, the cadet climbed to 6,000 feet and remained at this height for fifteen minutes. He flew through clouds guided by compass, read ground strips and Aldis lamp signals, and in general comported himself exactly as though in the air over enemy country, and when he ultimately reported at Camp Leaside it was as a skilled pilot thoroughly at home in his machine and ready for the two final periods of his instruction.

At Leaside, the 43rd Wing, came final tuition in artillery coöperation. Here the cadet absorbed to his capacity all that science and a particularly brilliant system of instruction could give him. The picture target of former days was reproduced on a huge scale, and from work on this the pupil took to the air. From an altitude of 2,000 feet he noted bursts presumed to be those of batteries, located them on his map and wirelessed their position to the receiving battery station, correcting and directing its fire. Information was sent down describing the effect of barrage fire, the movement of troops, the location of wire and similar details. Contact patrol work was studied, as was indeed every feature of artillery coöperation duty, even to the wearing of gauntlets when sending wireless.

All through the period of training his physical condition was regarded as of prime importance; and continual exercises, so arranged as to develop every bodily power, and, in consequence, every mental activity, were faithfully practised. The result was a human mechanism, fit and alert, sound and responsive, and capable of being brought to the highest possible pitch of efficiency.

At the School of Aerial Fighting came the last step in the development of the pilot. Armed with Vickers and Lewis guns he went through a final course of ground gunnery which demonstrated the problems and mechanics of the art of shooting to the last degree. Taking to the air, first with another pilot, he shot at full-sized silhouettes anchored in Lake Ontario a mile from shore. Later, armed with a camera gun loaded with film, he undertook aerial practice on a brother cadet, the developed film showing the accuracy of his aim. Aerial tactics were carried out, and every imaginable manoeuvre of attack and escape has been observable for months at this most interesting of camps. Finally, equipped mentally and physically, with all that the British Empire could do for him, he left for either overseas as the highest product of the R.A.F., Can., or to the School of Special Flying to be tested as an instructor, an equally arduous but more thankless undertaking.

ENGINE TEST SHED—LEASIDE.

OFFICERS’ MESS—LEASIDE.

[NORTH TORONTO.]

The North Toronto wing was the third flying station of the brigade to go into action. It was subdivided into two units, Leaside and Armour Heights, the ground for the former being most generously offered free of charge by the York Land Company and the town of Leaside; while for the use of the latter area the Corps is indebted to F. B. Robins, Esq.

Actual construction commenced on May 21st. Leaside, comprising 222 acres, presented an admirable surface which was carefully drained. The structural programme called for nine flight sheds, together with instructional and repair buildings, etc. At the close of hostilities there was accommodation for 89 officers, 230 cadets, 83 warrant officers and sergeants, and about 600 rank and file, the latter being housed in a large factory building, the use of which was secured from the Leaside Munitions Company. In the autumn of 1918, work was commenced on a central heating plant serving the officers’ and cadets’ quarters.

The territory north, east and west of Leaside presented a country with fairly large fields and but little wooded land, and there was in consequence every opportunity for forced landings. As this station was the main point at which training was given in artillery coöperation, a most complete system of observation huts connected by telephones, was constructed and dotted the countryside for miles around.

Leaside has always been a point of interest to visitors on account of its proximity to Toronto, and has had the honor of inspection by H.R.H. Prince Arthur of Connaught and the Duke of Devonshire, at that time Governor-General of Canada. From Leaside also started the aerial mail which, under the auspices of the Aero Club of Canada, made several trips to Montreal and Ottawa, and demonstrated the great advantage that will no doubt accrue from the use of aerial transport for this purpose.

At Armour Heights were the squadrons detailed to give instruction in what is known as the Armour Heights course. The aerodrome lies some five miles north of Toronto. Here accommodation was provided for 58 officers, 56 cadets, 32 warrant officers and sergeants and 188 rank and file. The type of building and general arrangement of the station did not present any features varying noticeably from other camps, but this unit was always the object of much interest to visitors on account of the advanced flying at all times observable. The output of instructors here graduated has been vital to the success of the Corps, and the keenness and enthusiasm displayed was undoubtedly fostered by the brilliant example set by the flight commander who for many months was in charge. His record has been worthily maintained.

PART OF AERODROME, LEASIDE.

PART OF BEAMSVILLE AERODROME.

[BEAMSVILLE CAMP.]

The site of the School of Aerial Fighting was selected in the autumn of 1917. Actual preparation of some 300 acres comprising the aerodrome began, and the work of building was in full swing by December. Climatic conditions approximated those at Camp Borden some twelve months previously, it being a winter of severe cold and high winds, but so earnestly was construction pushed that the camp stood ready for occupation when the School of Aerial Gunnery, as it then was, returned from Texas at the beginning of April, 1917. This provision did not at the time include barracks for cadets and rank and file.

As will be understood, complete equipment was provided for gunnery practice, the several ranges running from 25 to 200 yards. These were furnished with a diversity of targets for surprise deflection, miniature aeroplane and disappearing target work, the type of butt here constructed proving extremely satisfactory.

Full sized silhouettes of machines, riding on anchored rafts, were also set out in Lake Ontario a mile or so from shore, it having already been established in practice over Lake Worth, Texas, that firing over the water was of great value, owing to the accuracy with which registration could be made and also the excellent opportunity given of arriving at a proper diving angle. Beamsville provided all such advantages, and practice was further stimulated by the use of a fast armour-clad launch, which, travelling at top speed, offered an unusually good target.

As work developed, it became clear that the School was in point of fact one of tuition in aerial fighting, the practice of tactics forming a large part of the instruction given. Its nomenclature was in consequence altered in July, 1918.

In the summer of this year, a fourth squadron was organized and housed, and steps taken to provide permanent accommodation for all ranks. This programme included additional officers’ quarters, and the construction of about a dozen large buildings on the hillside which previously held the tents of the unit. The work had just been completed at the date of the armistice, when the accommodation at this station was sufficient for 122 officers, 400 cadets, 96 warrant officers and sergeants and 768 rank and file.

Other services covered an excellent supply of pure water from the lake, a complete drainage system, and ample electrical facilities from the circuits of the Dominion Power and Transmission Company of Hamilton, from which city Beamsville is some twenty-three miles distant to the eastward.

The trip from Toronto by air was always of interest, paralleling the south shore of Lake Ontario to the long sandspit that cuts off Hamilton Bay from the main lake, along this curving bar and thence over orchard and vineyard along the edge of the great escarpment over which, a little further eastward, plunges the Niagara River. This area is appropriately called the garden of Canada, and the unit found itself fortunate in its surroundings.

OFFICERS AND STRENGTH, SCHOOL OF AERIAL FIGHTING, BEAMSVILLE.

GROUND INSTRUCTIONAL SECTION—CAMP MOHAWK.

[INSPECTION.]

The Aeroplane Inspection Department took the responsibility of determining whether every aeroplane and every engine bought by the Royal Air Force, Canada, complied with the rigid requirements laid down as necessary before acceptance. That the duties of this organization were, in point of fact, admirably carried out, is evident in the splendid results secured by the brigade in flying duty.

The A.I.D. was, under another name, in actual existence in Canada before the arrival of the Corps in January, 1917, being then engaged in supervising the manufacture of machines made in Canada for the Admiralty by a branch of the Curtiss Aeroplane Company situated in Toronto. The work at that time was under the Director of Inspection for the Imperial Ministry of Munitions.

The coming of the Royal Flying Corps to Canada, and the consequent demand for the supply of large numbers of engines and machines, made it advisable that the unit should reap the fullest possible advantage by the expansion of inspection work into an organization, the first duty of which would be vouching for the quality of aeronautical supplies purchased. In order that the work of this Department might be kept absolutely up to date, constant touch was maintained with the Ministry of Munitions in Great Britain, and information regarding every new development was invariably transmitted to Canada without delay. Thus it has been possible that the factories in Canada producing aeroplane material were kept modernized by the best known methods of inspection.

It will be evident that the term inspection was something more than a name. All raw material of every description entering any factory for the manufacture of aeronautical supplies subject to the Aeroplane Inspection Department, is held until a release note is given by the latter, the release note only being issued, in the case of sheet metal, for instance, when a sample has been taken from every sixth sheet and analysed with satisfactory results. In the case of steel tubing, of which a great deal is used, every tenth tube is dealt with likewise, the same minute method being impartially applied to all material received.

As manufacture progresses with the material which has been passed, the manufactured parts themselves are subject to a second inspection, and are not allowed to be sent on to the assembling department unless up to requirements. A common sight in such factories is the supervisor’s metal cage, and it is on record that through one cage passed no less than 150,000 metal parts in one week.

Lastly comes inspection of final assembly; this formerly applied to every machine, but rigging and adjusting before leaving the factory was ultimately reduced to every sixth, results being found acceptable. Here the same rigid method was carried out, and examination release sheets were filled in. If results were satisfactory, these were signed by the Aeroplane Inspection Department, and a copy passed on to the Aircraft Equipment Branch of the R.F.C., the latter refusing each and all deliveries not thus vouched for. So satisfactorily had the system worked out, that at the request of the brigade the Aeroplane Inspection Department installed their representatives to pass upon the work of the Engine and Aeroplane Repair Parks of the brigade.

“A PANCAKE.”
WHAT A MACHINE DID TO A DERRICK—PILOT UNHURT.
COLLISION.

92ND SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN—OFFICERS AND MECHANICS.

FORMATION. GLIDING HOME.
MACHINE SEEN THROUGH A VERTICAL “BANK.”

AEROPLANE REPAIR—CAMP MOHAWK.

In British Columbia, the A.I.D. gave valuable services by the passing of all aeroplane lumber purchased by the Imperial Ministry of Munitions for aeroplane purposes, and from this source was drawn raw material required by Canadian factories. The quantities handled were very large, as much as four and a half million feet being inspected in the course of a month. Other services were the supervision of the manufacture of the many engines purchased by the brigade from the Curtiss Aeroplane and Engine Company in the United States.

In order that there might be a thorough consensus upon all technical questions, there was formed shortly after arrival of the R.A.F. an Aircraft Advisory Board. This consisted of representatives from the factory, from the R.A.F. and from the A.I.D., and dealt with the question of any changes required or contemplated in machines. It is hardly necessary to add that no alterations were actually made without conference between the Board and the A.I.D. The chief inspector states that always and under all circumstances the greatest possible harmony has existed between his organization and that of the R.A.F.

[THE INSTRUCTOR.]

Flying instructors are, for the most part, too good to be sent overseas. This is a bald and possibly astonishing statement. The rest are usually those who, being incapacitated at the front from further active duty, spend the rest of their service imparting valuable knowledge to others. From which it may be seen that the appointment is highly honourable as well as arduous.

In the early days of the R.F.C., Canada, the job was not as exacting as in the later months of the R.A.F., Canada. The instructor was then a man who could fly. To-day he is still a man who can fly, but has, to boot, a peculiar and well developed art of infusing his own skill and courage into the pupil by following a certain recognized procedure which has been demonstrated to be the last word in training. There is nothing in this derogatory to the early instructors. Their work was admirable. In a sense they took even greater risks, owing to the slight preliminary training then afforded to pupils before going up. But the instructor of to-day is one who himself has been instructed not only in the mechanics and dynamics of flight, but also in that inductive process by which he acquires the complete confidence of his pupil. It will be understood therefore, that on the introduction of the more modern system of training, to which reference is made on [page 211], it was necessary to re-examine all instructors and make sure that their abilities equalled the new requirements. In addition it was constantly necessary to be sure that instructors were not growing stale in their work.

85TH SQUADRON—CAMP MOHAWK.

ON THE WESTERN FRONT.

While there is undoubted fascination in flying, the sensation begins to pall after hundreds of hours in the air in a slow machine which circles somewhat monotonously over areas of which every detail has long since been memorized. The Canadian JN4 is considered reliable, with vagaries too slight to demand much attention, and a most excellent machine for instructional purposes. It is not as inherently stable as some others, but instruction on a stable machine would not have been as desirable as on one which required constant if simple control, and effected its higher manoeuvres by acquired momentum and not by engine power.

In Canadian flying therefore, per se, there is nothing particularly attractive for the instructor. The most unstable element is provided by the cadet, and it has been remarked that at the outset “he has many opportunities for error and usually discovers them all.” To anyone who has observed a machine reeling unsteadily around an aerodrome under the guidance of a fledgling pilot, while his instructor sits impassively in the seat of danger, it will be apparent that the latter has attained an abnormal degree of pluck and composure. It is a point of honour with him not to assume control until it is obviously imperative, and even then there is danger lest the pupil, in an excess of fear, cling desperately to the stick and bring about disaster.

With the instructor must be placed the second in command of squadrons. To this officer falls the responsibility of conducting the “pool,” through which all pupils pass before being posted out. Here take place those final tests which determine the cadet’s proficiency. Failing in any one, the pupil is returned for further tuition. To this officer, therefore, the squadron commander looks for the ultimate approval of the work of every cadet, as well for the satisfactory condition of instructors and aerodrome discipline.

There are compensations, however, if no guarantee of personal security. To the instructor, for instance, there is always interest in the never-ending tide of cadets, their personalities, their characteristics as developed in the air and their progress. A cadet’s first solo flight brings, if successful, a peculiar pride to the man who taught him to fly, but if not successful a self-searching to determine what link in the armour of tuition has been weak—for the instructor is held responsible for the crash.

The wing examining officer was called into existence by the introduction of the Gosport system, which in itself has been developed and modified to suit Canadian conditions. The first result of this introduction was that it became necessary to comb out instructors, some of whom had been too long on the job and were “stale,” others too old, others too young to be entirely steady, and others who, though excellent pilots, could not adopt the principles and psychology evolved. Still others needed instruction themselves. To this end the School of Special Flying was established at Armour Heights under a brilliant pilot. A steady supply of well-trained men was assured by the operations of this unit.

Early in the year 1918, the instructors at every wing were put under the wing examining officer, whose duty it was to weed out those who got stale, to test the abilities of all new instructors from time to time, and form his own opinion of their instructional capacity. In addition, it was the obligation of this officer, to investigate the log book of every machine which crashed, and demand an explanation of any apparent discrepancies, and also to keep knowledge of all crashes so as to determine whether any one instructor was responsible for an unreasonable number. In the case of the latter being evident, it was palpable that the instructor was either stale or too young for his work, and he was forthwith sent overseas, where usually under the new and much-longed-for stimulant he did admirably.

OFF TO WORK—CAMP BORDEN.

“STUNTING” AT ARMOUR HEIGHTS.

A mind of peculiar judgment is required to find its chief satisfaction in the achievements of others. This is demanded of all instructors. Deprived of the tremendous incentive of contact with the enemy, isolated, as it were, in a daily repetition of duties that afford little variety, constantly speeding off others to that thrilling destination where they fain would be—others who owe to them their fitness to go—such is the every-day grind.

And yet how tremendously it has all counted! A large part of the work of the brigade was in preparing cadets to a point at which they were deemed worthy of flying instruction. Toward that honourable object was directed a vast amount of effort. Decorations were often subsequently won by pupils whose instructors plugged doggedly along the same old road. There was no publicity, and only junior—very junior rank. Here, therefore, is given earnestly and officially, the grateful thanks of the General Officer Commanding to those men who by their unfailing readiness and pluck have had so splendid a part in turning out the pilots the brigade has been privileged to send overseas.

[THE MEDICAL SERVICE.]

The R.A.F., Canada, is indebted to many Canadian authorities and organizations for assistance rendered, but to none is the debt greater than to the Canadian Army Medical Corps for supplying the personnel from which the medical service of the Royal Air Force has from time to time been built up. The request was made in January by the Imperial Government that the Canadian Militia Department should supply this service. Prompt action was taken, and from a small beginning there has been formed a complete corps of medical officers, medical orderlies and nurses, skilled not only in everyday practice but also in the special work called for at flying camps.

The original intention was to supply only a small camp hospital, with one medical officer and the necessary orderlies at the various aerodromes, but it was soon determined that the work of the Medical Corps covered a much wider range than was anticipated. Almost the first need was that of skilled orderlies who were specially trained in first aid. Owing to calls from overseas, the available number of men was very small, and it was found imperative that the senior medical officer of the R.A.F. provide the necessary training. Coincident with this came a further need of isolation hospitals, which, although the general health of the brigade was maintained at an unusually high standard, were found to be essential in order that the work of training might not suffer in the least degree.

MEDICAL OFFICER AND STAFF, DESERONTO.

HOSPITAL—CAMP BORDEN.
“HUNGRY LIZZIE.”

The responsibilities undertaken by the medical department were made the more onerous, not only because an extremely low percentage of class “A” men were enlisted—and these only owing to their possession of invaluable technical ability, but also because the community at large suffered from severe civilian epidemics of scarlet fever and influenza. Surgical work, with dental surgery—which latter covered many major operations owing to crashes resulting in broken jaws and teeth—comprised a considerable part of the duties performed.

A modern operating room was completely furnished at each aerodrome, together with X-ray equipment at the “out-stations.” In the autumn of 1917, the medical orderlies were further aided by the introduction of nursing sisters. For these also we are indebted to the Canadian Army Medical Corps, and without question their work has been of the highest possible advantage. Thus, by degrees, the medical staff of the Royal Air Force increased its personnel, the burden of its duties and the value of its services.

Ambulance equipment was of prime importance. A Packard machine, provided with a special type of shock absorbers and every possible requisite, not only for first aid but also for fire extinguishing, was stationed at each field, and remained on constant and watchful duty from the time the first aeroplane took the air till the skies were empty for the night. So close was the lookout, that “first aid” was often tearing full-powered to the rescue before the crash completed its descent. The ground traversed being often rough and devoid of roads, it was imperative that the ambulances be perfectly cushioned, lest the condition of “shock” as frequently found in “crash” be aggravated by the journey home. It is hardly conceivable that there could have been found vehicles better designed for the purpose than those selected, and unquestionably lives were saved in consequence of their use. Chemical extinguishers and asbestos blankets, the latter introduced for protection of the pilot in case the crash was in flames, were also carried as part of the equipment.

For winter purposes at outlying stations, the aerial ambulances shown herewith were evolved. With a wide radius, landings could have been made in any suitable, snow-covered place, however inaccessible by motor transport. They were never to be used by the R.A.F., Canada.

In this connection it is interesting to note the degree to which the duties of the medical officers in flying camps varied from the more or less regulated routine met with in other services. The senior medical officer has, from time to time, instilled into his staff certain axioms for their constant guidance. It has been, for instance, necessary that the medical officer in flying camps become, as far as possible, the confidant and adviser of all ranks. It is advisable that he himself get into the air as soon as feasible, and that the machine which carries him be put through all evolutions, in order to acquaint him with the physical phenomena of flying. No machine must leave the ground unless the medical officer on duty is within reach, nor must the latter leave the aerodrome while there is a machine in the air. A further responsibility is that he must pronounce upon the fitness of all cadets and flying officers to take the air, and, further, without hesitation, prevent any man from going up who is, in his opinion, unfit. As routine work he must also conduct a monthly physical inspection of all cadets, and be present at all “test flights.”

The psychological side of medical service takes on new proportions in a flying camp. The personality and characteristics of the patient in question must be always kept in mind so that when investigating air sickness the medical officer may determine whether it is real or assumed. The question of fear, i.e., “aerophobia,” in its actuality, and any loss of nervous control, must be established if existing—and obversely. Any excitement or tension must be carefully distinguished from natural recklessness or other characteristics of what is termed a “thrusting disposition.”

An exhaustive study of the ideal pilot established the fact that he should have an acute and correct sense of equilibrium. This does not appear so essential for an observer, who if he is fairly safe in the air and does not become giddy in stunting, may prove acceptable.

The “rotation tests,” described in detail below, have proved that as regards a great number of successful pilots—referring to those who have flown 100 hours and more,—in no case has a man been discovered who has not conformed to the above standards laid down for admission to the brigade. Above all there is demanded a sound physical condition, by which alone all bodily functions will respond normally.

The following data are taken verbatim from memoranda issued by the senior medical officer and authorized by the G.O.C. for the information of medical and flying officers:—

“For the information of the flying officer, a short explanation of the phenomena of equilibrium may not be out of place. Deep in the bones of the skull, in close connection with the hearing apparatus, lie, one set on each side, a series of three minute canals, filled with a clear fluid and lined with a membrane intimately connected by delicate nervous elements with the brain.

“These canals, each corresponding to half of the arc of a circle, are about half an inch in length, have a diameter of about one-twentieth of an inch and inter-communicate. They lie in the three dimensions or planes of space, and it is primarily due to movements in the contained fluid acting on the delicate nerve terminals, which are directly connected with the brain through fibres of the Vill nerve, that man is enabled to maintain the equilibrium of the body. It may be of interest to note at this point that the corresponding system in birds shows the extremely high degree of development one would expect. Knowing that to be a successful pilot a man must have an accurate and delicate perception of his position in relation to the earth, it is readily seen how intimately the internal ear, its adjuncts, and the problems involved in aeronautics are related. It should be understood that the canals mentioned above have nothing to do with the sense of hearing.

“Close to these, and in the same portion of the bone, lie two others closely resembling the spiral canals found in conch shells, and it is on these canals, also filled with fluid and lined with cells connected to the brain by fine nervous filaments, that we rely for our auditory impressions. It has been proved that not only dizziness, but also nausea and vomiting, all untoward symptoms frequently encountered in airmen, are closely connected with lesions or functional disturbances of the labyrinth of the auditory apparatus.

“In order to test the action of these canals, the contained fluid may be set in motion by rotating the body. This is most readily done by seating the patient in a revolving chair, and so, with the head in different planes, testing the different canals in turn. It has been found that pilots experiencing difficulty in flying, especially in maintaining equilibrium, and those who are troubled with vertigo or nausea, often show abnormal reactions, and it is for this reason that these tests are employed. These ‘rotation’ or ‘turning tests’ have been used for a considerable time in connection with diseases of the internal ear and in the diagnosis of lesions of the brain, but it is only recently, as a result of experimental work, that their application to aeronautics has been demonstrated and proved to be of practical value.

OPERATING ROOM. CAMP BORDEN HOSPITAL.

WINTER CRASHES.

“In the ‘nystagmus test’ the applicant is first spun in the chair exactly ten times in twenty seconds, accurately checked with a stop watch. The examiner now carefully observes certain lateral, jerking movements of the eyes which normally appear, but should cease on an average in twenty-six seconds. A certain variation is allowed from the normal time, and cadets for pilots not conforming to this test should not be allowed to fly. In it the head is tilted forward to an angle of thirty degrees in order to stimulate only those canals which lie in the horizontal plane.

“In order to stimulate those canals lying in the vertical plane, ‘falling tests’ are employed. The subject is instructed to lean forward, resting his forehead on his hands which are placed on his knees, and is then turned alternately to right and left five times in ten seconds.

“Should he be rotated to the right and be ordered to sit up, he should immediately fall to the right, which is the normal reaction, but should he sit directly upright or fall to the opposite direction, a faulty functioning of these canals or of the pathways in the brain is thus demonstrated.

“‘Pointing tests’ are applied somewhat similarly. The candidate is turned ten times in ten seconds alternately to right and left, with eyes closed. He is then instructed to raise his arm and point to a fixed object, usually the examiner’s finger, of the position of which he is already aware. As a result of the dizziness produced, if he has been turned to the right, he should point to the right of the object. This ‘past-pointing’ is a normal reaction, and any considerable deviation will immediately reject the applicant. Even after the chair has stopped, the man still feels that he is turning and is endeavouring to locate the fixed point. The ‘past-pointing’ shows that he is attempting to allow or the rotary motion which he is still experiencing, though actually the chair is stationary.

“Since the more sensitive, theoretically, a man is, as shown by ‘turning tests,’ the more likely he is to be a good pilot, as he should be able to detect more accurately and early the movements of his plane without the use of his eyes. This is, however, true only to a limited degree, for we have found that as a rule the higher the nystagmus time, the more likely is the man to suffer from vertigo, nausea or vomiting in the air. On the other hand, theoretically, a man with a short period of nystagmus should be less sensitive to unpleasant, subjective sensations, and those with ‘dead labyrinths’ ought to be immune.

“The practical deduction is that in good pilots the ocular oscillations must not vary to any considerable extent, say not more than ten to twelve seconds; on the other hand the lower or shorter the time the better a man should be able to stand the violent swaying of a captive balloon, since it is this motion above all others that produces the most intense nausea and emesis. Following the above to its logical conclusion, we in practice reject men who show too high a nystagmus time, and recommend for observers, and especially for balloonists, those showing sluggish reactions.”

Failure to conform to either the pointing or falling reactions required are good and sufficient reasons to reject applicants for cadet pilots.

It is probable that to the layman much of the foregoing will be found technical and scientific, but to the investigator into the physical and psychical phenomena induced by flying, it should be of direct interest. In the medical service of the R.A.F., Canada, the value of these tests in their standardized form was first proved by their application to men who were actually unfit to fly, and the case sheets of many such are on file in that department.

Their adoption only followed after the analysis and continual checking of results obtained by tests not only upon those who desired to take to the air, but also those who, having flown, were reported by their instructors to be unfit to continue, and which showed that they were demonstrably correct, and not merely deduced from a priori assumption.

REACTION AFTER TURNING TO THE LEFT.
REVOLVING CHAIR TESTS.

REACTION AFTER TURNING.
REVOLVING CHAIR TESTS.

Investigations into “oxygen want,” as evidenced by drowsiness, shortness of breath, fainting, etc., at considerable altitudes, have led the authorities to supply pilots with oxygen tanks for use in high altitudes, since it is not the density of atmosphere but the dearth of oxygen which causes these distressing symptoms. An apparatus has recently been perfected by means of which, by diluting the respired air with nitrogen, it is now possible to determine accurately the altitude beyond which a pilot may fly in safety, and so it is hoped to prevent many casualties, and assist in the “classification” of airmen with reference to their flying capabilities.

Vision, which when abnormal causes headaches, dizziness, etc., should be normally stereoscopic, and the accommodation perfect in at least one eye; but while accurate color vision is considered desirable, it is not essential providing the primary colors are correctly recognized.

Amongst other tests adopted by the brigade are those giving the vital lung capacity, the expiratory force, also complemental and supplemental air, the former being the measurement of the excess capacity of the lungs over a normal intake of air, the latter that quantity of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration.

Excess of any nature is frowned on. Excessive tea or coffee drinking, or any semblance of nicotine poisoning at once asserts itself. The strain of instruction also produces definite phenomena, and pilots retained for this duty are limited to three and a half hours’ flying daily. These phenomena are watched for, and treated sanely and sympathetically, till the individual with all his personal variations becomes as it were a human barometer, which infallibly records the actions and reactions of the flying man’s life.

Owing to the fact that the pioneer attempt at systematic winter training, without regard to temperature, was undertaken during 1917-18 in Canada and successfully concluded during the severest weather of many years, certain new problems required solution. When it is realized that machines flew at ground temperatures as low as -35 degrees Fah., the occurrence of frostbite and any effect of the intense cold on the mental faculties, to the extent of producing drowsiness and even stupor, was extremely infrequent. The flying clothing provided, the Hawker boots, the gauntlets and chamois face masks, which were adopted after all ointments, oils, etc., generally in use in altitude flying, froze in situ, most effectually prevented the expected difficulties, so completely indeed that during the whole winter season no serious casualties could be traced to the effect of the low temperatures encountered.

Such in brief outline are some of the major investigations peculiar to the duties of the medical staff of the brigade. To these are of course added others better known, such as blood pressure, etc. Couple them with psycho-mental problems, and they give some suggestion of the history compiled for every would-be pilot and observer, an intimate history unapproached in detail and interest by any other tabulation of personal phenomena.

In conclusion, it is desired that special acknowledgment be made of the exceptional service rendered by medical officers on the aerodromes, and by the staff of medical orderlies distributed through the brigade.

The hours of the former were long and arduous, the duties of the latter, for which they were trained by the senior medical officer and his staff, were manifold and pressing. That they were admirably performed is of common knowledge, but that their swiftness in succour and skill in first aid saved many a life, is known only to those who have been privileged to see them at work.

AERIAL AMBULANCE.

R.A.F. Can.—Monthly Strength in Canada and Percentage Incapacitated by Illness

[WINTER FLYING.]

Prior to the operations of the Corps, it was generally assumed that the obstacles to intensive training in a snow-covered country were almost insuperable, but in the light of last winter’s experience it is difficult to imagine the limit to which the aeroplane may not safely be used in the latitudes of the far north. Its apparent fragility, the exposure of the pilot, the fact that a large percentage of accidents occurred in making landings, and the mental picture of a machine floundering through snowdrifts in an attempt to rise, all seemed to reduce the matter to an impossibility. To-day it has been demonstrated by the work of the 44th Wing of this unit that, with such provision as has already been proved suitable, the aeroplane will rise from a snow surface more easily than from bare ground at temperatures far below zero, land in spots inaccessible in summer time, and that the pilot may be maintained in physical comfort and security and practically immune to the weather.

The process was one of return to aboriginal principles, in that there was adopted a method used by the North American Indian, since first he traversed the frozen waste. Experiments soon evidenced that undercarriage wheels were out of the question in snow more than six inches deep, and by the elimination of things that rotated and the adoption of things that slid, the aeroplane fell, so to speak, into line with the winter customs of the country. The progressive experiments out of which were evolved the skids finally adopted, called for the united suggestions of the unit, the Repair Park and the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited, but passing over the investigations into proper length, width, anchorage, bow curve, and kindred points, the result was an effective and curiously attractive combination of ancient and modern. As seen in the illustration on [page 130], this gives the machine a semi-naval appearance—prophetic perhaps of the early union between the air forces of land and sea in the R.A.F.

Once in regular use, the efficiency of these shoes became very noticeable. The slight bump observable in the best of landings smoothed itself out into a gently cushioned settling in which the actual first contact with the snow was imperceptible. Similarly, in taking off, the sensation was as in a toboggan darting without friction down a steep slope. Breakage in propellers and undercarriages became reduced to a minimum, and frequent landings soon ironed out the white expanse of the aerodrome to an unusually good surface.

The protection of the pilot was of prime importance to continuous training, and since flying was carried on at temperatures much below zero, particular attention was given to guarding against frostbite. Whale oil, vaseline, etc., smeared on the skin gave only partial results, and it was not till long flying boots coming to the thigh were provided, and chamois masks covering the face, with holes for eyes and mouth were also issued, that comfort was finally attained. Thus the pilot could remain in the air for a much longer period, and perform instructional work with ease. The unit lacked the electrically-heated clothing issued on the Western Front, but it did not suffer in consequence. There were variations, of course, in the powers of resistance to cold, it being found that some pilots could endure low temperatures much better than others—and this called for the particular attention of the medical officer on the aerodrome.

LEASIDE IN WINTER.

AERODROME, CAMP MOHAWK.

A WINTER CRASH.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Experimental Adopted

R.A.F. Can.—Winter Flying Skids

As to the engines themselves, but little trouble was experienced. What did materialize was met by precautions somewhat similar to those taken in motor car work under parallel conditions. All petrol, oil and water were carefully drawn off every evening, the two latter being heated when replaced. Radiators were three-quarter covered by beaver board lined with felt, this plan working quite satisfactorily. Inspection of rigging was particularly close, lest the extreme cold should have set up undue stress in tension members, but the JN4 seemed born for the duty, and so far as records go, no accident took place which is in any way attributable to mechanical failure brought about by low temperature.

It was decided also to make certain slight changes in tail construction should flying be carried on for another winter. This consisted only of enclosing the tail skid in a flexible cover at the point where it left the fuselage—to prevent snow from accumulating inside the latter.

Further protective measures were very simple, such as wrapping water connections with felt and fabric, and removing the oil gauge from rear to front seat to shorten the piping, and leading it between the cylinders to secure maximum warmth. For the rest, the hangars were banked with earth some two feet high, and maintained at a temperature not below fifteen degrees of frost.

That the programme was successful may be seen from the fact that though the winter was of unusual severity, both as to cold and snowfall, flying was carried out for twenty-six days in January, twenty-one in February, and twenty-five in March. For these months, the records give an average day temperature of twenty-six degrees, twenty-two degrees, and seventeen degrees above zero, respectively, with a minimum of thirty-five degrees below. During this period, some instructors kept up an average flying time per day of two hours and twenty-five minutes for the whole three months.

On this record it was decided that the training of all squadrons should be carried out in Canada for the following winter. This has proved unnecessary. The campaign is over. But who will now scout the prediction that the far North has no barriers which the explorer may not surmount with ease and swiftness, and no secrets which shall not soon be revealed to his enfranchized gaze.

RECORDS AND RECRUITING OFFICERS AND STAFF.

RECRUITS’ DEPOT—JESSE KETCHUM BARRACKS, TORONTO.

[RECRUITS’ DEPOT.]

This unit, formed on February 5th, 1917, was first stationed in the Givens Street School, Toronto, which building was also partly occupied by the 228th Canadian Regiment. Recruiting, however, was active, and the R.F.C. began to show such strong signs of the marked popularity it was to attain later, that extra accommodation was soon required, and Crawford Street School taken over.

During the summer, it was seen that even this accommodation was insufficient. The Depot, therefore, moved out to Leaside, and under canvas.

The strength, at this time about 400, was largely increased by the arrival of four American squadrons to be trained by the R.F.C. These were attached to Recruits’ Depot for rations and accommodation. It is satisfactory to remember that this first contact between the two corps was productive of an admirable comradeship which has existed ever since. It is noted also that canteen profits greatly increased, and a large percentage of these was handed to each American squadron on its departure.

The quartermaster’s branch of the Recruits’ Depot being still at Givens Street, it was realized that much extra clerical and other work would be saved could the whole depot be centralized. Steps were therefore taken by headquarters to acquire convenient barracks in town.

Early in September, the Recruits’ Depot band was formed—largely helped by surplus canteen funds. It has been a source of much pride and also of a certain amount of amusement to the men of the depot. All parties for Texas or the United States were “played” down to the railway station, and the band and “Bruno” (the camp dog—a handsome St. Bernard) invariably accompanied the bi-weekly route marches.

In October the need of permanent accommodation in town became urgent. It was eventually found (owing to the great generosity of the Board of Education, Toronto), at the Jesse Ketchum School—a large and commodious building, which was completed as fast as possible, and loaned absolutely free of cost, including the larger part of the park attached to the building, which it was permitted to use as a parade and sports’ ground. This consideration was only typical of the way in which Toronto public authorities have invariably dealt with the Royal Flying Corps.

The Depot moved into town on the 17th November, 1917, and was in good workable shape by the middle of December.

To these barracks, cadets, for the first time, were sent for preliminary training, and three or four hundred were thus added to normal strength, which stood at about 700. The ordinary accommodation proving insufficient for this number, double bunks were placed in all the sleeping rooms, where high ceilings and good lighting made the provision entirely feasible.

The band at this time was a first class organization, and in great demand for dances and hockey matches—half the profits made being allotted to the Longwood Convalescent Home. Concerts were held in the canteen three times a week. As to exercise, an ice hockey rink was made, a football ground rolled out, and three billiard tables put in the canteen, the electric lighting of the rink being given free of cost by the City Parks Commissioner. There was, therefore, no lack of amusement or exercise throughout an unusually severe winter.

The routine of procedure has been briefly as follows: Upon arrival at the Depot, all recruits reported to the non-commissioned officer in charge of the receiving room, and were allotted sleeping accommodation. Medical parade for final approval was held each morning at nine o’clock, and an hour later recruits received their regimental numbers as “finally approved.” Came a parade at quartermaster stores for issue of kit. Transfer clothing statements and clothing ledger being signed, all reported back immediately to the receiving room for the numbering of all articles of kit now in their possession. Civilian clothes were packed and sent to any address the owner might wish, and recruits were turned over to the barrack orderly sergeant who “carried on.”

On discharge, the procedure is practically reversed, and all men report to the postings department, for the checking of documents. These being correct, sleeping quarters are allotted in space set aside for this purpose. The same day, kits are laid out for inspection, and inventories taken under the supervision of an officer. These, being signed also by each man concerned, are sent to the Quartermaster’s office, and checked against the original clothing statements. Deficiency slips—should such result—(showing articles deficient, if any, and their value) go then to the postings department, to be checked against pay and mess book. This information is sent to the officer in charge Records, on receipt of whose signal that discharge may be proceeded with, an order is issued to the contractor for civilian clothing to provide authorized civilian outfit. The man’s kit is turned into the Quartermaster’s store No. 4, where another inventory of articles is made and forwarded to the Quartermaster’s office, to be again checked against the original clothing statement. Forms showing actual shortages of kit are submitted to the Paymaster and a copy of Can. 638 (Particulars on Discharge) to the Pay Department.

Since the inception of the brigade approximately 16,000 men have passed through this unit. The process of demobilization will require the above procedure of discharge to be applied to a strength of not less than 12,000.

R.A.F. Can.—Pay Allowance and Cadet Sustenance
Total Feb. 1917 to Oct. 1918—$10,666,196.00

AVIATIONIN CANADA

1917–1918

AVIATION
IN CANADA