On Translating the Bible.
c. 1385-90.
[Chapter xv. of the Prologue to the second recension of the Wycliffite Version. Attributed to John Purvey.]
How every man should con and keep the scripture, and holy writ is the scripture of peoples, as Jerome saith.
or as much as Christ saith that the gospel shall be preached in all the world, and David saith of the apostles and their preaching, "the sound of them yede out into each land, and the words of them yeden out into the ends of the world," and eft David saith, "the Lord shall tell in the scriptures of peoples, and of these princes that were in it," that is, in holy church, and as Jerome saith on that verse, "holy writ is the scripture of peoples, for it is made, that all peoples should know it," and the princes of the church, that were therein, be the apostles, that had authority to write holy writ, for by that same that the apostles wrote their scriptures by authority, and confirming of the Holy Ghost, it is holy scripture, and faith of Christian men, and this dignity hath no man after them, be he never so holy, never so cunning, as Jerome witnesseth on that verse. Also, Christ saith of the Jews that cried "Hosanna" to him in the temple, that though they were still, stones should cry, and by stones he understandeth heathen men, that worshipped stones for their gods. And we English men be come of heathen men, therefore we be understood by these stones, that should cry holy writ, and as Jews, that is interpreted knowledging, signify clerks, that should knowledge to God, by repentance of sins, and by voice of God's hearing, so our lewd men, suing the corner-stone Christ, may be signified by stones, that be hard and abiding in the foundation; for though covetous clerks be wood by simony, heresy and many other sins, and despise and stop holy writ, as much as they may, yet the lewd people crieth after holy writ, to con it, and keep it, with great cost and peril of their life. For these reasons and other, with common charity to save all men in our realm, which God would have saved, a simple creature hath translated the bible out of Latin into English. First, this simple creature had much travail, with divers fellows and helpers, to gather many old bibles, and other doctors, and common gloses, and to make one Latin bible some deal true; and then to study it of the new, the text with the glose, and other doctors, as he might get, and specially Lyra[26] on the Old Testament, that helped full much in this work; the third time to counsel with old grammarians and old divines, of hard words, and hard sentences, how they might best be understood and translated; the fourth time to translate as clearly as he could to the sentence, and to have many good fellows and cunning at the correcting of the translation. First, it is to know, that the best translating is out of Latin into English, to translate after the sentence, and not only after the words, so that the sentence be as open, either opener, in English as in Latin, and go not far from the letter; and if the letter may not be sued in the translating, let the sentence ever be whole and open, for the words owe to serve to the intent and sentence, and else the words be superfluous either false. In translating into English, many resolutions may make the sentence open, as an ablative case absolute may be resolved into these three words, with covenable verb, the while, for, if, as grammarians say; as thus, the master reading, I stand, may be resolved thus, while the master readeth, I stand, either if the master readeth, etc., either for the master, etc.; and sometimes it will accord well with the sentence to be resolved into when, either into afterward, thus when the master read, I stood, either after the master read, I stood; and sometime it may well be resolved into a verb of the same tense, as other be in the same reason, and into this word et, that is, and in English, as thus, arescentibus hominibus prae timore, that is, and men shall wax dry for dread. Also a participle of a present tense, either preterite, of active voice, either passive, may be resolved into a verb of the same tense, and a conjunction copulative, as thus, dicens, that is, saying, may be resolved thus, and saith, either that saith; and this will, in many places, make the sentence open, where to English it after the word, would be dark and doubtful. Also a relative, which, may be resolved into his antecedent with a conjunction copulative, as thus, which runneth, and he runneth. Also when a word is once set in a reason, it may be set forth as oft as it is understood, either as oft as reason and need ask; and this word autem either vero, may stand for forsooth, either for but, and thus I use commonly; and sometimes it may stand for and, as old grammarians say. Also when rightful construction is letted by relation, I resolve it openly, thus, where this reason, Dominum formidabunt adversarii ejus, should be Englished thus by the letter, the Lord his adversaries shall dread, I English it thus by resolution, the adversaries of the Lord shall dread him; and so of other reasons that be like. At the beginning I purposed, with God's help, to make the sentence as true and open in English as it is in Latin, either more true and more open than it is in Latin; and I pray, for charity and for common profit of Christian souls, that if any wise man find any default of the truth of translation, let him set in the true sentence and open of holy writ, but look that he examine truly his Latin bible, for no doubt he shall find full many bibles in Latin full false, if he look, many, namely new; and the common Latin bibles have more need to be corrected, as many as I have seen in my life, than hath the English bible late translated; and where the Hebrew, by witness of Jerome, of Lyra, and other expositors discordeth from our Latin bibles, I have set in the margin, by manner of a glose, what the Hebrew hath, and how it is understood in some place; and I did this most in the Psalter, that of all our books discordeth most from Hebrew; for the church readeth not the Psalter by the last translation of Jerome out of Hebrew into Latin, but another translation of other men, that had much less cunning and holiness than Jerome had; and in full few books the church readeth the translation of Jerome, as it may be proved by the proper originals of Jerome, which he glosed. And whether I have translated as openly or openlier in English as in Latin, let wise men deem, that know well both languages, and know well the sentence of holy scripture. And whether I have done thus, or nay, ne doubt, they that con well the sentence of holy writ and English together, and will travail, with God's grace, thereabout, may make the bible as true and as open, yea, and openlier in English than it is in Latin. And no doubt to a simple man, with God's grace and great travail, men might expound much openlier and shortlier the bible in English, than the old great doctors han expounded it in Latin, and much sharplier and groundlier than many late postillators, either expositors, han done. But God, of his great mercy, give to us grace to live well, and to say the truth in covenable manner, and acceptable to God and his people, and to spill not our time, be it short, be it long, at God's ordinance. But some, that seem wise and holy, say thus, if men now were as holy as Jerome was, they might translate out of Latin into English, as he did out of Hebrew and out of Greek into Latin, and else they should not translate now, as them thinketh, for default of holiness and of cunning. Though this replication seem colourable, it hath no good ground, neither reason, neither charity, for why this replication is more against saint Jerome, and against the first seventy translators, and against holy church, than against simple men, that translate now into English; for saint Jerome was not so holy as the apostles and evangelists, whose books he translated into Latin, neither had he so high gifts of the Holy Ghost as they had; and much more the seventy translators were not so holy as Moses and the prophets, and specially David, neither they had so great gifts of God, as Moses and the prophets had. Furthermore holy church approveth, not only the true translation of mean Christian men, steadfast in Christian faith, but also of open heretics, that did away many mysteries of Jesus Christ by guileful translation, as Jerome witnesseth in a prologue on Job, and in the prologue of Daniel. Much more let the Church of England approve the true and whole translation of simple men, that would for no good in earth, by their witting and power, put away the least truth, yea, the least letter, either tittle, of holy writ, that beareth substance, either charge. And dispute they not of the holiness of men now living in this deadly life, for they con not thereon, and it is reserved only to God's doom. If they know any notable default by the translators, either helpers of them, let them blame the default by charity and mercy, and let them never damn a thing that may be done lawfully by God's law, as wearing of a good cloth for a time, either riding on a horse for a great journey, when they wit not wherefore it is done; for such things may be done of simple men, with as great charity and virtue, as some, that hold them great and wise, can ride in a gilt saddle, either use cushions and beds and cloths of gold and of silk, with other vanities of the world. God grant pity, mercy, and charity, and love of common profit, and put away such foolish dooms, that be against reason and charity. Yet worldly clerks ask greatly what spirit maketh idiots hardy to translate now the bible into English, since the four great doctors durst never do this? This replication, is so lewd, that it needeth no answer, no but stillness, either courteous scorn; for the great doctors were none English men, neither they were conversant among English men, neither in case they could the language of English, but they ceased never till they had holy writ in their mother tongue, of their own people. For Jerome, that was a Latin man of birth, translated the Bible, both out of Hebrew and out of Greek, into Latin, and expounded full much thereto; and Austin, and many more Latins expounded the bible, for many parts, in Latin, to Latin men, among which they dwelt, and Latin was a common language to their people about Rome, and beyond, and on this half, as English is common language to our people, and yet this day the common people in Italy speak Latin corrupt, as true men say, that han been in Italy; and the number of translators out of Greek into Latin passeth man's knowing, as Austin witnesseth in the 2nd book of Christian Teaching, and saith thus, "the translators out of Hebrew into Greek may be numbered, but Latin translators, either they that translated into Latin, may not be numbered in any manner." For in the first times of faith, each man, as a Greek book came to him, and he seemed to himself to have some cunning of Greek and of Latin, was hardy to translate; and this thing helped more than letted understanding, if readers be not negligent, forwhy the beholding of many books hath showed oft, either declared, some darker sentences. This saith Austin there. Therefore Grosted saith, that it was God's will, that divers men translated, and that divers translations be in the church, for where one said darkly, one either more said openly. Lord God! since at the beginning of faith so many men translated into Latin, and to great profit of Latin men, let one simple creature of God translate into English, for profit of English men; for if worldly clerks look well their chronicles and books, they should find, that Bede translated the bible, and expounded much in Saxon, that was English, either common language of this land, in his time; and not only Bede, but also King Alured, that founded Oxford, translated in his last days the beginning of the Psalter into Saxon, and would more, if he had lived longer. Also French men, Beemers[27] and Bretons have the bible, and other books of devotion and of exposition, translated in their mother language; why should not English men have the same in their mother language, I can not wit, no but for falseness and negligence of clerks, either for our people is not worthy to have so great grace and gift of God, in pain of their old sins. God for his mercy amend these evil causes, and make our people to have, and con, and keep truly holy writ, to life and death!
But in translating of words equivocal, that is, that hath many significations under one letter, may lightly be peril, for Austin saith in the 2nd book of Christian Teaching, that if equivocal words be not translated into the sense, either understanding, of the author, it is error; as in that place of the Psalm, the feet of them be swift to shed out blood, the Greek word is equivocal to sharp and swift, and he that translated sharp feet, erred, and a book that hath sharp feet, is false, and must be amended; as that sentence unkind young trees shall not give deep roots, oweth to be thus, plantings of aoutrry shall not give deep roots. Austin saith this there. Therefore a translator hath great need to study well the sentence, both before and after, and look that such equivocal words accord with the sentence, and he hath need to live a clean life, and be full devout in prayers, and have not his wit occupied about worldly things, that the Holy Spirit, author of wisdom, and cunning, and truth, dress him in his work, and suffer him not for to err. Also this word ex signifieth sometimes of, and sometimes it signifieth by, as Jerome saith; and this word enim signifieth commonly forsooth, and, as Jerome saith, it signifieth cause thus, for why; and this word secundum is taken for after, as many men say, and commonly, but it signifieth well by, either up, thus by your word, either up your word. Many such adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions be set oft one for another, and at free choice of authors sometimes; and now they shall be taken as it accordeth best to the sentence. By this manner, with good living and great travail, men may come to true and clear translating, and true understanding of holy writ, seem it never so hard at the beginning. God grant to us all grace to con well, and keep well holy writ, and suffer joyfully some pain for it at the last! Amen.
Footnotes:
[26] Nicolaus de Lyra.
[27] Bohemians.
Dialogue between a Lord and
a Clerk upon Translation.
[From Trevisa's Translation of Higden's Polychronicon.]
1387 ?
he Lord.—Sith the time that the great and high tower of Babylon was builded, men have spoken with divers tongues, in such wise that divers men be strange to other and understand not others' speech. Speech is not known but if it be learned; common learning of speech is by hearing, and so alway he that is deaf is alway dumb, for he may not hear speech for to learn. So men of far countries and lands that have divers speeches, if neither of them have learned others' language, neither of them wot what other meaneth. Though they meet and have great need of information and of lore of talking and of speech, be the need never so great, neither of them understandeth other's speech no more than gagling of geese. For jangle that one never so fast, that other is never the wiser, though he shrew him instead of 'good-morrow'! This is a great mischief that followeth now mankind; but God of His mercy and grace hath ordained double remedy. One is that some man learneth and knoweth many divers speeches, and so between strange men, of the which neither understandeth other's speech, such a man may be mean and tell either what other will mean. That other remedy is that one language is learned, used, and known in many nations and lands. And so Latin is learned, known, and used, specially on this half Greece, in all the nations and lands of Europe. Therefore clerks, of their goodness and courtesy, make and write their books in Latin, for their writing and books should be understood in divers nations and lands. And so Ranulphus, monk of Chester (Ralph Higden), wrote in Latin his books of Chronicles, that describeth the world about in length and in breadth, and maketh mention and mind of doings and deeds of marvels and wonders, and reckoneth the years to his last days from the first making of heaven and of earth. And so therein is great and noble information and lore to them that can therein read and understand. Therefore I would have these books of Chronicles translated out of Latin into English, for the more men should them understand and have thereof cunning, information and lore.
The Clerk.—These books of Chronicles be written in Latin, and Latin is used and understood on this half Greece in all the nations and lands of Europe. And commonly English is not so wide understood, ne known; and the English translation should no man understand but English men alone; then how should the more men understand the Chronicles, though they were translated out of Latin, that is so wide used and known, into English, that is not used and known but of English men alone?
The Lord.—This question and doubt is easy to assail. For if these Chronicles were translated out of Latin into English, then by that so many the more men should understand them as understand English, and no Latin.
The Clerk.—Ye can speak, read, and understand Latin; then it needeth not to have such an English translation.
The Lord.—I deny this argument; for though I can speak, read, and understand Latin, there is much Latin in these books of Chronicles that I can not understand, neither thou, without studying, avisement, and looking of other books. Also, though it were not needful for me, it is needful for other men that understand no Latin.
The Clerk.—Men that understand no Latin may learn and understand.
The Lord.—Not all; for some may not for other manner business, some for age, some for default of wit, some for default of chattel, other of friends to find them to school, and some for other divers defaults and lets.
The Clerk.—It needeth not that all such know the Chronicles.
The Lord.—Speak not too straitly of thing that needeth; for straitly to speak of thing that needeth, only thing that is, and may not fail, needeth to be. And so it needeth that God be, for God is, and may not fail. And, so for to speak, no man needeth for to know the Chronicles, for it might and may be that no man them knoweth. Otherwise to speak of thing that needeth; somewhat needeth for to sustain or to have other things thereby, and so meat and drink needeth for keeping and sustenance of life. And, so for to speak, no man needeth for to know the Chronicles. But in the third manner to speak of thing that needeth, all that is profitable needeth, and, so for to speak, all men need to know the Chronicles.
The Clerk.—Then they that understand no Latin may ask and be informed and ytaught of them that understand Latin.
The Lord.—Thou speakest wonderly, for the lewd man wots not what he should ask, and namely of lore of deeds that come never in his mind; nor wots of whom commonly he should ask. Also, not all men that understand Latin have such books to inform lewd men; also some can not, and some may not, have while, and so it needeth to have an English translation.
The Clerk.—The Latin is both good and fair, therefore it needeth not to have an English translation.
The Lord.—The reason is worthy to be plunged in a pludde and laid in powder of lewdness and of shame. It might well be that thou makest only in mirth and in game.
The Clerk.—The reason must stand but it be assoiled.
The Lord.—A blear-eyed man, but he were all blind of wit, might see the solution of this reason; and though he were blind he might grope the solution, but if his feeling him failed. For if this reason were aught worth, by such manner arguing men might prove that the three score and ten interpreters, and Aquila, Symachus, Theodocion, and Origines were lewdly occupied when they translated holy writ out of Hebrew into Greek; and also that Saint Jerome was lewdly occupied when he translated holy writ out of Hebrew into Latin, for the Hebrew is both good and fair and y-written by inspiration of the Holy Ghost; and all these for their translations be highly praised of all Holy Church. Then the foresaid lewd reason is worthy to be powdered, laid a-water and y-soused. Also holy writ in Latin is both good and fair, and yet for to make a sermon of holy writ all in Latin to men that can English and no Latin, it were a lewd deed, for they be never the wiser for the Latin, but it be told them in English what it is to mean; and it may not be told in English what the Latin is to mean without translation out of Latin into English. Then it needeth to have an English translation, and for to keep it in mind that it be not forgeten, it is better that such a translation be made and written than said and not written. And so this foresaid lewd reason should move no man that hath any wit to leave the making of English translation.
The Clerk—A great deal of these books standeth much by holy writ, by holy doctors, and by philosophy; then these books should not be translated into English.
The Lord—It is wonder that thou makest so feeble arguments, and hast gone so long to school. Aristotle's books and other books also of logic and of philosophy were translated out of Greek into Latin. Also at praying of King Charles, John Scott translated Deny's books out of Greek into Latin, and then out of Latin into French; then what hath English trespassed that it might not be translated into English? Also King Alured, that founded the University of Oxford, translated the best laws into English tongue, and a great deal of the Psalter out of Latin into English, and caused Wyrefrith, Bishop of Worcester, to translate Saint Gregory's books, the dialogues, out of Latin into Saxon. Also Caedmon of Whitby was inspired of the Holy Ghost, and made wonder poesies in English nigh of all the stories of holy writ. Also the holy man Beda translated St. John's gospel out of Latin into English. Also thou wotest where the Apocalypse is written in the walls and roof of a chapel, both in Latin and in French. Also the gospel, and prophecy, and the right faith of holy church must be taught and preached to English men that can no Latin. Then the gospel, and prophecy, and the right faith of holy church must be told them in English, and that is not done but by English translation, for such English preaching is very translation, and such English preaching is good and needful; then English translation is good and needful.
The Clerk—If a translation were made that might be amended in any point, some men it would blame.
The Lord—If men blame that is not worthy to be blamed, then they be to blame. Clerks know well enough that no sinful man doth so well that it ne might do better, ne make so good a translation that he ne might be better. Therefore Origines made two translations, and Jerome translated thrice the Psalter. I desire not translation of these the best that might be, for that were an idle desire for any man that is now alive, but I would have a skilful translation, that might be known and understood.
The Clerk—Whether is you liefer have, a translation of these chronicles in rhyme or in prose?
The Lord—In prose, for commonly prose is more clear than rhyme, more easy and more plain to know and understand.
The Clerk—Then God grant us grace grathly to gin, wit and wisdom wisely to work, might and mind of right meaning to make translation trusty and true, pleasing to the Trinity, three persons and one God, in majesty, that ever was and ever shall be, and made heaven and earth, and light for to shine, and departed light and darkness, and called light, day, and darkness, night; and so was made eventide and morrowtide one day, that had no morrowtide. The second day He made the firmament between waters, and departed waters that were under the firmament fro the waters that were above the firmament, and called the firmament heaven. The third day He gathered waters that be under the firmament into one place and made the earth unheled, and named the gathering of waters, seas, and dry earth, land; and made trees and grass. The fourth day he made sun and moon and stars, and set them in the firmament of heaven there for to shine, and to be tokens and signs to depart times and years, night and day. The fifth day He made fowls and birds in the air, and fishes in the water. The sixth day He made beasts of the land, and man of the earth, and put them in Paradise, for he should work and wone therein. But man brake God's hest and fell into sin, and was put out of Paradise into woe and sorrow, worthy to be damned to the pain of hell without any end. But the Holy Trinity had mercy of man, and the Father sent the Son, and the Holy Ghost alight on a maid, and the Son took flesh and blood of that blissful maid, and died on the Rood to save mankind, and arose the third day, glorious and blissful, and taught his disciples, and ascended into heaven when it was time; and shall come at the day of Doom and deem quick and dead. Then all they that be written in the Book of Life shall wend with Him into the bliss of heaven, and be there in body and soul, and see and know His Godhead and Manhood in joy without any end.
Thus endeth the Dialogue.
The Epistle of Sir John Trevisa, Chaplain unto Lord Thomas of Barkley, upon the translation of Polychronicon into our English tongue.
ealth and worship to my worthy and worshipful Lord Sir Thomas, Lord of Barkley! I, John Trevisa, your priest and beadsman, obedient and buxom to work your will, hold in heart, think in thought, and mean in mind your needful meaning and speech that ye spake and said, that ye would have English translation of Ranulphus of Chester's books of chronicles. Therefore I will fond to take that travail, and make English translation of the same books, as God granteth me grace, for blame of backbiters will I not blinne; for envy of enemies, for evil spiting and speech of evil speakers will I not leave to do this deed; for travail will I not spare. Comfort I have in meedful making and pleasing to God, and in knowing that I wot that it is your will for to make this translation clear and plain to be known and understood. In some place I shall set word for word, and active for active, and passive for passive, a-row right as it standeth, without changing of the order of words. But in some place I must change the order of words, and set active for passive, and again-ward. And in some place I must set a reason for a word, and tell what it meaneth. But for all such changing, the meaning shall stand and not be changed. But some words and names of countries, of lands, of cities, of waters, of rivers, of mountains and hills, of persons, and of places, must be set and stand for themselves in their own kind, as Asia, Europe, Africa, and Syria, Mount Atlas, Sindi, and Oreb, Marach, Jordan, and Arnon, Bethlehem, Nazareth, Jerusalem, and Damascus, Hannibal, Rasin, Ahasuerus, and Cyrus, and many such words and names. If any man make of these books of chronicles a better English translation, and more profitable, God do him meed! And because ye make me do this meedful deed, He that quiteth all good deeds quite your meed in the bliss of heaven, in wealth and liking, with all the holy saints of mankind and the nine orders of angels; as Angels, Archangels, Principates, Potestates, Virtutes, Dominations, Thrones, Cherubim and Seraphim, to see God in his blissful face, in joy without any end. Amen.
Thus endeth he his epistle.