CUT AND WIRE NAILS
2. Cut Nails.—The primitive nail was made or forged by hand, and this mode of manufacture still exists in certain sections of Europe. These hand-made nails sold at exorbitant prices compared with the machine-made nails of today.
The manufacture of cut nails is less automatic and requires more manual labor than is necessary in the making of wire nails. The iron or steel is first rolled into sheets, the thickness of which is equal to the thickness of the nail; it is then cut into strips as wide as the nail is long. This strip of metal is fed into the nail machine and sheared off in tapering strips having the form of the nail, when it is seized by clamps that hold it just long enough for the heading hammer to strike the blow that forms the head.
The nail manufactured in this manner is known as the cut nail, and is much superior to the wire nail, which is of more recent production. Not only has the cut nail greater holding power, but it is more durable, especially when used in damp places.
3. Nearly all cut nails used at the present time are made from sheet steel, a small percentage only being manufactured of iron, for which the makers charge a slightly higher price. The steel nail is undoubtedly the best for use in hardwoods, but the iron nail will outlast it where dampness exists, as, for instance, in shingling, etc.
As shown in [Fig. 1], cut nails are made in many styles and sizes, and for various purposes. They are also known by the same trade term for the various styles. Cut nails are heavier than wire nails, and as they count fewer to the pound, are more expensive at equivalent prices. All nails are sold at base prices per keg of 100 pounds, the “extras” for smaller and special nails being added to the base price. For special work, certain types of nails can be obtained in copper and brass.
4. Size and Gauge of Nails.—Both cut and wire nails are designated by the trade term penny. The term penny as applied to nails is a relic of medieval England. This designation was due, it is said, to the fact that it defined the cost per hundred nails, so that tenpenny nails would mean that 100 of such nails cost ten pence. A more likely interpretation of the term is that it implied the weight and not the cost, and that the term penny is a corruption of the Old English word pun’ (for pound), so that tenpunny or tenpenny implied that 1,000 of such nails weighed 10 pounds. The smallest standard size of nail is known as twopenny or threepenny, while the largest is designated as sixtypenny. These sizes range in length from 1 to 6 inches. In designating the size of the nail in list prices, the symbol “d” (for penny) is used, so that a nail about 2 inches long is designated as 6d. The thickness, or diameter, is indicated by the gauge number, the gauge of cut nails being an indication of the thickness of plate from which they are cut, while the gauge of wire nails is the size of the wire from which the nails are formed. The different wire gauges and their decimal equivalents of an inch are given in [Table I]. The special wire gauge commonly used to indicate the size of the nail is the Birmingham. In [Table II] is given a list of the stock sizes of standard, common, cut nails. This table, besides giving the thickness of the nail and its length, gives the number of nails to the pound.
TABLE I
STANDARD WIRE GAUGES AND THEIR
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF AN INCH
TABLE II
SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND
OF COMMON CUT NAILS
| Trade Term | Length Inches | Gauge | Number to Pound |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3d fine | 1⅛ | 16 | 720 |
| 3d flat | 1¼ | 15 full | 430 |
| 4d flat | 1½ | 14 full | 275 |
| 5d flat | 1¾ | 13 regular | 215 |
| 6d common | 2 | 12 regular | 150 |
| 7d common | 2¼ | 11 light | 120 |
| 8d common | 2½ | 11 regular | 96 |
| 9d common | 2¾ | 10 light | 72 |
| 10d common | 3 | 10 regular | 64 |
| 12d common | 3¼ | 9 regular | 44 |
| 16d common | 3½ | 8 regular | 32 |
| 20d common | 4 | 7 regular | 28 |
| 30d common | 4½ | 6 regular | 18 |
| 40d common | 5 | 5 regular | 14 |
| 50d common | 5½ | 4 regular | 12 |
| 60d common | 6 | 3 regular | 10 |
Fig. 1
5. Wire Nails.—The term wire nail is applied to nails made from drawn wire, or wire rods. Since their introduction some years ago, wire nails have become decidedly popular, and in some localities are used in preference to the old-style cut nails, owing to the fact that there are a greater number to the pound, which makes them cheaper than cut nails at the same price per keg. The size and number of common wire nails to the pound are given in [Table III]. By comparing the columns in Tables [II] and [III] giving the number of nails to the pound for both cut and wire nails, it can be readily seen that the wire nails are greater in number for a given weight than cut nails of the same size. For this reason, the wire nails are used by contractors on cheap work.
Wire nails are more liable to rust than cut or wrought nails, and are consequently not so durable in damp situations; they also have less holding power and more must be used to obtain the same strength.
TABLE III
SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND
OF COMMON WIRE NAILS
| Size | Length Inches | Gauge Number | Approximate Number to the Pound | Advance Over Base Price per 100 Pounds |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2d | 1 | 15 | 876 | $0.70 |
| 3d | 1¼ | 14 | 568 | .45 |
| 4d | 1½ | 12½ | 316 | .30 |
| 5d | 1¾ | 12½ | 271 | .30 |
| 6d | 2 | 11½ | 181 | .20 |
| 7d | 2¼ | 11½ | 161 | .20 |
| 8d | 2½ | 10¼ | 106 | .10 |
| 9d | 2¾ | 10¼ | 96 | .10 |
| 10d | 3 | 9 | 69 | .05 |
| 12d | 3¼ | 9 | 63 | .05 |
| 16d | 3½ | 8 | 49 | .05 |
| 20d | 4 | 6 | 31 | Base |
| 30d | 4½ | 5 | 24 | Base |
| 40d | 5 | 4 | 18 | Base |
| 50d | 5½ | 3 | 14 | Base |
| 60d | 6 | 2 | 11 | Base |
Fig. 2
Common wire nails in sizes from twentypenny to sixtypenny are sold at base price, say $2 per keg, the smaller sizes costing an advance over the base price. Thus, an eightpenny common nail would cost 10 cents additional, or $2.10 per hundred pounds, while a twopenny nail would cost $2.70 per hundred pounds, etc. The present advance above the base price on 100-pound kegs for the several sizes is also given in this table. All wire nails can be procured “barbed” at an additional advance of 15 cents above base and extra prices.
The relative sizes of the common wire nail are best learned from samples of the same, but [Fig. 2], which shows these nails full size, from sixtypenny to twopenny, clearly indicates their proportions.
Fig. 3
6. Wire Nails for Special Purposes.—Wire nails as well as wrought or cut nails are made in a variety of forms especially suitable for the specific purpose for which they are intended. The several kinds of wire nails in common use are illustrated in [Fig. 3].
A nail used about buildings for putting the trim, or finishing work, together is illustrated at (a), and from its use is known as a finishing nail. These nails are used almost exclusively for this purpose and are very light. They have a small head, so that when they are set into the wood with a nail set, a very small opening is left for puttying.
Another nail having practically the same use as the one just described is designated as a casing nail, and is shown at (b). This nail is a trifle lighter in gauge than the finishing nail, and from the fact that it is countersunk under the head, it draws better than the finishing nail. The fivepenny and sixpenny sizes are used for putting on siding.
The common wire brad, shown at (c), is used for practically the same purposes as the regular finishing nail, but it is from two to four gauges heavier. This wire brad is useful when a heavy nail with a small head is required, particularly in hardwood, where a light finishing nail will not penetrate without bending.
The flooring brad, shown at (d), is a nail used almost exclusively for flooring. This nail is made of heavier gauge wire than other nails of this type, and drives easily, even in hard, maple floor. The construction of the head of this type of nail allows for severe “drawing” without splitting the tongue of the flooring boards.
The fine-wire nail, shown at (e), commonly called a lath nail, is made in four sizes and is used for nailing lath to studding. Owing to its smoothness, cleanliness, and easy-driving qualities, this type of nail is extensively used.
A short, heavy nail, the whole length of which is barbed to increase its holding qualities, is shown at (f). This nail is known as a barbed roofing nail, and is generally used for nailing tin roofs and ready, or prepared, roofing of every description. It is also used with tin roofing caps.
At (g) is shown a slating nail. This type of nail is formed from heavy gauge wire, and has a flat head that is large in proportion to its length. This nail is used only for slating, but is not so durable as the cut nail made for this purpose. Nails of this kind are made in only five sizes.
A type of nail used for attaching wooden shingles, and known as the shingle nail, is shown at (h). This nail is seldom carried in stock, however, as threepenny and fourpenny common nails answer the purpose. These shingle nails are clean and easily driven, but are not so durable as cut nails.
A very heavy nail of the same character as the common wire nail, but made much heavier, in order to increase the holding qualities and to provide greater durability, is known as the fence nail. This nail is made as shown at (i).
At (j) is shown a clinch nail that is manufactured from soft wire or annealed hard wire. This nail answers the same purpose as the old-style wrought, or clinch-cut, nail commonly used in the construction of batten doors, etc. The metal being very soft at the end of the nail, allows the point to be bent and driven back into the wood to form the clinch. These nails do not differ from the common wire nail, except in the form of the head and the material from which they are made, as will be seen from [Fig. 3 (j)] and [Fig. 2].
There is a form of headless wire nail, known as a barbed dowel-pin, which is made as shown in [Fig. 3 (k)]. This type of nail, or dowel, is used for doweling through the mortises and tenons of sash, blinds, and frames of every description. In the mill, it has displaced the wooden dowel used in former times. The length of pin to be employed is regulated by the thickness of the wood to be secured, as the pins are used ¼ inch shorter than the thickness of the woodwork.
Fig. 4
An exceptionally heavy nail, or spike, is made from heavy wire or round bar. These spikes are used for heavy construction work, such as splined flooring, for slow-burning mill construction, and for bridge flooring. They are made with both chisel points, as shown in [Fig. 4], and diamond points, and in ordering them, the kind of point, as well as the style of head wanted should be specified. Spikes of this kind are made in all sizes from tenpenny, which is of No. 6 gauge and 3 inches long, to spikes ⅜ inch in diameter and 12 inches long.
7. Galvanized Nails and Spikes.—Nails and spikes, either cut or wire, that have been dipped into molten zinc and become coated with this metal are termed galvanized. By this process they are rendered practically rust-proof. Cut or wire galvanized nails can be obtained in the same sizes and types as ordinary nails, and if dealers do not regularly carry them in stock, they will as a rule have them galvanized to order. In order to secure durability, it is advisable to use galvanized nails in places that are exposed to dampness, as in shingling, in slating, in fence building, or in structures erected near the seashore, as it has been proved by numerous tests that ordinary nails rust through in such places in a few years. The galvanized nails cost from $1.50 to $3 more per keg than the plain cut or wire nails.
The cheaper grades of galvanized nails are frequently coated only with lead, and will not withstand the government test; that is, dipping them into vitriol. A simple way to test the coating of a galvanized nail is to rub the nail on a piece of white paper. A lead-coated nail will mark the paper the same as a lead pencil and should be rejected, as it is only a sham and has no redeeming qualities.
WOOD SCREWS, EXPANSION
AND SPECIAL BOLTS
8. Wood Screws.—The ordinary wood screw, which is one of the staple articles of hardware, is very necessary in the application of all builders’ hardware about the building. Except in some lines of cheap or rough, unfinished goods, hardware manufacturers now pack with all hardware, screws that match the finish of the goods. The various types of screws now on the market are illustrated in [Fig. 5], and the common types, such as flat-, round-, oval-, and fillister-headed screws are easily procured.
Iron screws are made with either flat, round, or oval heads and the following finishes: Bright, blued, japanned, tinned, galvanized, bronze-plated, brass-plated, coppered, silvered, and nickel-plated. Brass and bronze metal screws can also be procured with flat, round, or oval heads, in either natural color or, on special order, finished to match the hardware. Special screws are also manufactured for various purposes, which are sufficiently explained by the illustration, [Fig. 5].
Fig. 5
Screws are always measured for length from the point to the top of the head. The sizes in which screws can be obtained are given in [Table IV]. The diameter of screws is always measured directly under the head, and is always given in numbers of the screw makers’ gauge. The numbers vary from 0 to 30, going consecutively without skip from 0 to 18 and from then on using only the even numbers. In [Table IV] are also given the numbers of the screw makers’ gauge and their equivalents in decimals of an inch.
TABLE IV
SIZE OF WOOD SCREWS
| Length Inches | Diameter in Screw Makers’ Gauge | |
|---|---|---|
| ¼ | From | 0 to 4 inclusive |
| ⅜ | From | 0 to 9 inclusive |
| ½ | From | 1 to 12 inclusive |
| ⅝ | From | 1 to 14 inclusive |
| ¾ | From | 2 to 16 inclusive |
| ⅞ | From | 2 to 16 inclusive |
| 1 | From | 3 to 20 inclusive |
| 1¼ | From | 3 to 24 inclusive |
| 1½ | From | 3 to 24 inclusive |
| 1¾ | From | 5 to 24 inclusive |
| 2 | From | 5 to 24 inclusive |
| 2¼ | From | 5 to 24 inclusive |
| 2½ | From | 5 to 24 inclusive |
| 2¾ | From | 6 to 24 inclusive |
| 3 | From | 6 to 26 inclusive |
| 3½ | From | 8 to 26 inclusive |
| 4 | From | 8 to 30 inclusive |
| 4½ | From | 12 to 30 inclusive |
| 5 | From | 12 to 30 inclusive |
| 6 | From | 12 to 30 inclusive |
Screw Makers’ Gauge
| Number of Screw Gauge | Equivalent in Decimals of an Inch |
|---|---|
| 0 | .05784 |
| 1 | .07100 |
| 2 | .08416 |
| 3 | .09732 |
| 4 | .11048 |
| 5 | .12364 |
| 6 | .13680 |
| 7 | .14996 |
| 8 | .16312 |
| 9 | .17628 |
| 10 | .18944 |
| 11 | .20260 |
| 12 | .21576 |
| 13 | .22892 |
| 14 | .24208 |
| 15 | .25524 |
| 16 | .26840 |
| 17 | .28156 |
| 18 | .29472 |
| 20 | .32104 |
| 22 | .34736 |
| 24 | .37368 |
| 26 | .40000 |
| 28 | .42632 |
| 30 | .45264 |
9. Drive Screws.—A screw known as the drive screw is used mostly in the manufacture of various articles where cost is the controlling factor. These screws, shown in [Fig. 6], are made somewhat on the order of the wood screw, but without the deep-cut thread and gimlet point. Screws of this type are driven into the wood with a hammer and have slotted heads so that they may be withdrawn by means of a screwdriver. The thread is so constructed that the wood may be penetrated without breaking down its fiber when the screws are driven, and is shaped so as to engage with the wood while resisting a pulling stress. These screws are made with flat, round, or oval heads, as illustrated respectively at (a), (b), and (c), and may be had in sizes from ½ inch to 4 inches in length.
Fig. 6
10. Expansion Bolts.—The expansion bolt is a device that has proved extremely valuable in the building trades, as it provides a means of bolting to stone, brick, concrete, slate, or other materials of this nature. Expansion bolts are used principally in places where it is not desirable or practicable to drill through the material to which the fastenings are to be made. This type of bolt has also a great advantage over other fastenings in that it can be removed with as much ease and facility as it is applied, and also without injury either to the article fastened or the material to which it is fixed, the bolt likewise sustaining no injury.
Many styles of expansion bolts are now manufactured under various patents, and these may be procured in all sizes and made of iron, steel, or brass.
In [Fig. 7] are shown several makes of expansion bolts. The McCabe expansion bolt, shown at (a), is constructed of a malleable, cylindrical-shaped, slotted case, or shell, a, the aperture of which reduces in size and engages with a bevel-shaped hexagon nut b. By turning the bolt, the nut is drawn toward the head and thus expands the outer case in its passage; this in turn binds against the sides of the hole in the masonry into which the bolt is inserted. The shell, as the outside case a is called, can be procured in any length or diameter, and can be used with any machine bolt having a standard thread. The McCabe bolt is suitable for bolting any thickness of material, provided the proper length of bolt is employed.
The Brohard expansion bolt shown at (b), performs the same functions as the bolt illustrated at (a). The case, or shell, a, is composed of two or more parts riveted to a wrought circular plate, near the head, as at b. These several parts are expanded by means of the beveled nut, which approaches the head as the bolt is turned. The principal feature of the Brohard expansion bolt is that the beveled nut c cannot be forced from the case on account of the lug d, which is attached to the nut and travels in the slot e when the bolt is turned.
Fig. 7
The Steward and Romaine double-expansion bolt is shown at (c). The shell of this bolt is composed of two semicylindrical parts, as at a, a, that are somewhat longer in diameter than the wedge-shaped nut and the sleeve at b and c, respectively. Each half of the shell is held in place by light rubber bands. The wedge-shaped parts are caused to approach each other by the turning of the bolt, and thereby expand the split case at both ends simultaneously. From the fact that this bolt is expanded at both ends, it is called a double-expansion bolt, although it may be made single-expansion by omitting the wedge-shaped sleeve at the head.
Fig. 8
The Star expansion bolt, shown in [Fig. 8 (a)], performs exactly the same duty as other expansion bolts, but its construction is radically different. This bolt consists of only two parts, called shields. Each shield is semicircular in form and interlocks at the joints. The exterior of these shields has four rows of corrugated ridges, or star-shaped projections, that prevent the shields from turning in the hole. The interior of the shell is threaded and decreases in size toward the farther end. Thus, by inserting a lag, or coach, screw of any length, so as to engage with the thread, the shields are spread apart at the farther end while the screw is entering the aperture.
The Diamond expansion bolt shown at (b) is practically the same as the one just described, as will be observed from the figure.
Expansion bolts are also made with all the parts entirely of brass or bronze, with either plain, capped, or fancy heads, or nuts, and in any finish desired.
11. Screw Anchors.—The device known as a screw anchor can be used in place of an expansion bolt for securing light materials. Several kinds of screw anchors are in the market at present. The star anchor, which is made in one piece of composition metal that is slotted about seven-eighths of its length, may be obtained in various diameters and lengths. The exterior has two star-like projections, to prevent the anchor from turning, while the interior is constructed of ridges projecting from the tube, with the hole reduced toward the slotted end. This internal construction permits the star anchor to be used in combination with trade wood or machine screws of any length. The screw used engages with the ridges in the interior, cutting its own thread and expanding the anchor in its passage. These composition anchors are very cheap, the price ranging from 1 to 3 cents, according to the size. They are made in different lengths, from ½ inch to 1½ inches, and for Nos. 6, 10, 14, and 18 wood screws.
Fig. 9
12. Special Bolts.—In [Fig. 9] is shown a toggle bolt. This device is a recent production for fastening materials to surfaces having a hollow interior that will not admit the use of expansion or tap bolts because of its frail character, as, for instance, sheet metal, hollow fireproofing, etc. The toggle bolt shown in the figure is constructed with long, fine-pitch threads cut nearly to the head, so as to allow for securing thin materials. The T-shaped head a is constructed either hollow, as shown in the figure, or of flat strip metal, and is riveted loosely to the end of the bolt, allowing the head to pivot and fold over the bolt, and thus permitting the head to pass through a small opening. The head is then tipped into its proper position, when the bolt is ready for securing in place the work to be fastened. The construction of the bolt is shown in [Fig. 9 (a)], while the process of affixing it is illustrated at (b) and (c). These toggle bolts are generally made with ³/₁₆-, ¼-, and ⁵/₁₆-inch bolts, from 2½ to 6 inches long, and of either iron, steel, or brass.