First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology / to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 1879-1880, Government Printing Office 1881

by Unknown

[This text] includes characters that require UTF-8 (Unicode) file encoding:

Ē ā ē ī ō ū (vowel with macron or “long” mark)

Ă Ĕ Ĭ ă ĕ ĭ ŏ (vowel with breve or “short” mark)

Ś ś ć (s, c with “acute”: mainly in Recording Indian Languages article)

ⁿ (small raised n, representing nasalized vowel)

ɔ ʇ ʞ (inverted letters)

‖ (double vertical line

There are also a handful of Greek words; transliterations are given in mouse-hover popups. Some compromises were made to accommodate font availability:

The ordinary “cents” sign ¢ was used in place of the correct form ȼ, and bracketed [¢] represents the capital letter Ȼ.

Turned (rotated) c is represented by ɔ (technically an open o).

Bracketed [K] and [T] represent upside-down (turned, rotated) capital K and T.

Inverted V is represented by the Greek letter Λ.

If your computer has a more appropriate character, and you are comfortable editing html files, feel free to replace letters globally.

Syllable stress is represented by an acute accent either on the main vówel or after the syl´lable; inconsistencies are unchanged. Except for the special characters noted above, brackets are in the original. Note that in the Sign Language article, hand positions identified by letter (A, B ... W, Y) are descriptive; they do not represent a “finger alphabet”.

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The First Annual Report includes ten “Accompanying Papers”, all available from Project Gutenberg as individual e-texts. Except for Yarrow’s “Mortuary Customs”, updated shortly before the present text, the separate articles were released between late 2005 and late 2007. For this combined e-text they have been re-formatted for consistency, and most illustrations have been replaced. Some articles have been further modified to include specialized characters shown above, and a few more typographical errors have been corrected.

For consistency with later Annual Reports, a full List of Illustrations has been added after the Table of Contents, and each article has been given its own Table of Contents. In the original, the Contents were printed only at the beginning of the volume, and Illustrations were listed only with their respective articles.

[Contents]
[List of Illustrations]
[Introductory Material]
[Index]
[Notes and Sources]

FIRST ANNUAL REPORT

OF THE

BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY

TO THE

SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

1879-’80

BY

J. W. POWELL
DIRECTOR

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1881

Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology,

Washington, D.C., July, 1880.

Prof. Spencer F. Baird,

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, D.C.:

Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith the first annual report of the operations of the Bureau of Ethnology.

By act of Congress, an appropriation was made to continue researches in North American anthropology, the general direction of which was confided to yourself. As chief executive officer of the Smithsonian Institution, you entrusted to me the immediate control of the affairs of the Bureau. This report, with its appended papers, is designed to exhibit the methods and results of my administration of this trust.

If any measure of success has been attained, it is largely due to general instructions received from yourself and the advice you have ever patiently given me on all matters of importance.

I am indebted to my assistants, whose labors are delineated in the report, for their industry; hearty co-operation, and enthusiastic love of the science. Only through their zeal have your plans been executed.

Much assistance has been rendered the Bureau by a large body of scientific men engaged in the study of anthropology, some of whose names have been mentioned in the report and accompanying papers, and others will be put on record when the subject-matter of their writings is fully published.

I am, with respect, your obedient servant,

J. W. POWELL.

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[TABLE OF CONTENTS.]

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[REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR.]
Introductory	Page [xi]
Bibliography of North American philology, by J. C.Pilling	[xv]
Linguistic and other anthropologic researches, by J. O.Dorsey	[xvii]
Linguistic researches, by S. R. Riggs	[xviii]
Linguistic and general researches among the Klamath Indians, byA. S. Gatschet	[xix]
Studies among the Iroquois, by Mrs. E. A. Smith	[xxii]
Work by Prof. Otis T. Mason	[xxii]
The study of gesture speech, by Brevet Lieut. Col. GarrickMallery	[xxiii]
Studies on Central American picture writing, by Prof. E. S.Holden	[xxv]
The study of mortuary customs, by Dr. H. C. Yarrow	[xxvi]
Investigations relating to cessions of lands by Indian tribes tothe United States, by C. C. Royce	[xxvii]
Explorations by Mr. James Stevenson	[xxx]
Researches among the Wintuns, by Prof. J. W. Powell	[xxxii]
The preparation of manuals for use in American research	[xxxii]
Linguistic classification of the North American tribes	[xxxiii]
ACCOMPANYING PAPERS.
[ON THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE, BY J. W.POWELL.]
Process by combination	Page [3]
Process by vocalic mutation	[5]
Process by intonation	[6]
Process by placement	[6]
Differentiation of the parts of speech	[8]
[SKETCH OF THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE NORTHAMERICAN INDIANS, BY J. W. POWELL.]
The genesis of philosophy	[19]
Two grand stages of philosophy	[21]
Mythologic philosophy has four stages	[29]
Outgrowth from mythologic philosophy	[33]
The course of evolution in mythologic philosophy	[38]
Mythic tales	[43]
The Cĭn-aú-äv Brothers discuss matters ofimportance to the Utes	[44]
Origin of the echo	[45]
The So´-kûs Wai´-ûn-ats	[47]
Ta-vwots has a fight with the sun	[52]
[WYANDOT GOVERNMENT, BY J. W.POWELL.]
The family	[Page 59]
The gens	[59]
The phratry	[60]
Government	[61]
Civil government	[61]
Methods of choosing councillors	[61]
Functions of civil government	[63]
Marriage regulations	[63]
Name regulations	[64]
Regulations of personal adornment	[64]
Regulations of order in encampment	[64]
Property rights	[65]
Rights of persons	[65]
Community rights	[65]
Rights of religion	[65]
Crimes	[66]
Theft	[66]
Maiming	[66]
Murder	[66]
Treason	[67]
Witchcraft	[67]
Outlawry	[67]
Military government	[68]
Fellowhood	[68]
[ON LIMITATIONS TO THE USE OF SOMEANTHROPOLOGIC DATA, BY J. W. POWELL.]
Archæology	[73]
Picture writing	[75]
History, customs, and ethnic characteristics	[76]
Origin of man	[77]
Language	[78]
Mythology	[81]
Sociology	[83]
Psychology	[83]
[A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDYOF THE MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, BY H. C.YARROW.]
List of illustrations	[89]
Introductory	[91]
Classification of burial	[92]
Inhumation	[93]
Pit burial	[93]
Grave burial	[101]
Stone graves or cists	[113]
Burial in mounds	[115]
Burial beneath or in cabins, wigwams, orhouses	[122]
Cave burial	[126]
Embalmment or mummification	[130]
Urn burial	[137]
Surface burial	[138]
Cairn burial	[142]
Cremation	[143]
Partial cremation	[150]
Aerial sepulture	[152]
Lodge burial	[152]
Box burial	[155]
Tree and scaffold burial	[158]
Partial scaffold burial and ossuaries	[168]
Superterrene and aerial burial in canoes	[171]
Aquatic burial	[180]
Living sepulchers	[182]
Mourning, sacrifice, feasts, etc.	[183]
Mourning	[183]
Sacrifice	[187]
Feasts	[190]
Superstition regarding burial feasts	[191]
Food	[192]
Dances	[192]
Songs	[194]
Games	[195]
Posts	[197]
Fires	[198]
Superstitions	[199]
[STUDIES IN CENTRAL AMERICAN PICTUREWRITING, BY E. S. HOLDEN.]
List of illustrations	[206]
Introductory	[207]
Materials for the present investigation	[210]
System of nomenclature	[211]
In what order are the hieroglyphs read?	[221]
The card catalogue of hieroglyphs	[223]
Comparison of plates I and IV (Copan)	[224]
Are the hieroglyphs of Copan and Palenque identical?	[227]
Huitzilopochtli, Mexican god of war, etc.	[229]
Tlaloc, or his Maya representative	[237]
Cukulcan or Quetzalcoatl	[239]
Comparison of the signs of the Maya months	[243]
[CESSIONS OF LAND BY INDIAN TRIBES TOTHE UNITED STATES, BY C. C. ROYCE.]
Character of the Indian title	[249]
Indian boundaries	[253]
Original and secondary cessions	[256]
[SIGN LANGUAGE AMONG NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS, BY COL. GARRICKMALLERY.]
List of Illustrations	[265]
Introductory	[269]
Divisions of gesture speech	[270]
The origin of sign language	[273]
Gestures of the lower animals	[275]
Gestures of young children	[276]
Gestures in mental disorder	[276]
Uninstructed deaf-mutes	[277]
Gestures of the blind	[278]
Loss of speech by isolation	[278]
Low tribes of man	[279]
Gestures as an occasional resource	[279]
Gestures of fluent talkers	[279]
Involuntary response to gestures	[280]
Natural pantomime	[280]
Some theories upon primitive language	[282]
Conclusions	[284]
History of gesture language	[285]
Modern use of gesture speech	[293]
Use by other peoples than North AmericanIndians	[294]
Use by modern actors and orators	[308]
Our Indian conditions favorable to sign language	[311]
Theories entertained respecting Indian signs	[313]
Not correlated with meagerness oflanguage	[314]
Its origin from one tribe or region	[316]
Is the Indian system special andpeculiar?	[319]
To what extent prevalent as a system	[323]
Are signs conventional or instinctive?	[340]
Classes of diversities in signs	[341]
Results sought in the study of sign language	[346]
Practical application	[346]
Relations to philology	[349]
Sign language with reference to grammar	[359]
Gestures aiding archæologic research	[368]
Notable points for further researches	[387]
Invention of new signs	[387]
Danger of symbolic interpretation	[388]
Signs used by women and children	[391]
Positive signs rendered negative	[391]
Details of positions of fingers	[392]
Motions relative to parts of the body	[393]
Suggestions for collecting signs	[394]
Mode in which researches have been made	[395]
List of authorities and collaborators	[401]
Algonkian	[403]
Dakotan	[404]
Iroquoian	[405]
Kaiowan	[406]
Kutinean	[406]
Panian	[406]
Piman	[406]
Sahaptian	[406]
Shoshonian	[406]
Tinnean	[407]
Wichitan	[407]
Zuñian	[407]
Foreign correspondence	[407]
Extracts from dictionary	[409]
Tribal signs	[458]
Proper names	[476]
Phrases	[479]
Dialogues	[486]
Tendoy-Huerito Dialogue.	[486]
Omaha Colloquy.	[490]
Brulé Dakota Colloquy.	[491]
Dialogue between Alaskan Indians.	[492]
Ojibwa Dialogue.	[499]
Narratives	[500]
Nátci’s Narrative.	[500]
Patricio’s Narrative.	[505]
Na-wa-gi-jig’s Story.	[508]
Discourses	[521]
Address of Kin Chē-Ĕss.	[521]
Tso-di-a´-ko’s Report.	[524]
Lean Wolf’s Complaint.	[526]
Signals	[529]
Signals executed by bodily action	[529]
Signals in which objects are used in connectionwith personal action	[532]
Signals made when the person of the signalist isnot visible	[536]
Smoke Signals Generally	[536]
Smoke Signals of the Apaches	[538]
Foreign Smoke Signals	[539]
Fire Arrows	[540]
Dust Signals	[541]
Notes on Cheyenne and Arapaho Signals	[542]
Scheme of illustration	[544]
Outlines for arm positions in sign language	[545]
Order of arrangement	[546]
Types of hand positions in sign language	[547]
Examples	[550]
[CATALOGUE OF LINGUISTIC MANUSCRIPTS INTHE LIBRARY OF THE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY, BY J. C. PILLING.]
Introductory	[555]
List of manuscripts	[562]
[ILLUSTRATION OF THE METHOD OFRECORDING INDIAN LANGUAGES. FROM THE MANUSCRIPTS OF MESSRS. J. O.DORSEY, A. S. GATSCHET, AND S. B. RIGGS.]
How the rabbit caught the sun in a trap, by J. O.Dorsey	[581]
Details of a conjurer’s practice, by A. S. Gatschet	[583]
The relapse, by A. S. Gatschet	[585]
Sweat-Lodges, by A. S. Gatschet	[586]
A dog’s revenge, by S. R. Riggs	[587]
[INDEX.]
Index to First Annual Report	[591]

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[LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.]

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This full list was added by the transcriber. For the e-text, illus­trations were placed as close as practical to their discussion in the text; the List of Illustrations shows their original location. The First Annual Report did not distinguish between Plates (full page, unpaginated) and Figures (inline).

	[Map of the State of Indiana] (unnumbered)	248
Figure [1].	Quiogozon or dead house	Page 94
[2].	Pima burial	98
[3].	Towers of silence	105
[4].	Towers of silence	106
[5].	Alaskan mummies	135
[6].	Burial urns	138
[7].	Indian cemetery	139
[8].	Grave pen	141
[9].	Grave pen	141
[10].	Tolkotin cremation	145
[11].	Eskimo lodge burial	154
[12].	Burial houses	154
[13].	Innuit grave	156
[14].	Ingalik grave	157
[15].	Dakota scaffold burial	158
[16].	Offering food to the dead	159
[17].	Depositing the corpse	160
[18].	Tree-burial	161
[19].	Chippewa scaffold burial	162
[20].	Scarification at burial	164
[21].	Australian scaffold burial	166
[22].	Preparing the dead	167
[23].	Canoe-burial	171
[24].	Twana canoe-burial	172
[25].	Posts for burial canoes	173
[26].	Tent on scaffold	174
[27].	House burial	175
[28].	House burial	175
[29].	Canoe-burial	178
[30].	Mourning-cradle	181
[31].	Launching the burial cradle	182
[32].	Chippewa widow	185
[33].	Ghost gamble	195
[34].	Figured plum stones	196
[35].	Winning throw, No. 1	196
[36].	Winning throw, No. 2	196
[37].	Winning throw, No. 3	196
[38].	Winning throw, No. 4	196
[39].	Winning throw, No. 5	196
[40].	Winning throw, No. 6	196
[41].	Auxiliary throw, No. 1	196
[42].	Auxiliary throw, No. 2	196
[43].	Auxiliary throw, No. 3	196
[44].	Auxiliary throw, No. 4	196
[45].	Auxiliary throw, No. 5	196
[46].	Burial posts	197
[47].	Grave fire	198
[48.]	The Palenquean Group of the Cross	221
[49.]	Statue at Copan	224
[50.]	Statue at Copan	225
[51.]	Synonymous Hieroglyphs from Copan and Palenque	227
[52.]	Yucatec Stone	229
[53.]	Huitzilopochtli (front)	232
[54.]	Huitzilopochtli (side)	232
[55.]	Huitzilopochtli (back)	232
[56.]	Miclantecutli	232
[57.]	Adoratorio	233
[58.]	The Maya War-God	234
[59.]	The Maya Rain-God	234
[60.]	Tablet at Palenque	234
[61.]	Affirmation, approving. Old Roman	286
[62.]	Approbation. Neapolitan	286
[63.]	Affirmation, approbation. N.A. Indian	286
[64.]	Group. Old Greek.	Facing 289
[65.]	Negation. Dakota	290
[66.]	Love. Modern Neapolitan	290
[67.]	Group. Old Greek.	Facing 290
[68.]	Hesitation. Neapolitan	291
[69.]	Wait. N.A. Indian	291
[70.]	Question, asking. Neapolitan	291
[71.]	Tell me. N.A. Indian	291
[72.]	Interrogation. Australian	291
[73.]	Pulcinella	292
[74.]	Thief. Neapolitan	292
[75.]	Steal. N.A. Indian	293
[76.]	Public writer. Neapolitan group.	Facing 296
[77.]	Money. Neapolitan	297
[78.]	“Hot Corn.” Neapolitan Group.	Facing 297
[79.]	“Horn” sign. Neapolitan	298
[80.]	Reproach. Old Roman	298
[81.]	Marriage contract. Neapolitan group.	Facing 298
[82.]	Negation. Pai-Ute sign	299
[83.]	Coming home of bride. Neapolitan group.	Facing 299
[84.]	Pretty. Neapolitan	300
[85.]	“Mano in fica.” Neapolitan	300
[86.]	Snapping the fingers. Neapolitan	300
[87.]	Joy, acclamation	300
[88.]	Invitation to drink wine	300
[89.]	Woman’s quarrel. Neapolitan Group.	Facing 301
[90.]	Chestnut vender.	Facing 301
[91.]	Warning. Neapolitan	302
[92.]	Justice. Neapolitan	302
[93.]	Little. Neapolitan	302
[94.]	Little. N.A. Indian	302
[95.]	Little. N.A. Indian	302
[96.]	Demonstration. Neapolitan	302
[97.]	“Fool.” Neapolitan	303
[98.]	“Fool.” Ib.	303
[99.]	“Fool.” Ib.	303
[100.]	Inquiry. Neapolitan	303
[101.]	Crafty, deceitful. Neapolitan	303
[102.]	Insult. Neapolitan	304
[103.]	Insult. Neapolitan	304
[104.]	Silence. Neapolitan	304
[105.]	Child. Egyptian hieroglyph	304
[106.]	Negation. Neapolitan	305
[107.]	Hunger. Neapolitan	305
[108.]	Mockery. Neapolitan	305
[109.]	Fatigue. Neapolitan	305
[110.]	Deceit. Neapolitan	305
[111.]	Astuteness, readiness. Neapolitan	305
[112.]	Tree. Dakota, Hidatsa	343
[113.]	To grow. N.A. Indian	343
[114.]	Rain. Shoshoni, Apache	344
[115.]	Sun. N.A. Indian	344
[116.]	Sun. Cheyenne	344
[117.]	Soldier. Arikara	345
[118.]	No, negation. Egyptian	355
[119.]	Negation. Maya	356
[120.]	Nothing. Chinese	356
[121.]	Child. Egyptian figurative	356
[122.]	Child. Egyptian linear	356
[123.]	Child. Egyptian hieratic	356
[124.]	Son. Ancient Chinese	356
[125.]	Son. Modern Chinese	356
[126.]	Birth. Chinese character	356
[127.]	Birth. Dakota	356
[128.]	Birth, generic. N.A. Indians	357
[129.]	Man. Mexican	357
[130.]	Man. Chinese character	357
[131.]	Woman. Chinese character	357
[132.]	Woman. Ute	357
[133.]	Female, generic. Cheyenne	357
[134.]	To give water. Chinese character	357
[135.]	Water, to drink. N.A. Indian	357
[136.]	Drink. Mexican	357
[137.]	Water. Mexican	357
[138.]	Water, giving. Egypt	358
[139.]	Water. Egyptian	358
[140.]	Water, abbreviated	358
[141.]	Water. Chinese character	358
[142.]	To weep. Ojibwa pictograph	358
[143.]	Force, vigor. Egyptian	358
[144.]	Night. Egyptian	358
[145.]	Calling upon. Egyptian figurative	359
[146.]	Calling upon. Egyptian linear	359
[147.]	To collect, to unite. Egyptian	359
[148.]	Locomotion. Egyptian figurative	359
[149.]	Locomotion. Egyptian linear	359
[150.]	Shuⁿ´-ka Lu´-ta. Dakota	365
[151.]	“I am going to the east.” Abnaki	369
[152.]	“Am not gone far.” Abnaki	369
[153.]	“Gone far.” Abnaki	370
[154.]	“Gone five days’ journey.” Abnaki	370
[155.]	Sun. N.A. Indian	370
[156.]	Sun. Egyptian	370
[157.]	Sun. Egyptian	370
[158.]	Sun with rays. Ib.	371
[159.]	Sun with rays. Ib.	371
[160.]	Sun with rays. Moqui pictograph	371
[161.]	Sun with rays. Ib.	371
[162.]	Sun with rays. Ib.	371
[163.]	Sun with rays. Ib.	371
[164.]	Star. Moqui pictograph	371
[165.]	Star. Moqui pictograph	371
[166.]	Star. Moqui pictograph	371
[167.]	Star. Moqui pictograph	371
[168.]	Star. Peruvian pictograph	371
[169.]	Star. Ojibwa pictograph	371
[170.]	Sunrise. Moqui do.	371
[171.]	Sunrise. Ib.	371
[172.]	Sunrise. Ib.	371
[173.]	Moon, month. Californian pictograph	371
[174.]	Pictograph, including sun. Coyotero Apache	372
[175.]	Moon. N.A. Indian	372
[176.]	Moon. Moqui pictograph	372
[177.]	Moon. Ojibwa pictograph	372
[178.]	Sky. Ib.	372
[179.]	Sky. Egyptian character	372
[180.]	Clouds. Moqui pictograph	372
[181.]	Clouds. Ib.	372
[182.]	Clouds. Ib.	372
[183.]	Cloud. Ojibwa pictograph	372
[184.]	Rain. New Mexican pictograph	373
[185.]	Rain. Moqui pictograph	373
[186.]	Lightning. Moqui pictograph	373
[187.]	Lightning. Ib.	373
[188.]	Lightning, harmless. Pictograph at Jemez, N.M.	373
[189.]	Lightning, fatal. Do.	373
[190.]	Voice. “The-Elk-that-hollows-walking”	373
[191.]	Voice. Antelope. Cheyenne drawing	373
[192.]	Voice, talking. Cheyenne drawing	374
[193.]	Killing the buffalo. Cheyenne drawing	375
[194.]	Talking. Mexican pictograph	376
[195.]	Talking, singing. Maya character	376
[196.]	Hearing ears. Ojibwa pictograph	376
[197.]	“I hear, but your words are from a bad heart.” Ojibwa	376
[198.]	Hearing serpent. Ojibwa pictograph	376
[199.]	Royal edict. Maya	377
[200.]	To kill. Dakota	377
[201.]	“Killed Arm.” Dakota	377
[202.]	Pictograph, including “kill.” Wyoming Ter.	378
[203.]	Pictograph, including “kill.” Wyoming Ter.	378
[204.]	Pictograph, including “kill.” Wyoming Ter.	379
[205.]	Veneration. Egyptian character	379
[206.]	Mercy. Supplication, favor. Egyptian	379
[207.]	Supplication. Mexican pictograph	380
[208.]	Smoke. Ib.	380
[209.]	Fire. Ib.	381
[210.]	“Making medicine.” Conjuration. Dakota	381
[211.]	Meda. Ojibwa pictograph	381
[212.]	The God Knuphis. Egyptian	381
[213.]	The God Knuphis. Ib.	381
[214.]	Power. Ojibwa pictograph	381
[215.]	Meda’s Power. Ib.	381
[216.]	Trade pictograph	382
[217.]	Offering. Mexican pictograph	382
[218.]	Stampede of horses. Dakota	382
[219.]	Chapultepec. Mexican pictograph	383
[220.]	Soil. Ib.	383
[221.]	Cultivated soil. Ib.	383
[222.]	Road, path. Ib.	383
[223.]	Cross-roads and gesture sign. Mexican pictograph	383
[224.]	Small-pox or measles. Dakota	383
[225.]	“No thoroughfare.” Pictograph	383
[226.]	Raising of war party. Dakota	384
[227.]	“Led four war parties.” Dakota drawing	384
[228.]	Sociality. Friendship. Ojibwa pictograph	384
[229.]	Peace. Friendship. Dakota	384
[230.]	Peace. Friendship with whites. Dakota	385
[231.]	Friendship. Australian	385
[232.]	Friend. Brulé Dakota	386
[233.]	Lie, falsehood. Arikara	393
[234.]	Antelope. Dakota	410
[235.]	Running Antelope. Personal totem	410
[236.]	Bad. Dakota	411
[237.]	Bear. Cheyenne	412
[238.]	Bear. Kaiowa, etc.	413
[239.]	Bear. Ute	413
[240.]	Bear. Moqui pictograph	413
[241.]	Brave. N.A. Indian	414
[242.]	Brave. Kaiowa, etc.	415
[243.]	Brave. Kaiowa, etc.	415
[244.]	Chief. Head of tribe. Absaroka	418
[245.]	Chief. Head of tribe. Pai-Ute	418
[246.]	Chief of a band. Absaroka and Arikara	419
[247.]	Chief of a band. Pai-Ute	419
[248.]	Warrior. Absaroka, etc.	420
[249.]	Ojibwa gravestone, including “dead”	422
[250.]	Dead. Shoshoni and Banak	422
[251.]	Dying. Kaiowa, etc.	424
[252.]	Nearly dying. Kaiowa	424
[253.]	Log house. Hidatsa	428
[254.]	Lodge. Dakota	430
[255.]	Lodge. Kaiowa, etc.	431
[256.]	Lodge. Sahaptin	431
[257.]	Lodge. Pai-Ute	431
[258.]	Lodge. Pai-Ute	431
[259.]	Lodge. Kutchin	431
[260.]	Horse. N.A. Indian	434
[261.]	Horse. Dakota	434
[262.]	Horse. Kaiowa, etc.	435
[263.]	Horse. Caddo	435
[264.]	Horse. Pima and Papago	435
[265.]	Horse. Ute	435
[266.]	Horse. Ute	435
[267.]	Saddling a horse. Ute	437
[268.]	Kill. N.A. Indian	438
[269.]	Kill. Mandan and Hidatsa	439
[270.]	Negation. No. Dakota	441
[271.]	Negation. No. Pai-Ute	442
[272.]	None. Dakota	443
[273.]	None. Australian	444
[274.]	Much, quantity. Apache	447
[275.]	Question. Australian	449
[276.]	Soldier. Dakota and Arikara	450
[277.]	Trade. Dakota	452
[278.]	Trade. Dakota	452
[279.]	Buy. Ute	453
[280.]	Yes, affirmation. Dakota	456
[281.]	Absaroka tribal sign. Shoshoni	458
[282.]	Apache tribal sign. Kaiowa, etc.	459
[283.]	Apache tribal sign. Pima and Papago	459
[284.]	Arikara tribal sign. Arapaho and Dakota	461
[285.]	Arikara tribal sign. Absaroka	461
[286.]	Blackfoot tribal sign. Dakota	463
[287.]	Blackfoot tribal sign. Shoshoni	464
[288.]	Caddo tribal sign. Arapaho and Kaiowa	464
[289.]	Cheyenne tribal sign. Arapaho and Cheyenne	464
[290.]	Dakota tribal sign. Dakota	467
[291.]	Flathead tribal sign. Shoshoni	468
[292.]	Kaiowa tribal sign. Comanche	470
[293.]	Kutine tribal sign. Shoshoni	471
[294.]	Lipan tribal sign. Apache	471
[295.]	Pend d’Oreille tribal sign. Shoshoni	473
[296.]	Sahaptin or Nez Percé tribal sign. Comanche	473
[297.]	Shoshoni tribal sign. Shoshoni	474
[298.]	Buffalo. Dakota	477
[299.]	Eagle Tail. Arikara	477
[300.]	Eagle Tail. Moqui pictograph	477
[301.]	Give me. Absaroka	480
[302.]	Counting. How many? Shoshoni and Banak	482
[303.]	I am going home. Dakota	485
[304.]	Question. Apache	486
[305.]	Shoshoni tribal sign. Shoshoni	486
[306.]	Chief. Shoshoni	487
[307.]	Cold, winter, year. Apache	487
[308.]	“Six.” Shoshoni	487
[309.]	Good, very well. Apache	487
[310.]	Many. Shoshoni	488
[311.]	Hear, heard. Apache	488
[312.]	Night. Shoshoni	489
[313.]	Rain. Shoshoni	489
[314.]	See each other. Shoshoni	490
[315.]	White man, American. Dakota	491
[316.]	Hear, heard. Dakota	492
[317.]	Brother. Pai-Ute	502
[318.]	No, negation. Pai-Ute	503
[319.]	Scene of Na-wa-gi-jig’s story.	Facing 508
[320.]	We are friends. Wichita	521
[321.]	Talk, talking. Wichita	521
[322.]	I stay, or I stay right here. Wichita	521
[323.]	A long time. Wichita	522
[324.]	Done, finished. Do.	522
[325.]	Sit down. Australian	523
[326.]	Cut down. Wichita	524
[327.]	Wagon. Wichita	525
[328.]	Load upon. Wichita	525
[329.]	White man; American. Hidatsa	526
[330.]	With us. Hidatsa	526
[331.]	Friend. Hidatsa	527
[332.]	Four. Hidatsa	527
[333.]	Lie, falsehood. Hidatsa	528
[334.]	Done, finished. Hidatsa	528
[335.]	Peace, friendship. Hualpais.	Facing 530
[336.]	Question, ans’d by tribal sign for Pani.	Facing 531
[337.]	Buffalo discovered. Dakota.	Facing 532
[338.]	Discovery. Dakota.	Facing 533
[339.]	Success of war party. Pima.	Facing 538
[340.]	Outline for arm positions, full face	545
[341.]	Outline for arm positions, profile	545
[342a.]	Types of hand positions, A to L	547
[342b.]	Types of hand positions, M to Y	548
[343.]	Example. To cut with an ax	550
[344.]	Example. A lie	550
[345.]	Example. To ride	551
[346.]	Example. I am going home	551

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[FIRST ANNUAL REPORT]

OF THE

BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.

---

By J. W. Powell, Director.

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INTRODUCTORY.

The exploration of the Colorado River of the West, begun in 1869 by authority of Congressional action, was by the same authority subsequently continued as the second division of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Territories, and, finally, as the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region.

By act of Congress of March 3, 1879, the various geological and geographical surveys existing at that time were discontinued and the United States Geological Survey was established.

In all the earlier surveys anthropologic researches among the North American Indians were carried on. In that branch of the work finally designated as the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, such research constituted an important part of the work. In the act creating the Geological Survey, provision was made to continue work in this field under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, on the basis of the methods developed and materials collected by the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region.

Under the authority of the act of Congress providing for the continuation of the work, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution intrusted its management to the former director of the Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, and a bureau of ethnology was thus practically organized.

In the Annual Report of the Geographical and Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region for 1877, the following statement of the condition of the work at that time appears:

ETHNOGRAPHIC WORK.

During the same office season the ethnographic work was more thoroughly organized, and the aid of a large number of volunteer assistants living throughout the country was secured. Mr. W. H. Dall, of the United States Coast Survey, prepared a paper on the tribes of Alaska, and edited other papers on certain tribes of Oregon and Washington Territory. He also superintended the construction of an ethnographic map to accompany his paper, including on it the latest geographic determination from all available sources. His long residence and extended scientific labors in that region peculiarly fitted him for the task, and he has made a valuable contribution both to ethnology and geography.

With the same volume was published a paper on the habits and customs of certain tribes of the State of Oregon and Washington Territory, prepared by the late Mr. George Gibbs while he was engaged in scientific work in that region for the government. The volume also contains a Niskwalli vocabulary with extended grammatic notes, the last great work of the lamented author.

In addition to the map above mentioned and prepared by Mr. Dall, a second has been made, embracing the western portion of Washington Territory and the northern part of Oregon. The map includes the results of the latest geographic information and is colored to show the distribution of Indian tribes, chiefly from notes and maps left by Mr. Gibbs.

The Survey is indebted to the following gentlemen for valuable contributions to this volume: Gov. J. Furujelm, Lieut. E. De Meulen, Dr. Wm. F. Tolmie, and Rev. Father Mengarini.

Mr. Stephen Powers, of Ohio, who has spent several years in the study of the Indians of California, had the year before been engaged to prepare a paper on that subject. In the mean time at my request he was employed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs to travel among these tribes for the purpose of making collections of Indian arts for the International Exhibition. This afforded him opportunity of more thoroughly accomplishing his work in the preparation of the above-mentioned paper. On his return the new material was incorporated with the old, and the whole has been printed.

At our earliest knowledge of the Indians of California they were divided into small tribes speaking diverse languages and belonging to radically different stocks, and the whole subject was one of great complexity and interest. Mr. Powers has successfully unraveled the difficult problems relating to the classification and affinities of a very large number of tribes, and his account of their habits and customs is of much interest.

In the volume with his paper will be found a number of vocabularies collected by himself, Mr. George Gibbs, General George Crook, U.S.A., General W. B. Hazen, U.S.A., Lieut. Edward Ross, U.S.A., Assistant Surgeon Thomas F. Azpell, U.S.A., Mr. Ezra Williams, Mr. J. R. Bartlett, Gov. J. Furujelm, Prof. F. L. O. Roehrig, Dr. William A. Gabb, Mr. H. B. Brown, Mr. Israel S. Diehl, Dr. Oscar Loew, Mr. Albert S. Gatschet, Mr. Livingston Stone, Mr. Adam Johnson, Mr. Buckingham Smith, Padre Aroyo; Rev. Father Gregory Mengarini, Padre Juan Comelias, Hon. Horatio Hale, Mr. Alexander S. Taylor, Rev. Antonio Timmeno, and Father Bonaventure Sitjar.

The volume is accompanied by a map of the State of California, compiled from the latest official sources and colored to show the distribution of linguistic stocks.

The Rev. J. Owen Dorsey, of Maryland, has been engaged for more than a year in the preparation of a grammar and dictionary of the Ponka language. His residence among these Indians as a missionary has furnished him favorable opportunity for the necessary studies, and he has pushed forward the work with zeal and ability, his only hope of reward being a desire to make a contribution to science.

Prof. Otis T. Mason, of Columbian College, has for the past year rendered the office much assistance in the study of the history and statistics of Indian tribes.

On June 13, Brevet Lieut. Col. Garrick Mallery, U.S.A., at the request of the Secretary of the Interior, joined my corps under orders from the honorable Secretary of War, and since that time has been engaged in the study of the statistics and history of the Indians of the western portion of the United States.

In April last, Mr. A. S. Gatschet was employed as a philologist to assist in the ethnographic work of this Survey. He had previously been engaged in the study of the languages of various North American tribes. In June last at the request of this office he was employed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs to collect certain statistics relating to the Indians of Oregon and Washington Territory, and is now in the field. His scientific reports have since that time been forwarded through the honorable Commissioner of Indian Affairs to this office. His work will be included in a volume now in course of preparation.

Dr. H. O. Yarrow, U.S.A., now on duty at the Army Medical Museum, in Washington, has been engaged during the past year in the collection of material for a monograph on the customs and rites of sepulture. To aid him in this work circulars of inquiry have been widely circulated among ethnologists and other scholars throughout North America, and much material has been obtained which will greatly supplement his own extended observations and researches.

Many other gentlemen throughout the United States have rendered me valuable assistance in this department of investigation. Their labors will receive due acknowledgment at the proper time, but I must not fail to render my sincere thanks to these gentlemen, who have so cordially and efficiently co-operated with me in this work.

A small volume, entitled “Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages,” has been prepared and published. This book is intended for distribution among collectors. In its preparation I have been greatly assisted by Prof. W. D. Whitney, the distinguished philologist of Yale College. To him I am indebted for that part relating to the representation of the sounds of Indian languages; a work which could not be properly performed by any other than a profound scholar in this branch.

I complete the statement of the office-work of the past season by mentioning that a tentative classification of the linguistic families of the Indians of the United States has been prepared. This has been a work of great labor, to which I have devoted much of my own time, and in which I have received the assistance of several of the gentlemen above mentioned.

In pursuing these ethnographic investigations it has been the endeavor as far as possible to produce results that would be of practical value in the administration of Indian affairs, and for this purpose especial attention has been paid to vital statistics, to the discovery of linguistic affinities, the progress made by the Indians toward civilization, and the causes and remedies for the inevitable conflict that arises from the spread of civilization over a region previously inhabited by savages. I may be allowed to express the hope that our labors in this direction will not be void of such useful results.

In 1878 no report of the Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region was published, as before its completion the question of reorganizing all of the surveys had been raised, but the work was continued by the same methods as in previous years.

The operations of the Bureau of Ethnology during the past fiscal year will be briefly described.

In the plan of organization two methods of operation are embraced:

First. The prosecution of research by the direct employment of scholars and specialists; and

Second. By inciting and guiding research immediately conducted by collaborators at work throughout the country.

It has been the effort of the Bureau to prosecute work in the various branches of North American anthropology on a systematic plan, so that every important field should be cultivated, limited only by the amount appropriated by Congress.

With little exception all sound anthropologic investigation in the lower states of culture exhibited by tribes of men, as distinguished from nations, must have a firm foundation in language Customs, laws, governments, institutions, mythologies, religions, and even arts can not be properly understood without a fundamental knowledge of the languages which express the ideas and thoughts embodied therein. Actuated by these considerations prime attention has been given to language.

It is not probable that there are many languages in North America entirely unknown, and in fact it is possible there are none; but of many of the known languages only short vocabularies have appeared. Except for languages entirely unknown, the time for the publication of short vocabularies has passed; they are no longer of value. The Bureau proposes hereafter to publish short vocabularies only in the exceptional cases mentioned above.

The distribution of the Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages is resulting in the collection of a large series of chrestomathies, which it is believed will be worthy of publication. It is also proposed to publish grammars and dictionaries when those have been thoroughly and carefully prepared. In each case it is deemed desirable to connect with the grammar and dictionary a body of literature designed as texts for reference in explaining the facts and principles of the language. These texts will be accompanied by interlinear translations so arranged as greatly to facilitate the study of the chief grammatic characteristics.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICAN PHILOLOGY, BY MR. J. C. PILLING.

There is being prepared in the office a bibliography of North American languages. It was originally intended as a card catalogue for office use, but has gradually assumed proportions which seem to justify its publication. It is designed as an author’s catalogue, arranged alphabetically, and is to include titles of grammars, dictionaries, vocabularies, translations of the scriptures, hymnals, doctrinæ christianæ, tracts, school-books, etc., general discussions, and reviews when of sufficient importance; in short, a catalogue of authors who have written in or upon any of the languages of North America, with a list of their works.

It has been the aim in preparing this material to make not only full titles of all the works containing linguistics, but also to exhaust editions. Whether full titles of editions subsequent to the first will be printed will depend somewhat on the size of the volume it will make, there being at present about four thousand five hundred cards, probably about three thousand titles.

The bibliography is based on the library of the Director, but much time has been spent in various libraries, public and private, the more important being the Congressional, Boston Public, Boston Athenæum, Harvard College, Congregational of Boston, Massachusetts Historical Society, American Antiquarian Society of Worcester, the John Carter Brown at Providence, the Watkinson at Hartford, and the American Bible Society at New York. It is hoped that Mr. Pilling may find opportunity to visit the principal libraries of New York and Philadelphia, especially those of the historical societies, before the work is printed.

In addition to personal research, much correspondence has been carried on with the various missionaries and Indian agents throughout the United States and Canada, and with gentlemen who have written upon the subject, among whom are Dr. H. Rink, of Copenhagen, Dr. J. C. E. Buschman, of Berlin, and the well-known bibliographers, Mr. J. Sabin, of New York, Hon. J. R. Bartlett, of Providence, and Señor Don J. G. Icazbalceta, of the City of Mexico.

Mr. Pilling has not attempted to classify the material linguistically. That work has been left for a future publication, intended to embody the results of an attempt to classify the tribes of North America on the basis of language, and now in course of preparation by the Director.

LINGUISTIC AND OTHER ANTHROPOLOGIC RESEARCHES, BY THE REV. J. OWEN DORSEY.

For a number of years Mr. Dorsey has been engaged in investigations among a group of cognate Dakotan tribes embracing three languages: [¢]egiha, spoken by the Ponkas and Omahas, with a closely related dialect of the same, spoken by the Kansas, Osage, and Kwapa tribes; the [T]ɔiwere, spoken by the Iowa, Oto, and Missouri tribes; and the Hotcañgara, spoken by the Winnebago.

In July, 1878, he repaired to the Omaha reservation, in the neighborhood of which most of these languages are spoken, for the purpose of continuing his studies.

Mr. Dorsey commenced the study of the [¢]egiha in 1871, and has continued his researches in the group until the present time. He has collected a very large body of linguistic material, both in grammar and vocabulary, and when finally published a great contribution will be made to North American linguistics.

These languages are excessively complex because of the synthetic characteristics of the verb, incorporated particles being used in an elaborate and complex scheme.

In these languages six general classes of pronouns are found:

1st. The free personal.

2d. The incorporated personal.

3d. The demonstrative.

4th. The interrogative.

5th. The relative.

6th. The indefinite.

One of the most interesting features of the language is found in the genders or particle classifiers. The genders or classifiers are animate and inanimate, and these are again divided into the standing, sitting, reclining, and moving; but in the Winnebago the reclining and moving constitute but one class. They are suffixed to nouns, pronouns, and verbs. When nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions are used as predicants, i.e., to perform the function of verbs, these classifiers are also suffixed. The classifiers point out with particularity the gender or class of the subject and object. When numerals are used as nouns the classifiers are attached.

In nouns and pronouns case functions are performed by an elaborate system of postpositions in conjunction with the classifiers.

The verbs are excessively complex by reason of the use of many incorporated particles to denote cause, manner, instrument, purpose, condition, time, etc. Voice, mode, and tense are not systematically differentiated in the morphology, but voices, modes, and tenses, and a great variety of adverbial qualifications enter into the complex scheme of incorporated particles.

Sixty-six sounds are found in the [¢]egiha; sixty-two in the [T]ɔiwere; sixty-two in the Hotcañgara; and the alphabet adopted by the Bureau is used successfully for their expression.

While Mr. Dorsey has been prosecuting his linguistic studies among these tribes he has had abundant opportunity to carry on other branches of anthropologic research, and he has collected extensive and valuable materials on sociology, mythology, religion, arts, customs, etc. His final publication of the [¢]egiha will embrace a volume of literature made up of mythic tales, historical narratives, letters, etc., in the Indian, with interlinear translations, a selection from which appears in the papers appended to this report. Another volume will be devoted to the grammar and a third to the dictionary.

LINGUISTIC RESEARCHES, BY THE REV. S. R. RIGGS.

In 1852 the Smithsonian Institution published a grammar and dictionary of the Dakota language prepared by Mr. Riggs. Since that time Mr. Riggs, assisted by his sons, A. L. and T. L. Riggs, and by Mr. Williamson, has been steadily engaged in revising and enlarging the grammar and dictionary; and at the request of the Bureau he is also preparing a volume of Dakota literature as texts for illustration to the grammar and dictionary. He is rapidly preparing this work for publication, and it will soon appear.

The work of Mr. Riggs and that of Mr. Dorsey, mentioned above, with the materials already published, will place the Dakotan languages on record more thoroughly than those of any other family in this country.

The following is a table of the languages of this family now recognized by the Bureau:

LANGUAGES OF THE DAKOTAN FAMILY.

1. Dakóta (Sioux), in four dialects:

(a) Mdéwakaⁿtoⁿwaⁿ and Waqpékute.

(b) Waqpétoⁿwaⁿ (Warpeton) and Sisítoⁿwaⁿ (Sisseton).

These two are about equivalent to the modern Isaⁿ´yati (Santee).

(c) Ihañk´toⁿwaⁿ (Yankton), including the Assiniboins.

(d) Títoⁿwaⁿ (Teton).

2. [¢]egiha, in two (?) dialects:

(a) Umaⁿ´haⁿ (Omaha), spoken by the Omahas and Ponkas.

(b) Ugáqpa (Kwapa), spoken by the Kwapas, Osages, and Kansas.

3. [T]ɔiwére, in two dialects:

(a) [T]ɔiwére, spoken by the Otos and Missouris.

(b) [T]ɔéʞiwere, spoken by the Iowas.

4. Hotcañ´gara, spoken by the Winnebagos.

5. Númañkaki (Mandan), in two dialects:

(a) Mitútahañkuc.

(b) Ruptári.

6. Hi¢átsa (Hidatsa), in two (?) dialects:

(a) Hidátsa or Minnetaree.

(b) Absároka or Crow.

7. Tútelo, in Canada.

8. Katâ´ba (Catawba), in South Carolina.

LINGUISTIC AND GENERAL RESEARCHES AMONG THE KLAMATH INDIANS, BY MR. A. S. GATSCHET.

Of the Klamath language of Oregon there are two dialects—one spoken by the Indians of Klamath Lake and the other by the Modocs—constituting the Lutuami family of Hale and Gallatin.

Mr. Gatschet has spent much time among these Indians, at their reservation and elsewhere, and has at the present time in manuscript nearly ready for the printer a large body of Klamath literature, consisting of mythic, ethnic, and historic tales, a grammar and a dictionary. The stories were told by the Indians and recorded by himself, and constitute a valuable contribution to the subject. Some specimens will appear in the papers appended to this report.

The grammatic sketch treats of both dialects, which differ but slightly in grammar but more in vocabulary. The grammar is divided into three principal parts: Phonology, Morphology, and Syntax.

In Phonology fifty different sounds are recognized, including simple and compound consonants, the vowels in different quantities, and the diphthongs.

A characteristic feature of this language is described in explaining syllabic reduplication, which performs iterative and distributive functions. Reduplication for various purposes is found in most of the languages of North America. In the Nahuatl, Sahaptin, and Selish families it is most prominent. Mr. Gatschet’s researches will add materially to the knowledge of the functions of reduplication in tribal languages.

The verbal inflection is comparatively simple, for in it the subject and object pronouns are not incorporated. In the verb Mr. Gatschet recognizes ten general forms, a part of which he designates as verbals, as follows:

1. Infinitive in -a.

2. Durative in -ota.

3. Causative in -oga.

4. Indefinite in -ash.

5. Indefinite in -uĭsh.

6. Conditional in -asht.

7. Desiderative in -ashtka.

8. Intentional in -tki.

9. Participle in -ank.

10. Past participle and verbal adjectives in -tko.

Tense and mode inflection is very rudimentary and is mostly accomplished by the use of particles. The study of the prefixes and suffixes of derivation is one of the chief difficulties of the language, for they combine in clusters, and are not easily analyzed, and their functions are often obscure.

The inflection of nouns by case endings and postpositions is rich in forms; that of the adjective and numeral less elaborate.

Of the pronouns, only the demonstrative show a complexity of forms.

Another feature of this language is found in verbs appended to certain numerals, and thus serving as numerical classifiers. These verbs express methods of counting and relate to form; that is, in each case they present the Indian in the act of counting objects of a particular form and placing them in groups of tens.

The appended verbs used as classifiers signify to place, but in Indian languages we are not apt to find a word so highly differentiated as place, but in its stead a series of words with verbs and adverbs undifferentiated, each signifying to place, with a qualification, as I place upon, I lay alongside of, I stand up, by, etc. Thus we get classifiers attached to numerals in the Klamath, analogous to the classifiers attached to verbs, nouns, numerals, etc., in the Ponka, as mentioned above.

These classifiers in Klamath are further discriminated as to form; but these form discriminations are the homologues of attitude discriminations in the Ponka, for the form determines the attitude.

It is interesting to note how often in these lower languages attitude or form is woven into the grammatic structure. Perhaps this arises from a condition of expression imposed by the want of the verb to be, so that when existence in place is to be affirmed, the verbs of attitude, i.e., to stand, to sit, to lie, and sometimes to move, are used to predicate existence in place, and thus the mind comes habitually to consider all things as in the one or the other of these attitudes. The process of growth seems to be that verbs of attitude are primarily used to affirm existence in place until the habit of considering the attitude is established; thus participles of attitude are used with nouns, &c., and finally, worn down by the law of phonic change, for economy, they become classifying particles. This view of the origin of classifying particles seems to be warranted by studies from a great variety of Indian sources.

The syntactic portion is divided into four parts:

1st. On the predicative relation;

2d. On the objective relation;

3d. On the attributive relation; and the

4th. Exhibits the formation of simple and compound sentences, followed by notes on the incorporative tendency of the language, its rhetoric, figures, and idioms.

The alphabet adopted by Mr. Gatschet differs slightly from that used by the Bureau, particularly in the modification of certain Roman characters and the introduction of one Greek character. This occurred from the fact that Mr. Gatschet’s material had been partly prepared prior to the adoption of the alphabet now in use.

Mr. Gatschet has collected much valuable material relating to governmental and social institutions, mythology, religion, music, poetry, oratory, and other interesting matters. The body of Klamath literature, or otherwise the text previously mentioned, constitutes the basis of these investigations.

STUDIES AMONG THE IROQUOIS, BY MRS. E. A. SMITH.

Mrs. Smith, of Jersey City, has undertaken to prepare a series of chrestomathies of the Iroquois language, and has already made much progress. Three of them are ready for the printer, and that on the Tuscarora language has been increased much beyond the limits at first established. She has also collected interesting material relating to the mythology, habits, customs, &c., of these Indians, and her contributions will be interesting and important.

WORK BY PROF. OTIS T. MASON.

On the advent of the white man in America a great number of tribes were found. For a variety of reasons the nomenclature of these tribes became excessively complex. Names were greatly multiplied for each tribe and a single name was often inconsistently applied to different tribes. Several important reasons conspired to bring about this complex state of synonymy:

1st. A great number of languages were spoken, and ofttimes the first names obtained for tribes were not the names used by themselves, but the names by which they were known to some other tribes.

2d. The governmental organization of the Indians was not understood, and the names for gentes, tribes, and confederacies were confounded.

3d. The advancing occupancy of the country by white men changed the habitat of the Indians, and in their migrations from point to point their names were changed.

Under these circumstances the nomenclature of Indian tribes became ponderous and the synonymy complex. To unravel this synonymy is a task of great magnitude. Early in the fiscal year the materials already collected on this subject were turned over to Professor Mason and clerical assistance given him, and he has prepared a card catalogue of North American tribes, exhibiting the synonymy, for use in the office. This is being constantly revised and enlarged, and will eventually be published.

Professor Mason is also engaged in editing a grammar and dictionary of the Chata language, by the late Rev. Cyrus Byington, the manuscript of which was by Mrs. Byington turned over to the Bureau of Ethnology. The dictionary is Chata-English, and Professor Mason has prepared an English-Chata of about ten thousand words. He has also undertaken to enlarge the grammar by a further study of the language among the Indians themselves.

THE STUDY OF GESTURE SPEECH, BY BREVET LIEUT. COL. GARRICK MALLERY, U.S.A.

The growth of the languages of civilized peoples in their later stages may be learned from the study of recorded literature; and by comparative methods many interesting facts may be discovered pertaining to periods anterior to the development of writing.

In the study of peoples who have not passed beyond the tribal condition, laws of linguistic growth anterior to the written stage may be discovered. Thus, by the study of the languages of tribes and the languages of nations, the methods and laws of development are discovered from the low condition represented by the most savage tribe to the highest condition existing in the speech of civilized man. But there is a development of language anterior to this—a prehistoric condition—of profound interest to the scholar, because in it the beginnings of language—the first steps in the organization of articulate speech—are involved.

On this prehistoric stage, light is thrown from four sources:

1st. Infant speech, in which the development of the language of the race is epitomized.

2d. Gesture speech, which, among tribal peoples, never passes beyond the first stages of linguistic growth; and these stages are probably homologous to the earlier stages of oral speech.

3d. Picture writing, in which we again find some of the characteristics of prehistoric speech illustrated.

4th. It may be possible to learn something of the elements of which articulate speech is compounded by studying the inarticulate language of the lower animals.

The traits of gesture speech that seem to illustrate the condition of prehistoric oral language are found in the synthetic character of its signs. The parts of speech are not differentiated, and the sentence is not integrated; and this characteristic is more marked than in that of the lowest oral language yet studied. For this reason the facts of gesture speech constitute an important factor in the philosophy of language. Doubtless, care must be exercised in its use because of the advanced mental condition of the people who thus express their thought, but with due caution it may be advantageously used. In itself, independent of its relations to oral speech, the subject is of great interest.

In taking up this subject for original investigation, valuable published matter was found for comparison with that obtained by Colonel Mallery. His opportunities for collecting materials from the Indians themselves were abundant, as delegations of various tribes are visiting Washington from time to time, by which the information obtained during his travels was supplemented.

Again, the method of investigation by the assistance of a number of collaborators is well illustrated in this work, and contributions from various sources were made to the materials for study. The methods of obtaining these contributions will be more fully explained hereafter. One of the papers appended to this report was prepared by Colonel Mallery and relates to this subject.

During the continuance of the Survey of the Colorado River, and of the Rocky Mountain Region, the Director and his assistants made large collections of pictographs. When Colonel Mallery joined the corps these collections were turned over to him for more careful study. From various sources these pictographs are rapidly accumulating, and now the subject is assuming large proportions, and valuable results are expected.

An interesting relation between gesture speech and pictography consists in the discovery that to the delineation of natural objects is added the representation of gesture signs. Materials in America are very abundant, and the prehistoric materials may be studied in the light given by the practices now found among Indian tribes.

STUDIES IN CENTRAL AMERICAN PICTURE WRITING, BY PROF. E. S. HOLDEN.

In Central America and Mexico, picture writing had progressed to a stage far in advance of anything discovered to the northward. Some of the most interesting of these are the rock inscriptions of Yucatan, Copan, Palenque, and other ruins of Central America.

Professor Holden has devoted much time to the study of these inscriptions, for the purpose of discovering the characteristics of the pictographic method and deciphering the records, and the discoveries made by him are of great interest.

The Bureau has given him clerical assistance and such other aid as has been found possible, and a paper by him on this subject appears with this volume.

THE STUDY OF MORTUARY CUSTOMS, BY DR. H. C. YARROW.

The tribes of North America do not constitute a homogeneous people. In fact, more than seventy distinct linguistic stocks are discovered, and these are again divided by important distinctions of language. Among these tribes varying stages of culture have been reached, and these varying stages are exhibited in their habits and customs; and in a territory of such vast extent the physical environment affecting culture and customs is of great variety. Forest lands on the one hand, prairie lands on the other, unbroken plains and regions of rugged mountains, the cold, naked, desolate shores of sea and lake at the north and the dense chaparral of the torrid south, the valleys of quiet rivers and the cliffs and gorges of the cañon land—in all a great diversity of physical features are found, imposing diverse conditions for obtaining subsistence, in means and methods of house-building, creating diverse wants and furnishing diverse ways for their supply. Through diversities of languages and diversities of environment, diversity of traditions and diversity of institutions have been produced; so that in many important respects one tribe is never the counterpart of another.

These diversities have important limitations in the unity of the human race and the social, mental, and moral homogeneity that has everywhere controlled the progress of culture. The way of human progress is one road, though wide.

From the interesting field of research cultivated by Dr. Yarrow an abundant harvest will be gathered. The materials already accumulated are large, and are steadily increasing through his vigorous work. These materials constitute something more than a record of quaint customs and abhorrent rites in which morbid curiosity may revel. In them we find the evidences of traits of character and lines of thought that yet exist and profoundly influence civilization. Passions in the highest culture deemed most sacred—the love of husband and wife, parent and child, and kith and kin, tempering, beautifying, and purifying social life and culminating at death, have their origin far back in the early history of the race and leaven the society of savagery and civilization alike. At either end of the line bereavement by death tears the heart and mortuary customs are symbols of mourning. The mystery which broods over the abbey where lie the bones of king and bishop, gathers over the ossuary where lie the bones of chief and shamin; for the same longing to solve the mysteries of life and death, the same yearning for a future life, the same awe of powers more than human, exist alike in the mind of the savage and the sage.

By such investigations we learn the history of culture in these important branches, and in a paper appended to this report Dr. Yarrow presents some of the results of his studies.

INVESTIGATIONS RELATING TO CESSIONS OF LAND BY INDIAN TRIBES TO THE UNITED STATES, BY C. C. ROYCE.

When civilized man first came to America the continent was partially occupied by savage tribes, who obtained subsistence by hunting, by fishing, by gathering vegetal products, and by rude garden culture in cultivating small patches of ground. Semi-nomadic occupancy for such purposes was their tenure to the soil.

On the organization of the present government such theories of natural law were entertained that even this imperfect occupancy was held to be sufficient title. Publicists, jurists, and statesmen agreed that no portion of the waste of lands between the oceans could be acquired for the homes of the incoming civilized men but by purchase or conquest in just war. These theories were most potent in establishing practical relations, and controlling governmental dealings with Indian tribes. They were adjudged to be dependent domestic nations.

Under this theory a system of Indian affairs grew up, the history of which, notwithstanding mistakes and innumerable personal wrongs, yet demonstrates the justice inherent in the public sentiment of the nation from its organization to the present time.

The difficulties subsisting in the adjustment of rights between savage and civilized peoples are multiform and complex. Ofttimes the virtues of one condition are the crimes of the other; happiness is misery; justice, injustice. Thus, when the civilized man would do the best, he gave the most offense. Under such circumstances it was impossible for wisdom and justice combined to avert conflict.

One chapter in the history of Indian affairs in America is a doleful tale of petty but costly and cruel wars; but there are other chapters more pleasant to contemplate.

The attempts to educate the Indians and teach them the ways of civilization have been many; much labor has been given, much treasure expended. While to a large extent all of these efforts have disappointed their enthusiastic promoters, yet good has been done, but rather by the personal labors of missionaries, teachers, and frontiersmen associating with Indians in their own land than by institutions organized and supported by wealth and benevolence not immediately in contact with savagery.

The great boon to the savage tribes of this country, unrecognized by themselves, and, to a large extent, unrecognized by civilized men, has been the presence of civilization, which, under the laws of acculturation, has irresistibly improved their culture by substituting new and civilized for old and savage arts, new for old customs—in short, transforming savage into civilized life. These unpremeditated civilizing influences have had a marked effect. The great body of the Indians of North America have passed through stages of culture in the last hundred years achieved by our Anglo-Saxon ancestors only by the slow course of events through a thousand years.

The Indians of the continent have not greatly diminished in numbers, and the tribes longest in contact with civilization are increasing. The whole body of Indians is making rapid progress toward a higher culture, notwithstanding the petty conflicts yet occurring where the relations of the Indian tribes to our civilization have not yet been adjusted by the adoption upon their part of the first conditions of a higher life.

The part which the General Government, representing public sentiment, has done in the extinguishment of the vague Indian title to lands in the granting to them of lands for civilized homes on reservations and in severalty, in the establishment and support of schools, in the endeavors to teach them agriculture and other industrial arts—in these and many other ways justice and beneficence have been shown. Thus the history of the tribes of America from savagery to civilization is a history of three:

First. The history of acculturation—the effect of the presence of civilization upon savagery.

Second. The history of Indian wars that have arisen in part from the crimes and in part from the ignorance of either party.

Third. The history of civil Indian affairs. This last is divided into a number of parts:

1st. The extinguishment of the Indian title.

2d. The gathering of Indians upon reservations.

3d. The instrumentalities used to teach the Indians civilized industries; and

4th. The establishment and operation of schools.

From the organization of the Government to the present time these branches of Indian affairs have been in operation; lands have been bought and bought again; Indian tribes have been moved and moved again; reservations have been established and broken up. The Government has sought to give lands in severalty to the Indians from time to time along the whole course of the history of Indian affairs. Every experiment to teach the Indians the industries of civilization that could be devised has been tried, and from all of these there has resulted a mixture of failure and success.

A review of the century’s history abundantly demonstrates that there is no short road to justice and peace; but a glance at the present state of affairs exhibits the fact that these tribal communities will speedily be absorbed in the citizenship of the republic. No new method is to be adopted; the work is almost done; patient and persistent effort for a short future like that of the long past will accomplish all. It remains for us but to perfect the work wisely begun by the founders of the Government.

The industries and social institutions of the pristine Indians have largely been destroyed, and they are groping their way to civilized life. To the full accomplishment of this, three things are necessary:

1st. The organization of the civilized family, with its rules of inheritance in lineal descent.

2d. The civilized tenure of property in severalty must be substituted for communal property.

3d. The English language must be acquired, that the thoughts and ways of civilization may be understood.

To the history of Indian affairs much time has been given by the various members of the Bureau of Ethnology. One of the more important of these studies is that prosecuted by Mr. Royce in preparing a history of the cessions of lands by Indian tribes to the Government of the United States. A paper by him appended to this report illustrates the character of these investigations.

EXPLORATIONS BY MR. JAMES STEVENSON.

In the early exploration of the southwestern portion of the United States by Spanish travelers and conquerors, about sixty pueblos were discovered. These pueblos were communal villages, with architecture in untooled stone. In the conquest about half of the pueblos were destroyed. Thirty-one now remain, and two of these are across the line, on Mexican territory. The ruins of the pueblos yet remain, and some of them have been identified.

The Navajos, composed of a group of tribes of the Athabascan family, and the Coaninis, who live on the south side of the Grand Cañon of the Colorado, are now known to be the people, or part of them at least, who were driven from the pueblos.

In addition to the ruins that have been made in historic times, others are found scattered throughout New Mexico, Arizona, Southern California, Utah, and Colorado. Whether the ancient inhabitants of these older ruins are represented by any of the tribes who now occupy the territory is not known. These pueblo people were not homogeneous. Among the pueblos now known at least five linguistic families are represented, but in their study a somewhat homogeneous stage of culture is presented.

In a general way the earlier or older ruins represent very rude structures, and the progress of development from the earlier to the later exhibits two classes of interesting facts. The structures gradually increase in size and improve in architecture. As the sites for new villages were selected, more easily defensible positions were chosen. The cliff dwellings thus belong to the later stage.

From the organization of the exploration of the Colorado River to the present time, the pueblos yet inhabited, as well as those in ruins, have been a constant subject of study, and on the organization of the Bureau much valuable matter had already been collected. Early in the fiscal year a party was organized to continue explorations in this field, and placed under the direction of Mr. James Stevenson. The party left Washington on the first of August last.

Mr. Frank H. Cushing, of the Smithsonian Institution, and Mr. J. K. Hillers, photographer of the Bureau, with a number of general assistants, accompanied Mr. Stevenson. The party remained in the field until early winter, studying the ruins and making large and valuable collections of pottery, stone implements, etc., and Mr. Hillers succeeded in making an excellent suite of photographs.

When Mr. Stevenson returned with his party to Washington, Mr. Cushing remained at Zuñi to study the language, mythology, sociology, and art of that the most interesting pueblo. An illustrated catalogue of the collections made by Mr. Stevenson has been printed. It was intended to form an appendix to this report, but the volume has grown to such a size that it is thought best to issue it with the next report.

RESEARCHES AMONG THE WINTUNS, BY J. W. POWELL.

During the fall the Director made an expedition into Northern California for the purpose of studying the Wintuns. Much linguistic, sociologic, and technologic material was collected, and more thorough anthropologic researches initiated among a series of tribes heretofore neglected.

THE PREPARATION OF MANUALS FOR USE IN AMERICAN RESEARCH.

In the second plan of operations adopted by the Bureau, that of promoting the researches of collaborators, aid in publication and, to some extent, in preparation of scientific papers, has been given, and by various ways new investigations and lines of research have been initiated. For this latter purpose a series of manuals with elementary discussions and schedules of interrogatories have been prepared.

The first is entitled Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages, by J. W. Powell.

This has been widely distributed throughout North America, and the collection of a large body of linguistic material has resulted therefrom.

A second volume of this character is entitled Introduction to the Study of Mortuary Customs, by Dr. H. C. Yarrow.

This also has been widely circulated with abundant success.

A third hand-book of the same character is entitled Introduction to the Study of Sign Language, by Colonel Mallery.

This was circulated in like manner with like results.

A second edition of the Introduction to the Study of Indian Languages, enlarged to meet the advanced wants of the time, has been prepared.

The papers by Dr. Yarrow and Colonel Mallery, and the catalogue of manuscripts in the Bureau, prepared by Mr. Pilling, appended to this volume, will illustrate the value of these agencies.

It is proposed in the near future to prepare similar volumes, as follows:

Introduction to the Study of Medicine Practices of the North American Indians;

Introduction to the Study of the Tribal Governments of North America;

Introduction to the Study of North American Mythology.

These additional manuals are nearly ready. Still others are projected, and it is hoped that the field of North American anthropology will be entirely covered by them. The series will then be systematically combined in a Manual of Anthropology for use in North America.

SYSTEMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN TRIBES.

There is in course of preparation by the Bureau a linguistic classification of North American tribes, with an atlas exhibiting their priscan homes, or the regions inhabited by them at the time they were discovered by white men.

The foregoing sketch of the Bureau, for the first fiscal year of its existence, is designed to set forth the plan on which it is organized and the methods of research adopted, and the papers appended thereto will exhibit the measure of success attained.

It is the purpose of the Bureau of Ethnology to organize anthropologic research in America.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY

J. W. POWELL, DIRECTOR

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