FOOTNOTES:
[25] See also “Equipment,” p. [82].
CHAPTER XII
MOUNTAINEERING IN THE ARCTIC (SPITSBERGEN)
BY SIR W. MARTIN CONWAY
Since the expedition which I took to Spitsbergen in the years 1896 and 1897, I have not heard of any parties of mountaineers going to that country. Mountains were incidentally climbed by the Russian-Swedish surveyors, who went up there in several successive years to measure an arc of the Meridian. Indeed, they discovered and climbed the highest point in the main island, which Garwood and I had beheld afar off in 1897 but were unable to reach. Mountaineering, however, was merely an incident in the work of those parties. It has always seemed to me strange that English climbers have never followed our example in the Far North, and it is therefore with little hope of being very serviceable that I now accede to the request of the editor of this work to contribute a chapter on “Arctic Mountaineering,” and how to set to work about it. Truth to tell, my own memory of details has become feeble; but such as it is, it shall be placed at the reader’s service.
Modes of Access.
The first question, of course, is how to get to Spitsbergen, and having got there, how to get away from it; for though tourist steamers not infrequently visit the western coast of the main island, they stop so short a time as to be useless for even the briefest mountaineering expeditions. The climber who wishes to have the best of the season should arrive not earlier than the end of June, and start away at latest towards the end of August, when the sun has already begun to set.
Nowadays a good many industrial enterprises, such as mines and, I believe, quarries, are being prosecuted in Spitsbergen, so that there must really be plenty of opportunities of being carried thither from Tromsö and brought back again; but it is impossible to predict beforehand what they will be. Probably the easiest way would be to make arrangements with the owner of one of the Tromsö or Hammerfest fishing sloops to convey the party up to its selected base and call for it again on a day fixed in advance. The price that should be charged for such accommodation ought to be moderate; but my experience of the North Norwegians was that they are liable to open their mouths pretty wide when they think they have a traveller in their power. In any case, such arrangements are best made by an agent long in advance and with all legal exactitude.
Equipment and Outfit.
The equipment necessary for Spitsbergen mountaineering need not be very elaborate. The temperatures to be faced will not exceed those of an ordinary English winter, and clothes will therefore not require to be of the Arctic character we associate with Polar expeditions. But a man does need to be really warmly clad with plenty of thick underclothing and thoroughly strong garments. For when the wind blows and the snow drives on the higher levels it is cold enough even at Midsummer, though on rare occasions in still air the warmth of the sun may be felt to a quite surprising degree. Near the sea-level and on the moraines and rocks the strongest mountaineering boots are none too strong. I doubt whether the ski-ing boots commonly worn for winter sport would adapt themselves for use in such places. Once the upper levels of the glaciers have been gained, which generally involves two or three days’ work with sledges from sea-level, travelling becomes easier and more agreeable, and is done almost entirely on ski. Sledges, ski, warm sleeping-bags, goat-hair stockings and warm clothing generally can be bought very well at Bergen or Trondhjem on the way out; but it would be well, as far as the sledges are concerned, to write beforehand and make sure that they would be available. British consuls at those places or the Norwegian Consul-General in London would doubtless inform inquirers as to the names of the best shops to deal with. Reindeer sleeping-bags are delightfully comfortable and warm, but they are distinctly heavy and bulky. Good eiderdown sleeping-bags with a rug or two would, I think, be quite warm enough till the 20th of August at any rate. The best tents to take are relatively large tents of the ‘Mummery’ type, made of strong Willesden canvas with rubber sheeting floor sewn in. It is absolutely essential that the floor should be sewn in, otherwise the tent could be easily blown away in a gale. I do not remember the exact arrangements of the tents of this kind made for me by Edgington’s. The floor space was probably about 6 feet or 6 feet 6 inches by 4 feet. The height may be judged by the fact that for poles we used ice-axes, with extra pieces about 18 inches long to fit over the points with a socket to lengthen them. Three or even four people might be crowded into such a tent, but no one would wish to share such a tent with more than one companion on a pleasure journey of a few weeks’ duration. The remainder of the kit would consist of cooking apparatus and supplies, to wit, a primus stove, some aluminium plates and pans, aluminium spoons and forks; and for provisions the usual tinned goods, concentrated soups and pots of jam, and a sufficient quantity of highly nutritious biscuits to take the place of bread. Far the best biscuits for this purpose we found were named ‘Triticumina,’ which contained plasmon; but the biscuits which have currants sandwiched into them form a very welcome change.
A liberal supply of brown sugar in tins should on no account be forgotten, though jam is almost as good. If the party contemplate spending their time in one district of the island, they will probably make for themselves a heavy and comfortable base camp, which may be as well stored as they please, as it will, of course, be situated close to the shore of some bay or harbour, and everything belonging to it will be landed direct from the boat, so that the question of porterage will not arise. This base camp ought to be equipped with a rowing boat of the type called a whale boat, such as can be readily hired from any North Norwegian port. It would be well to have one or two able-bodied Norwegian sailors to man the boat and help drag the sledges, and no difficulty would be experienced in finding in or about the Lofoten Islands suitable men, skilful also in going on ski. Our experience was that young unmarried men were to be preferred. The others got home-sick.
Plans of Campaign.
A mountaineering expedition to Spitsbergen might lay out its plans on many different lines, but, broadly speaking, there are two main choices between which to select. In one, the mountains of the coast region accessible directly in one day, or at most in two days, from the sea would be the principal object of attention. In the other, the high interior regions of inland ice remote from the shore, and the mountains rising out of them, would be the goal. There is much to be said for either plan. The former would be the less laborious and the more comfortable; the latter harder work, more adventurous, and opening up a stranger and more wonderful world. There is also a third region, that of the unglaciated, boggy valleys around Advent Bay and Bell Sound; but this, after a season’s experience, I cannot honestly recommend as pleasant travelling country.
From the Coast.
Let us then take the other two alternatives one by one. Climbers who would hug the coast may go up with a fairly large party prepared to subdivide on arrival, and pitch base camps in different bays if so they please. But a large party is, of course, not essential, and a couple of good friends, with one or two Norwegian sailors at their disposal, would have a very good time on shore or afloat in their whale boat. Having chosen a well-protected landing-place with a shelving beach up which to haul their boat, and having pitched their tents well out of reach of the highest tides and storms, they could either climb the mountains close at hand, or they could row off or sail away in their boat to any others accessible from their fjord, taking with them a light camp and provisions only for two or three days. Or, again, they can make short trips of one or two days’ duration merely into the interior, not cumbering themselves with a sledge, but carrying on their backs a very light camping equipment of a kind brought to much perfection by the Amateur Camping Club. On this system the same base camp need not be adhered to for the whole season, but in suitable weather it could be moved, by help of the whale boat, even from one of the western fiords to another.
The great question which naturally arises is what sites by the seashore are best suited for climbing centres. Broadly speaking, the north half and the south toe of the main island alone come into consideration, for the east islands are not practically accessible, nor would it often be wise to make a sea-base at all far to the eastward on the north coast. Practically, therefore, we may take the coast-line round from Wijde Bay westward and then southward down the coast to King’s Bay, then all along either coast to Foreland Sound to the mouth of Ice Sound, whilst at the south end of the island only Horn Sound need be considered.
Coming now to detail, in the high summer of a very open season, when the ice-pack has withdrawn to somewhere in the neighbourhood of 80° 30“, it might be safe to make a base camp for a week or two in Wijde Bay itself, preferably on its eastern shore, from which the high peaks of 7000 feet and thereabouts, which range down the west side of New Friesland, can be climbed in a two-day expedition. These peaks are very indifferently explored; only the highest of them has ever been climbed; they stand in the midst of a region of extraordinary interest, and must command wonderful views to the eastward over the little-known north-east land and away off to the romantic Wyches Islands. Probably there is no district in the whole Archipelago which would so well reward the season’s work; whilst if the ice-pack were to come down and seal the mouth of Wijde Bay, retreat is always open overland to Cape Thordsen in Ice Sound by one or other of two obvious routes.
A less heroic base could be found at a dozen points near the north-east angle of the island, and this is probably the best and most practical region to choose; for here it would be possible to shift the base camp every few days, whilst there are any number of mountains rising from the coast built of the hard primary rocks and apparently offering delectable scrambles. The main bay, called Mauritius Bay by the Dutch in the old days, and in particular the south-east corner, would probably be the best place to begin. The labyrinth of glaciers that empty into Redcliff Sound must be well worth a visit, and the same is true of the peaks and glaciers of Magdalena Bay. The fact that the whole of this region has been admirably mapped by the Prince of Monaco is a further advantage for the prospective climber. Between Magdalena Bay and Close Cove (now wrongly called Cross Bay) there is no place for a base camp; but Close Cove, King’s Bay, Cove Comfortless and the north part of Prince Charles’s Foreland form together an enclosed area containing innumerable excellent coast-line bases. Probably one of the narrow bays at the head of Close Cove would provide an attractive situation, besides giving access to an intimately glaciated and beridged interior. But the south-east extremity of King’s Bay, as we found, is a delightful situation, and from it the Three Crowns and countless other peaks can be reached. Prince Charles’s Foreland has been excellently mapped by Dr. Bruce, and seems to have some good climbing peaks, most of which, and all of those along the opposite side of Foreland Sound, await their first experience of a human foot. It must be admitted that the region nearest the west coast suffers from the worst weather, for it continually happens that the clouds lie low, whilst above the level of 1000 or 1200 feet there is brilliant sunshine for days and perhaps weeks together, and of course no night at all. From Horn Sound in the south some splendid peaks are accessible, only one of which has ever been climbed. This is perhaps the best place for a week or two at the close of the season, though it might be rather difficult to get there in an open boat from the northern parts. The hospitality of some passing steamer, however, might be available for such transfer.
Into the Interior.
Far more interesting and delightful, however, than merely climbing peaks from a sea-base is a bold venture into the far interior. Indeed, a climber standing on the summit of any peak and looking inland over the vast glaciers and at the countless ranges and beautiful mountains spread abroad before him on a clear day will, I think, be irresistibly drawn into that white labyrinth. Of course the most delightful experience is a traverse of some part of the island from sea to sea. This requires a good deal of organization, because it is necessary to have a boat to meet the party arriving from the other side at some point arranged in advance. From Magdalena Bay to Cross Bay the traverse has been made, and leads through splendid scenery. More interesting, because new, would be the traverse from Wood Bay to King’s Bay, or from King’s Bay along the King’s Highway and down to North Fjord; or again, from the head of Sassen Bay over to the east coast and back. It would scarcely be possible to have a boat prepared to meet a party on the east coast, so that either from Ice Sound or Bell Sound journeys to the east coast must be made to and fro by the same route. In the nature of things little general advice can be given for such expeditions; each must be organized according to its own special circumstances. It is obvious, in any case, a large margin would have to be provided for the unexpected. A sledge may break down, or delays may be caused in a thousand ways, so that a considerable reserve stock of provisions must be taken. The first day from the coast, sometimes the first two days, will be very laborious. A sledge and its load will have to be carried by repeated journeys over rough ground and generally over broad moraines before the camp can be pitched at the edge of the clear ice. Then, generally speaking, there will be a crevassed region to traverse, where progress must be slow; but after two or three days at the outside easier conditions will be met with. Soon, however, the snow-covered belt of the glacier will be reached, and as at this time of year a slight but continuous thaw is proceeding, it necessarily follows that, where there are no crevasses to drain off the water, there will be a wild belt covered with water-logged snow and intersected by wide and rushing streams which it is often very difficult to cross. The water-logged snow is merely unpleasant and laborious, as the ski and the sledge will sink into it, and every hollow thus made is instantly filled with ice-cold water. The only way to deal with the big streams is to follow up alongside of them till they divide into smaller brooks which can be crossed in detail. Yet higher up, however, the thaw is left behind and a splendid hard surface is found, over which ski-ing and sledging are a pleasant pastime, and longer distances can be covered in a day’s march. Out of this higher region peaks, of no great absolute height indeed, but of fine form, arise in all directions, and from a suitably chosen high camp it will be possible in a few days to make many ascents, either of summits in the ranges bordering one’s own glacier on either hand, or in other ranges behind them which can be readily reached over undulating passes.
Exceptional and Beautiful Phenomena.
A traveller who has made one such expedition into the interior of Spitsbergen will have become acquainted with glacier phenomena such as no ordinary alpine region can display. The pools and ice caverns of Arctic glaciers, the strange blue river-tunnels through the ice, the burst lakes scattering huge ice-blocks afar, the curious sheaves of crystalline ice-rods, the rivers of water stained crimson by disintegrating dolomite rock and flowing over the white ice-like veins of jasper in marble, the frozen heaps of ice, in shape like volcanoes, which rise where springs force themselves out of the ground—these and many other strange and beautiful sights await the student of glaciers in the Arctic regions. Moreover, the glaciers themselves have quite a different look from alpine glaciers. They appear to be far more viscous, as in fact they are, so that if they end on a piece of flat ground and do not reach the sea, the end spreads out into a great round mass, as a stream of honey might if it emerged from some narrow gap on to a flat area. But where a glacier reaches the sea, and especially a great glacier perhaps seven miles in width, it has to terminate, of course, in a splendid cliff, and this cliff is, as it were, made of towering séracs, blue in the hollows and white on the crown, in height perhaps 100 feet above the water-level, and these séracs are continually falling into the sea and breaking up into little icebergs, causing a great commotion in the waters as they plunge in their fall and jostle against one another till they come to rest.
Nor must I forget to mention another of the great glories of this mountain region, to wit, the long sunset. Towards the middle of August the sun, in the hours corresponding to midnight, approaches close to the horizon, and presently actually dips beneath it. It follows that a sunset colouring, paler and more delicate but not less beautiful than that we know in the Alps, illumines the sky, the clouds, the mountains and the glaciers at this time, and that not merely for a few minutes but for four or five hours on end, according to the atmospheric conditions. I know of nothing more wonderful than to climb a mountain which commands a wide view over the flat, fog-covered ocean and the clear, snow-covered interior when the whole of this enormous expanse shines pink in the lights and blue in the shadows, and the effect lasts on for four or five hours spent amid such surroundings.
Summary, Cost, etc.
But it is not my business to describe the beauties of Arctic scenery in this place, but only to indicate as best I may how the intending mountain traveller in those regions may set to work. Conditions, of course, of accessibility and the like change from year to year, especially nowadays when Spitsbergen has become the scene of industrial undertakings; it will be necessary for any intending traveller to make inquiries well ahead as to the circumstances attending his own case. I feel convinced, however, that an enterprising party of three or four climbers could spend a season in Spitsbergen and have an excellent time at not more than twice the cost of a corresponding season in the Alps, and possibly for a good deal less. Ingenuity, adaptability and enterprise will be essential. After all, for what kind of travel that is worth while are they not?
Note.—The foregoing was written before the war. Recent commercial developments have made Spitsbergen much more easy of access.
CHAPTER XIII
THE CAUCASUS
BY HAROLD RAEBURN
The Caucasus of the mountaineer is that more or less continuous chain of great glaciated peaks which extends for nearly 600 miles between the Caspian and Black Seas.
General Topography and Structure.
Geographically, the water-parting of the ridge forms the boundary between Europe and Asia.
Politically speaking the mountains run, with a general south-east to north-west direction, through almost the centre of the Russian province of the Caucasus, dividing it into the two districts of Cis-Caucasia, with the chief city of Vladikavkaz, and Trans-Caucasia, with Tiflis as the centre of government. Situated in about the same latitude as the Pyrenees, with a more continental climate, the ranges of temperature are much greater than in the Alps.
In such an extensive tract of elevated country great variation of conditions must naturally occur. Speaking generally, and with more special reference to the central group of summits, the glaciation is somewhat less than in the Alps in proportion to the elevation, about 2000 feet greater than that of the central Pennines. The average level to which the glaciers descend is rather higher. As the average slope of the mountains is more abrupt, the glaciers are steeper. In consequence, the Caucasian glaciers are as a rule more difficult and broken, and the ice-falls more continuous.
The prevailing wind is warm and moisture-laden, blowing from the south-west, off the almost sub-tropical shores of the Black Sea; condensed by the cold peaks, the moisture is thereon deposited in the form of snow. Thus, in spite of its northern aspect, the glaciation of the European slope is little greater than that of the southern.
MAP of PART of CIS and TRANS CAUCASIA
Showing approaches to the Mountains
The height at which trees cease is very much the same on both sides (7000-8000 feet). A feature of the country is the great forests which cover the upper basins of many valleys, particularly on the south side.
In many of the southern valleys these forests are composed of deciduous trees of various species, such as birch, beech, oak, maple and chestnut, giving a variety and charm which the more sombre pine forests of the north do not provide. Some of the northern valleys are destitute of timber, and the fuel difficulty is one which confronts the climbing explorer.
The whole mountain system may for present purposes be divided into three principal groups.
1. All the peaks south and east of the line of the Dariel, more correctly the Krestovaya Gora, Pass; in which though many peaks exist as high as the Oberland Mountains, yet the glaciation is not continuous for long distances.
2. The great central group. This is the most important and best known. It extends from Kasbek, immediately west of the above pass, to the Klukhor Pass, west of Elbrus, a distance of about 130 miles.
In the whole of this distance there is only one driving road, that of the Mamison Pass (9280 feet), the highest road in Europe. All other routes across the range, except one or two grass passes, must be made over glacier passes, the lowest about 10,500 feet above sea-level.
3. West and north of the Klukhor Pass lies a tangled group of somewhat lower glaciated summits, some of which are still unascended.
Records and Literature.
If we pass over the ancient traditions and tales of the Arabians, Greeks and Jews, mountaineering in the Caucasus is of very modern growth.
The Arabian Kaf, the Jewish Ararat and the great mountain celebrated by Æschylus as the prison of Prometheus, are all situated in or near the Caucasus range; whether it be true or not that the Tower of Babel was built not far from the borders, this mountain land remains a Tower of Babel to this day.
In the city of Baku there are even now said to be one hundred different languages and dialects spoken. The Caucasus Mountains themselves give homes to as many tribes and dialects as there are rivers.
These tribes were almost always more or less at enmity amongst themselves. This lack of nationality rendered the task of absorption by Russia an easy one. It should not be forgotten that a good part of the Caucasus proper was not conquered by Russia. The nominal sovereignty possessed by the kings of Georgia over many of the mountain tribes only began to be made real when the last king placed himself under Russian protection.
This great diversity of peoples, languages, religions and customs renders travel in the Caucasus, if more interesting, much more difficult. Most of the people know nothing of Russian, and it is therefore necessary for a climbing party to have an interpreter with them who has knowledge of as many of the different languages as possible. Apart from the fabulous, the earliest effort of mountaineering in the Caucasus appears to have been an attempt to ascend Elbrus by a party of four savants, attached to the politico-geographical expedition of General Emanuel, in 1829.
The first writer to draw attention to the Caucasus as a field for mountain exploration was the Rev. H. B. George, in a paper read before the Alpine Club on 2 May 1865. The pioneer expedition was that of Messrs. Freshfield, Moore and Tucker, with François Devouassoud, in 1868. Mr. Grove’s party followed, in 1874, and his book, The Frosty Caucasus, is now a valuable alpine classic. During the ’80’s British mountaineers, with Swiss guides, conquered the majority of the highest peaks. Mr. Cockin was the most successful: three of the greatest peaks fell to him and his guides in one season. Messrs. Dent, Woolley and Holder were also very successful.
My Climbs in the Alps and Caucasus, by Mr. A. F. Mummery, describes his expedition in 1888, when the great peak of Dykh-Tau was ascended.
In the ’90’s a number of British guideless parties went out, but from various causes had little success.
Since then, in spite of three splendidly illustrated volumes, The Exploration of the Caucasus, by Freshfield and Sella, in 1896, Aus den Hochregionen des Kaukasus, by Merzbacher, in 1901, and Kaukasus Reisen und Forschungen, by de Déchy, in 1904, British interest in the district has been slight. Messrs. Longstaff and Rolleston had, however, a very successful guideless campaign in Suanetia, in 1903.
A Russian author, Afanasief, published in German, in 1913, a very useful little compendium of the ascents made up to date, 100 Kaukasus Gipfel.
As a proof that the Caucasus as a new mountaineering centre is still very far from being exhausted, British expeditions in 1913 and 1914 succeeded in effecting the ascents of ten new summits, none of which was below 13,500 feet in height.
Routes of Access.
The easiest, cheapest and quickest way to the central group from London is that to the north side, overland. The route is via Berlin, Warsaw and Rostoff on the Don. Thence either by the Baku train to Beslan, for Vladikavkaz, or by the Russian Spas express to Mineralnia Vodé, for Piatigorsk. An even better starting-point for the mountains is Naltshik, to which a branch railway, opened in July 1912, should run in two hours from the junction on the main Rostoff-Baku line of Kotliarefskaia.
The south side may be reached by driving from Vladikavkaz or from Darkop on the main line over the Mamison Pass.
Another excellent way of reaching the south side of the range from the north side would be by taking the motor service (office in the annex of the Grand Hotel) from Vladikavkaz over the Dariel—correctly the Krestovaya Gora—Pass to Tiflis, and round by the Tiflis-Batum railway. The motor line passes close under the huge mass of Kasbek (16,546 feet), and its glaciers can be reached in a few hours from Vladikavkaz. The old route to the south side of the range followed by most of the earlier English parties is that by Vienna and Odessa, thence by steamer, in from two to four days, across the Black Sea—calling at Sevastopol—to Batum. From Batum a short branch-line connects with Kutais. From here the Mamison road leads up to Oni on the Upper Rion, and can be utilized for driving for part or the whole of the distance, according to which valley or group of peaks it is desired to visit.
For the most westerly group, that lying west of Elbrus, the port of Sukhum Kalé on the Black Sea will probably be found most convenient. For the extreme eastern groups Tiflis will prove the best starting-point.
Modes of Travel.
The usual, and the best mode of travel in the mountains is on foot. All the railhead towns mentioned are more than a day’s march distant from the hills. Kasbek alone is closely approached by a motorable road.
At the towns elected for approach—Tiflis, Kutais, Vladikavkaz, Piatigorsk or Naltshik—it is necessary to engage vehicles or horses, and a cook-interpreter. Whether it is advisable to buy horses for the whole journey depends upon whether much travelling, and in consequence little climbing, is to be done. The purchase of horses sets the party free from the endless haggling, delay and annoyance which seem inseparable from hiring. On the other hand, the purchase necessitates engaging at least one man for every two horses, and this adds greatly to the expense and to the commissariat difficulties.
Though considerably improved of late years, the various roads up Caucasian valleys, where they exist at all, are not of the best. A Russian road on the steppe is not a road in the usual sense of the word; it is merely a part of the ground over which one drives, and is not made in any way except by the wheels of passing traffic. The road of the Mamison Pass is a built road; but it is exceedingly rough in places, and is frequently interrupted by landslides, tree-falls and avalanches.
The most comfortable vehicle to obtain is the troika or phaeton, a light, low carriage something like the alpine char. A rougher and more usual carriage is the lineika, seated like a low-set Irish jaunting-car on four wheels. It is wonderfully elastic, its light, loose method of construction allowing it to adapt itself to the potholes, boulders and tree-trunks of the rougher parts of the road. Most of these vehicles will be found to suffer from the general debility consequent upon extreme old age. It is advisable to have each one carefully inspected before the start.
In the more out-of-the-way parts, where such luxurious modes of travel cannot be indulged in, an arba can often be obtained. This is a light, springless two-wheeled cart. It is often drawn by a pair of small but strong oxen, and though the pace is very slow, a large quantity of baggage can be conveyed in one.
The horses—almost invariably mares—are small, light animals showing evident trace of Arab blood. They are docile, free from vice, and marvellously sure-footed. Indeed, in this last respect they far surpass an average mule. Some of the ‘horse passes’ on the south side of the range would be considered by most people impossible for horses and more fitted for goats.
The saddles are Turkish, i.e. with a high pommel in front and behind. Some travellers have recommended taking out an English saddle. Few riders, however, would be able to retain their seat on an English saddle while their mounts were scrambling down or up the precipitous broken bank of some ravine or bed of a glacier stream.
Centres.
As in the Alps, so in the Caucasus, more climbing will be got by settling at a centre than by travelling about from one place to another. On this method the necessity of carrying heavy tents, large supplies of stores, etc., is avoided. A couple of light tents, to accommodate two or three men each, are all that is necessary.
Good centres for the various districts are, on the north side, Urusbieh, Chegem, Balkar, Bezingi, Stirdigor and Dsinago; in the Tsaya valley, the sanatorium kept by M. Sanghiev in the pine forest near Rekom; the inn at Saramag on the Upper Ardon; the Russian road-houses of Kalaki on the north and Tshantshakhi on the south side of the Mamison Pass; Gebi on the West Rion River; Ushkul on the headwaters of the Ingur; Mestia or Mulakh on the Mulkhora; and Betsho just below the giant precipices of Ushba. To Gebi and Tshantshakhi Kasarma on the south, and to most places on the European side of the range, driving should be possible nowadays.
Equipment and Commissariat.
Mountaineering in the Caucasus is still very much on exploring lines. Save in the case of Kasbek or, in a minor degree, of Elbrus, no huts, guides or organization for climbing exists. The success of an expedition must therefore largely depend upon the care and forethought bestowed upon the equipment and organization of the party before it leaves railhead.
The climbing equipment should be exactly similar to that of the Alps; but as anything lost cannot be replaced, everything must be at least in duplicate. Indeed, it is advisable to take out three pairs of climbing boots—the odd pair for the purpose of lending to porters if it is found necessary to take them over a glacier, since it is not fair or safe to take heavily loaded men with ‘gloved’ feet up steep and slippery ice and snow. Two ice-axes are essential: one may easily get broken, lost or stolen. Tents, of any of the lighter English makes, are best taken out. Eastern bags, with padlock and key, are the most convenient method of carrying spare clothes. Among these, two or three complete changes of underclothing—of course all wool—are necessary. Plenty of spare flannel collars and abundance of stockings, and, of course, undersocks, are well worth their slight extra weight. Crampons are almost a necessity, though cumbrous and annoying to carry. It is advisable to have a tin case for these. They are of immense service in levelling up the good and the inferior icemen of a party, and in conserving the energies of the step-cutter, or step-cutters, for really difficult work on rocks or ice slopes higher up.
With two pairs of new—but broken-in—modern mountaineering boots it ought to be quite unnecessary to take out nails, iron boot anvil or hammer for a two months’ campaign.
The general stores—cooking utensils, plates or bowls, cups (mugs are preferable), table cutlery, travelling stoves (primus and alpine), candles, etc.—are best obtained in the country. The most convenient packages are strong baskets. These should be made at home, and covered with strong waterproof material. Size 25 inches by 15 inches by 11 inches is convenient for horse carriage, and should be furnished with a strong lock. They can also serve as seats in or outside the tents.
The personal equipment should include a roll-up mattress—hair is the best—6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 4 inches, a down quilt or sleeping-bag and a small pillow. If the tent has a ground sheet, a waterproof cover for the mattress is not required. To save trouble and expense on the journey and at the Customs, it is much the best plan to bring as little as possible into the country in the way of consumable stores. Jam is perhaps the one exception. For high work jam is of great importance, and the little ¼-lb. tins to be obtained in London are extremely convenient. A few soups—powder or tabloid—are also useful for emergencies. Excellent shops are to be found at all the chief railhead towns, such as Tiflis, Vladikavkaz, Piatigorsk and Naltshik; also at Kutais and Oni on the Mamison road. In them almost everything obtainable in western Europe may be got.
Many different kinds of tinned meats, fruits and fish are to be had, but the party would do well to have as little to do with these as possible, except perhaps a few boxes of sardines. In the country, mutton, fowls and eggs are always to be obtained, and these are safer and more palatable than the tinned foods, which should be kept for emergencies and given away at the end of the trip. The great weakness of the Caucasian commissariat is in the all-important item of bread. Away from the towns this is invariably very bad. It is made of maize or wheat flour mixed with rye, or of rye alone; no yeast or baking powder is used, and it is never properly cooked. Naturally it is exceedingly trying to a western stomach. When forced to use it, one should have it well toasted. Very good bread can be bought in the towns, and as large a supply of this as possible should be taken. There is also an excellent form of bread to be got in some of the small dukhans or shops up country. It is in hard glazed small rings, and is threaded on strings and hung up like onions to the roof. It keeps well, and is quite palatable and digestible. One way of overcoming the bread difficulty would be to engage a cook-interpreter, who could bake, and to carry flour and a small portable oven with the party.
Organization.
Interpreter-couriers are to be found at Tiflis and Vladikavkaz. These, however, would not care to attach themselves to a climbing party, or, in fact, to leave the roads at all; walking for even a few miles is not in their line. There are guides and tariffs—fairly reasonable—for both Kasbek and Elbrus. Good material undoubtedly exists for the development of a school of real mountain guides, but their time is not yet. A climbing party must bring its own guides, or, better still, have some one in the party who, by previous experience or knowledge of guideless climbing in the Alps, is qualified to act as guide and leader on high ascents.
After bread and horses, porters are the principal worry for the leader of a party in the Caucasus. The mountain tribes are independent and ‘huffy,’ and great tact and patience are needed in dealing with these semi-civilized children of nature. The men are not, like the Swiss, accustomed to carry heavy burdens, and are quite ready to throw up their job and throw down their loads at or without a moment’s notice.
The cook is a very important member of the party. He stands for creature comforts, and the party is fortunate which succeeds in engaging a capable man at the town from which the expedition starts. It is very necessary for all purposes that one at least of the party should know some Russian. The cook-interpreter, if only one man is engaged, must speak, besides Russian, at least one western European language, and he must have a good knowledge of as many of the Caucasian languages as possible.
Maps.
The general map of the country is that known as the 5-verst map, which is to be obtained in Tiflis or from the principal London map-sellers. It is on the scale of 5 versts = 3½ miles = 1 in 210,000, to the inch. This, though quite accurate as far as the low country is concerned, is of little use in the mountains. The best known map is that issued with Messrs. Freshfield & Sellas’s The Exploration of the Caucasus (Edward Arnold, London, 1896). It is on the 5-verst scale, and is a useful general map, though the scale is too small to show the mountains properly.
Herr Merzbacher issued with his weighty work, Aus den Hochregionen des Kaukasus (Leipzig, 1901), a very convenient map on the scale of 3⅓ versts = 1 in 140,000. This map is to be obtained from the publishers. It endeavours to give more names, heights and details of mountains than Mr. Freshfield’s; but this, in some cases, has led to a multiplication of errors. Mountains have been inserted which explorers of the locality have failed to find, and in the south-eastern portion of the central group the nomenclature and heights given are often very misleading. By far the most useful map, and the map which is practically indispensable for the mountain explorer who is not prepared to make his own, is the Russian 1-verst map. This is on a large scale (1/42000). It gives with very considerable accuracy the forms of such glaciers and mountains as are visible from positions reasonably accessible to the surveyors. It seldom commits itself by giving any names at all to the peaks, except to the principal ones—although the more important glaciers are generally named. The printing of the names and figures—of course in Russian characters—is often exceedingly bad. The maps are on the hâchure system. With the exception of the sheet covering Kasbek, which is on sale at Vladikavkaz, they can only be obtained through the military authorities in Tiflis.
Expense.
This will, of course, greatly depend upon the style in which the expedition is conducted. If a courier-interpreter is engaged, and Swiss guides are brought, the expense must be expected to be considerable. In spite of the general rise in the cost of living and in the price of labour, which of late years has increased in the Caucasus—between 50 and a 100 per cent—an eight or nine weeks’ journey out from London and back can be done comfortably at a cost not exceeding £100 for each member of a party of four, five or six. Below are given a few prices, based on the experience of the expeditions made in the years 1904, 1911 and 1913. They are, of course, only approximate. Foodstuffs will be found not to vary so much in cost as the hire of horses and porters.
| 1904. | 1911. | 1913. | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Horse, per day | 1-3 R. | 1½-2 R. | 3-4 R. |
| Porter, per day | — | 1 R. | 1½-4 R. |
| Sheep (small) | 4-6 R. | — | 3-5 R. |
| Hens (small) | 20-40 K. | — | 35-50 K. |
| Eggs (small) | 1-2 K. | — | 1½-2 K. |
| Bread (about 2 lb.) | 8 K. | — | 10 K. |
| Cheese | 15 K. | — | 10-20 K. |
| Wine (Kakhetinskoe), litre | — | — | 1 R. |
| Beer | — | — | 15-20 K |
| Sucking-pig (very small) | 2-3 R. | — | 2 R. |
Rouble = 2s. 1½d.
Kopeck = ¼d.
Note.—All prices given are pre-war.
CHAPTER XIV
THE MOUNTAINS OF CORSICA
BY GEORGE FINCH
Season.
The best time of the year for climbing in Corsica is the spring. The weather is fine during the months of April, May, June and July; but in the latter half of June and in July the midday heat is often oppressive. This is seldom the case in April or May. During these two months the melting snows ensure a supply of water, which is often deficient in the hot summer months. In April, also, the snowline is still very low; from the mountaineer’s point of view this is an advantage, as the approach to the climbs often lies over long slopes covered with dense undergrowth, known as ‘maquis,’ and most troublesome for walking when not snow-covered. As early as towards the end of March the steeper rocks are already sufficiently free from snow for climbing, while the snow on the gentler slopes remains to facilitate the crossing of the ‘maquis.’
Another point in favour of an early season is the greater clearness of the atmosphere. In March and April of 1909 from every summit we had a clear view of the Apennines and of the Maritime Alps even late in the day. In the summer months mists rising from the Mediterranean partially obscure the view shortly after sunrise.
Equipment.
A light tent and sleeping-bags should be taken, as the nights are often cold. A primus oil-stove (petroleum used to be obtained almost anywhere, but methylated spirits were difficult to procure), and tinned milk, meats, vegetables, fruit and jam must all be imported, as they are not procurable in Corsica. Such provisions are dutiable, but my personal experience has been that the Customs are indulgent if informed of the mountaineering object.
For porterage, mules can be procured. One mule will carry 250 lb., and costs, together with the services of the mule-driver, according to the locality, from four to eight francs a day.
Both driver and mule entertain a dislike to snow, and will shy at the prospect of crossing even the most diminutive snow-patches. Otherwise they will go almost anywhere. I have covered as much as 38 miles of road, scrub and mountain-track in a day with one mule carrying rather over 200 lb.
The character of the usual hotel accommodation in the interior will be found to bias the climber in favour of camping out. He can thus also move at once nearer to the base of his climbs. Wood for fires is plentiful, and many streams provide trout-fishing (three to the pound).[26]
The two most important mountain groups are those of the Rotondo and the Cinto.
Centres, Modes of Access, and Topography.
The garrison town of Corte will act as a centre to both these districts. It is reached by a four hours’ rail journey from either Bastia or Ajaccio.
A steamship service connects Bastia with Leghorn three times a week (five hours’ crossing). Fairly frequent services likewise connect Ajaccio with Nice (twelve hours) and with Marseilles (sixteen hours). The approach to Corsica by all three routes is magnificent, especially that of Nice to Ajaccio. It is well worth while to make this crossing by a day service.
From Corte a good camping centre at the head of the Restonica valley, in the heart of the Rotondo group, can be reached in four hours (mule-track most of the way).
The true centre of the Cinto group is Calacuccia. This village can be reached from Corte in six hours, walking over the Col de la Rinella; but there is no mule-track. The view from this Col embraces practically the whole Cinto group. An alternative route, advisable when it is necessary to transport baggage, is from Corte to Francardo (half an hour’s rail), and thence in three hours by carriage (postal service, or hired conveyance, 15 francs) to Calacuccia. Convenient camping centres in the Rodda, Erco, Viro and Golo valleys can thence be reached in from three to five hours.
For the northern slopes of the Cinto group Asco is the best centre (three hours by road from the railway station, Ponte Leggia). This village also serves as a base for the magnificent chain of mountains running eastwards from Monte Padro (2400 metres) to Monte Corona (2143 metres), and thence in a southerly direction to Punta Minuta (2547 metres) in the Cinto group. To the north of Monte Padro lies the Tartagine valley, at the head of which is the Capo al Dente (2032 metres), one of the most sporting peaks in the island. A number of unclimbed peaks close in the valley to the north. The approach to the Tartagine valley is rather troublesome. From Palasca (on the Bastia-Calvi railway line) via Mausoléo to the maison forestière, the best centre, takes eight to ten hours by a good road.
Other groups offering good climbing and an abundance of ‘first ascents’ and ‘new routes’ are the Monte d’Oro and Monte Renoso groups. Vizzavona, the centre for both these ranges, boasts of good hotel accommodation, and can be reached in three hours by rail from Ajaccio and in one hour from Corte.
The above-mentioned mountain groups are those which will attract the climber most of all. They offer almost endless possibilities for first-rate climbing over both known and virgin ground. With the exception of Monte Renosa, the main mountain groups lie to the east of the Ajaccio-Bastia railway, and for this reason most climbers prefer to approach the mountains from the east, from Corte, the half-way station on the line. There is, however, little to choose between the eastern and western slopes—both offer high-class climbing, and preference might now well be given to the western slopes, as here much more remains to be accomplished in the way of pioneer work. As a general rule, camp centres for climbing on the western slopes of the d’Oro, Rotondo, Cinto and Corona groups are best reached by crossing the main chains from Corte. In these cases the mountaineer will have to act as his own beast of burden unless the route be entirely free from snow, which is very unlikely in the spring.
There are a great number of mountain groups either of minor importance or difficult of access (the Incudine, 2136 metres; Punta di Capella, 2044; etc.), but as a rule from the climbing point of view they are of little interest. Mention should be made of the chain of hills, attaining heights of over 1300 metres, which forms the backbone of the promontory of Cap Corse. The main ridge can be traversed throughout its length in one long day from Bastia, and the splendour of the views down on to the Mediterranean and towards the ranges of the interior is beyond all description.[27]
Nature of the Climbing.
There are no glaciers in Corsica, though in the Cinto and Rotondo groups snow-patches occasionally survive the summer’s heat. Both these groups show marked traces of glacier action. The ice work is limited to cutting in ice-choked chimneys and to clearing rocks. Long, steep, hard-frozen snow slopes necessitating a sustained use of the axe are seldom encountered, and ice-claws may safely be dispensed with. On the other hand, ski might prove to be of great value, as the return on foot from a climb over the long slopes of soft snow lying on the ‘maquis’ is often very trying. Devotees of ski-ing will find plenty of splendid ground, especially on the eastern and southern slopes of the Cinto group.
The rock is sound, and handholds are only too abundant. As a general rule, only those climbs are difficult which lead up over apparently perpendicular rock walls or ridges, rocks which from the distance look hopelessly impossible.
This deceptive appearance may account for the fact that until 1909 no climb of exceptional difficulty was accomplished in the island. Paglia Orba (2500 metres), the Matterhorn of Corsica and the most conspicuous mountain of the Cinto group, may be taken as an instance.
The east wall was first climbed in the Spring of 1909. The final 1000 feet of this wall appear to overhang, and actually do so for considerable sections of the ascent. The unique character of this climb would alone justify a visit to the island. The possibilities of new climbs—both new routes and first ascents—are still numerous. Nothing need be declared impossible on the strength of an inspection from a distance; the chances are that a route of the most hopeless appearance will ‘go,’ and also provide the best of climbing.
The view from almost any summit embraces greater or lesser portions of the sunny coast-line, which adds the charm of contrast to the alpine surroundings.