FOOTNOTES:
[28] Alpine Journal, vol. xxiii. p. 223.
[29] Alpine Journal, vol. xxv. p. 389.
[30] Consult A. L. Mumm’s Five Months in the Himalaya (Arnold).
[31] Alpine Journal, vol. xxiii. p. 217 et seq., and map.
[32] Consult Alpine Journal, vol. xxiii. p. 202, and maps, and vol. xxiv. p. 107, and map.
[33] Alpine Journal, vol. xxv. p. 487, with map, and Neve’s Picturesque Kashmir, chap. xii.
[34] Consult Appalachia, Oct. 1914, vol. xiii. p. 160.
CHAPTER XVI
THE MOUNTAINS OF NORWAY
BY W. CECIL SLINGSBY
Concerning the mountains of Norway, their geography and the history of their exploration, a considerable amount of published information is already available for mountaineers: it is, therefore, unnecessary to do more than give a general idea of the mountaineering potentialities of the country, and of the facilities of travel and provisioning.
Guide-books and Literature.
Baedeker is excellent as a general guide, and a copy should be in the hands, and to some extent also in the head, of at least one member of every mountaineering party. In addition, maps should be obtained of each district which the climbers intend to visit. The Amts Karter, price 1 krone each, will answer this purpose.
There are no ‘Climbers’ Guides’ for Norway, though many books deal more or less with its mountains. The great mountain classic is Norway and its Glaciers, by Professor J. D. Forbes. Mrs. Aubrey le Blond has dealt solely with one group, the mountains of Lyngen Fjord, in Mountaineering in the Land of the Midnight Sun. This is of use to those who wish to climb between lat. 69° and 70°, but is not of service in Central Norway. New Climbs in Norway, by Mr. E. C. Oppenheim, deals also with certain individual peaks. There is an excellent book in Norsk on the Söndmöre Alps, near Aalesund. Norway, the Northern Playground, is the result of many years’ experience on my own part, but barely touches the romantic regions of Arctic Norway. The Alpine Journal has many papers by many authors on all parts of the country.
NORWEGIAN PEAKS
NORMAN COLLIE
Of late years Norsk mountaineers have been very active, not only in Norway and in the Alps, but also in far-off Himalaya and the Southern Andes. The Aarbog of “Den Norske Turist Forening” virtually resembles an alpine journal, and its illustrations of glaciers and aiguilles are valuable. It has had for many years mountaineering papers both in English and Norsk. Every one who intends to climb in Norway should become a member of this most useful club. He will have considerable privileges, connected with mountain huts, etc. No mountaineering qualification is required; merely a small subscription. T. Bennett & Sons, or F. Beyer (Tourist Agents at Bergen), as well as the keepers of the tourist huts, will enrol members. There is also an inner circle, the “Norske Tinder Klub,” whose mountaineering qualification is at least as high as that of the Alpine Club.
A slight knowledge of the language is essential. Norsk is easier for north-country folk to acquire than for southerners, as much of our northern dialect is almost identical with Norsk. As an outcome of perhaps laudable ultra-patriotism, great changes, which in the main lead to a simplification of the language, are being made. The natives themselves during this period of transition apparently have no fixed rules of spelling, and a foreigner need not feel uneasy on the subject. The greatest difficulty in connection with this phase is that—so far as I am aware—there is no Norsk-English dictionary which has adopted, or at present can adopt, the spelling mostly in use.
Season.
As in Switzerland, July and August are the best months for mountaineering in Norway, though, speaking generally, there is more often settled weather in June and September. In some years, the two last weeks in June are perfect for climbing, but as in the Alps again, there is often too much snow for pleasant mountaineering before July. Similarly, there is often ideal weather in September, and though the days are getting short, grand climbing may be done during the whole of the month. Once the weather breaks, and heavy snows fall, no good climbing can be done. The presence of the Gulf Stream causes a rather larger rainfall in Norway than in the Alps. Often bad weather in the Alps means excellent weather in Norway, and vice versa.
Routes of Access, Travel, etc.
Travelling facilities have much improved during the last few years. The steamboat service from England is better, but more remains yet to be done in this respect. The North Sea has not improved, and never will. A quickened train service from Christiania to Throndhjem shortens the journey up to the romantic north by a good day. The completion of the picturesque Bergen to Christiania railway has revolutionized travel in many ways, both good and bad. The usual routes to Norway are by Hull or Newcastle to Bergen, Christiania or Throndhjem. Dozens of public steam-yachts, some starting from London, run every summer. Some are ocean liners of a large tonnage, and they may occasionally be used. To ‘consult Cook’ is good advice.
Bergen is the best starting-place. From thence mountaineers may proceed direct by steamer to Skjolden at the head of the Sogne Fjord, and from thence may now drive up to Turtegrö, the favourite centre for the Horungtinder—one of the finest ranges in Norway; or, and better still, they may go by rail to Vossevangen, drive to Gudvangen and then take steamer. Or further, by rail to Myrdal, and drive to Aurland and take steamer there.
Bergen is reached in about thirty-six hours from Hull or Newcastle. Numerous steamers leave there for every mountaineering district. Three days must be allowed by steamer from Bergen to Svolvaer, the centre of the Lofotens. Another day to Tromsö and Lyngen Fjord. It is always advisable to book berths on the north-going boats a fortnight before leaving. Thos. Cook & Son can do this.
Christiania is a good starting-point, and the railway to Throndhjem much shortens the time to get to Arctic Norway. The mineral railway, terminating at Narvik, near the mouth of the Ofoten Fjord, close to lat. 69°, is in direct communication with Stockholm, from which a ‘Lapland Express’ runs two or three times a week. By means of this, Arctic Norway can readily be reached by those who prefer railway travelling to steamboats—mostly within the Skjaergaard (or Skerries).
Expense
The return fare, Newcastle to Bergen, food included, is £6 first class. Rather more by Wilsons. The cost of two men for a three weeks’ tour in Central Norway, including going and returning, should be from £20 to £25 each. I have done it for considerably less. It may also easily be increased to £30 or £35 if the travellers are ultra-luxurious in their ways and habits. It should never be forgotten that a krone (1 kr.) is worth 1s. 1½d. Many novices, used to francs and lire, forget this fact. One pound only produces about 18 krone, and not 25. A large number of persons who take yachting cruises in huge steamboats, and who only land here and there, throw about their money in a wicked manner, and have much spoiled the very few natives with whom they have come in contact. Away from the haunts of the tourist horde, on the west coast, prices are still very reasonable. Tips must not be given on quite so generous a scale as in the Alps. (These prices are pre-war.)
Equipment.
For camp life excellent provisions are obtainable in Christiania, Throndhjem and Bergen, and by getting them in the country the worry of passing the Customs, which is not very serious, is avoided.
Experience shows that bacon and porridge form a great stand-by for a camp breakfast. First-rate sides of Yorkshire bacon and good oatmeal can be bought in the three above-named cities. As tinned meats, useful as they are, have their limitations, it is well to purchase a leg or two of mutton whenever possible. There is no doubt at all that one can climb infinitely better when fortified by fresh, rather than by tinned, meats. A trout-rod, and the ability to use it efficiently, is often most serviceable anywhere in Norway, and in the Lofotens a few sea-fishing appliances frequently add a welcome change to camp meals. One result of the great cod fishery in the Far North is that excellent French and Spanish wines are procurable at the posting stations at reasonable prices in Arctic Norway. Speaking generally, the farther north one goes the more comfortable are the steamers, and certainly the more interesting is the company met with. Ashore, the hospitality which many of us have met with leaves behind most happy memories.
With regard to the equipment requisite, generally speaking what is suitable for Switzerland is fit for Norway. It must, however, be taken for granted that, except in Christiania, and possibly to some extent now in Bergen, no alpine nails, ice-axes, goggles, alpine rope, etc., are procurable. If extra boots are not taken, it is also very desirable to take an ample supply of spare nails or screws. With these much can be added to the security of a party, by fitting up a casual porter or two with nails of a kind which he has probably never seen before. He may at first object, but in the course of the first day on the snows he will heartily approve, unless he may happen to come upon the—not uncommon—highly polished roches moutonnées of gneiss.
No longer is it necessary to take tents into Jotunheim or elsewhere in Central Norway, as comfortable inns and mountain huts are to be found here, there and everywhere. In Arctic Norway it is otherwise. In many places not only are tents a luxury but also a necessity, unless mountaineers have the use of a yacht where they can sleep, or unless they charter a small steamboat. Even then it is advisable to have tents, as now and then the question of safe anchorage is a difficult one. Nowadays the well-to-do merchants in Lofoten, and also on the mainland, very often possess motor-boats, which can be hired to take mountaineers to remote fjords together with their tents.
In Scandinavia it is a safe maxim to hold that the farther north one goes the more numerous are the mosquitoes. Hence mosquito nets should always be taken north of Throndhjem. Mosquitoes, fortunately, are not always in evidence even in hot summers.
Guides.
The question of guides is a difficult one. At least 90 per cent of the best climbing in Norway has been done without them, solely because they were non-existent when most needed. There are a few excellent men, experienced alike on difficult glaciers, on steep snow slopes and on rocks of the Chamonix Aiguille type, but their number is very limited. Several are to be met with in various places in the Jotun Fjelde, which include the Horungtinder.
In the neighbourhood of the Justedals-brae, which is by far the largest snow field in Continental Europe, and over 400 square miles in extent, there are naturally a few good icemen able and willing to tackle the very complex glacier problems. They can be found at Fjaerland, in the valley of Justedal, at Stryn, Olden and Loen, and probably also by now in Stardal and Jölster.
At or near Öie on the Hjörund Fjord, two or three very fair guides may be found for the Söndmöre Alps. These men have been trained more or less by British mountaineers. The same may be said for Romsdal, Eikisdal, as well as for Sundal in Nordmöre, where in the adjacent Troldheim are a few fine glaciers and interesting peaks of gneiss. At the same time, it is true that in every mountain valley in Central Norway there is at least one excellent cragsman to be found, who is invariably called to rescue crag-fast sheep or goats. These men, shod in snaukopper, or soft-soled shoes, climb fearlessly on the smooth glaciated crags of gneiss, and make excellent guides so far as rock climbing is concerned.
In Norway, which is at the same time the most democratic and the most conservative country in Europe, the guides and porters are often much better educated than their fellows in Switzerland, and know how to read a map intelligently. They are frequently landowners on a moderate scale, and consider that they confer a favour by acting as guides. They will not use the prefix ‘Mr.’ or ‘Herr’; and why should they? Frequently they can trace their ancestry back to the Viking Age, and even occasionally to the “Early Kings of Norway.” Though generally very nice fellows, they are fully conscious of the monetary value of their services, i.e. when they are really capable men. They have not yet learned to carry as much as the Swiss. As the summer is short, there is more than enough work to occupy the whole manhood of any particular district on the land without question of mountains. This condition has become of late years much aggravated by the enormous emigration to Canada and the United States.
Within the Arctic circle, amongst the hundred and twenty miles of aiguilles of gabbro and granite in the Lofoten Islands, there are no real mountain guides. This is the case, too, on the whole mainland of Norway within the magic circle, whether it be amongst the aiguilles of Lyngen Fjord or the weird truncated pyramids of gneiss along the coast, though even here a few good cragsmen are to be found.
We must to some extent make an exception in the case of the nomad Lapps who wander with their reindeer across the glaciers. The gallant French explorer of the snow fields and glaciers along the Swedish border, Monsieur Charles Rabot, made use of some of these men, and in his interesting book, Au Cap Nord, has recorded his experiences.
General Topography and Structure.
Though Norway is 1100 miles in length, the mountains which afford scope for indulging in the sport of mountaineering are confined between lat. 60° and 70°, i.e. from the glaciers of the Folgefond to the north point of the peninsula of Lyngen Fjord. More or less they are groups where gabbro has been upheaved through the surrounding silurian strata, granite or gneiss. These groups are unconnected save by relatively uninteresting rolling fjelde, the haunt of the wild reindeer and its enemy the lynx. Though there is as good climbing to be found in Norway as in the Alps, no mountain attains the height of 9000 feet, and consequently there is no continuous ice stream falling so far as that from the summit of Mont Blanc to the snout of the Glacier des Bossons. But there are many continuous icefalls of over 5000 feet, and some glaciers which descend over 6000 feet nearly to the fjords below. In many cases, as these ice streams are exceptionally steep and are hemmed in by straight-cut mountain walls of gneiss, the ice is more compressed, harder and of a deeper blue colour than what one sees in Switzerland. Notably is this the case in the glaciers of the Justedals-brae. There are also similar conditions in Lyngen Fjord in Arctic Norway, e.g. in the case of the noble Fornæsbrae, descending from Gjækkevarre—the Mont Blanc of the North.
The finest range in Central Norway is that of the Horungtinder and portion of the Jotun Fjelde. Its dominating point is Skagastölstind. This range has the advantages, and likewise possibly the disadvantages, of possessing a well-recognized centre at Turtegrö, which, from a picturesque point of view, is at the wrong side of the range. The many fine peaks are nowadays being worked out with a persistency worthy of Wasdale Head or Pen-y-Pass. Those of us who know the Coolin in Skye well, know what grand climbing is suggested by the word ‘gabbro,’ the formation of the Horungtinder.
In several other districts gabbro spires give the tone to the picture and afford magnificent climbing to the mountaineer. Notably is this the case in Söndmöre, on each side of the Hjörund Fjord, where some lovely mountains, such as Slogen, bathe their feet in the sea. Unfortunately, they frequently have their heads bound up with fleecy clouds, owing to their proximity to the Gulf Stream and to nature’s condensers in the form of huge snow fields. The 120 miles’ length of the Lofoten Islands are also built up of granite and gabbro. The first view of these islands gives a sensation of exaltation and joy. And their colour! It is the same formation as the Coolin, and the same influences are at work. The Gulf Stream, that rare and subtle painter, simply touches the mountains with its moisture-laden breezes, and, helped by the sun, a richness and delicacy of tint appears which is unknown elsewhere in Europe. It lacks only the contrast which the Coolin possess of the changing colour of heather.
The mountains of the Lyngen Peninsula, a grand region of rugged aiguilles and huge glaciers, which stream down seawards from, in some cases, a height of over 6000 feet, all consist of gabbro. But it must not be concluded that the only good climbing is confined to mountains of this order. As in the Alps, granite and gneiss hold their own, and very many beautiful mountains afford arête and face climbing of exceptional interest.
In Romsdal, Eikisdal and Troldheim, the latter until recently a much neglected district, there is grand sport to be had, not only on rocks but on steep and difficult glaciers as well.
North of Throndhjem are the Oxtinder. Though high and girt about their loins with glaciers, they are, it is said, disappointing. The glacier region of Svartisen and a few rock peaks south of Bodö, but yet within the Arctic circle, deserve more detailed attention from our countrymen than they have yet met with.
On the mainland, north of Bodö and the Salten Fjord but south of the Ofoten Fjord, are some of the most beautiful and some of the most fiendish-looking rock mountains conceivable in a mountaineer’s nightmare. In the first category is the Strandaatind, which has a most lovely outline, and is also a difficult mountain to ascend. Not far away are two hideous and truncated obelisks. These are in South Folden Fjord. At the head of this fjord, and on and within the Swedish frontier, there is a grand glacier region.
Sixty-five miles farther north the Stedtind, or Anvil peak, a monolith with one diagonal crack across the face, rises 5200 feet out of the sea. Probably it is the most hideous mountain monster on our planet. Yet there are only 15 feet of especial difficulty to be crossed when the ascent is made from the back. True, but these 15 feet are highly sensational!
There are still left unclimbed in this region other gruesome peaks which await mountaineers capable of taking the initiative. The glaciers of Frostisen and a few of the high peaks rising out of this snow field have been fairly well explored, but as yet little information has been given us on the subject.
Up to comparatively recent years there was a strange ignorance about the higher mountains in Norway, and great uncertainty as to which was the highest. Once upon a time Sulitelma held the honour. Snehaettan also had a short reign. In an old atlas of mine, Skagastölstind is termed “the culminating point of Scandinavia.” Then came the plea for Galdhöpiggen; and not many years ago a claim was put in for Knutshultind, which was never looked upon seriously. For a good many years, however, Galdhöpiggen has been recognized as the king, though its neighbour, Glittertind, was only twenty odd feet lower. The summit of the former consists of a narrow rock ridge terminating abruptly in a precipice at one end, which therefore cannot hold much snow. The latter is a snow dome. I pointed out many years ago the probability that after two or three years of unusually heavy snows the snow dome would rise, that Glittertind would be raised to the throne, and Galdhöpiggen be deposed. This has come to pass, and now Glittertind—a much duller mountain than its rival—is “the culminating point of Scandinavia.” It may and ought to be deposed ere long.
Local Conditions.
In both Central and Arctic Norway there are some conditions which do not prevail in the Alps. The long nightless days have both their advantages and their disadvantages. In Arctic Norway there is a topsy-turvyness to which we are unaccustomed. One never knows when to go to bed, and, as the snow does not get so soft as in Central Norway, there is a great temptation to delay departure and waste much time on the way. There is naturally a feeling of romance in arriving on the summit of a difficult mountain a few minutes before midnight, and of watching the sun roll along several degrees above the mountain horizon. Still, for the sake of the sub-conscious machinery of the body, it is best to observe the usual hours for work and for sleep.
In Central Norway I have seen the sun both set and rise again a couple of hours later while I was traversing a difficult mountain ridge. But there is an enormous difference between the length of days in the end of June or July and that in the middle of August. Occasionally mountaineers who do not recognize this fact get benighted.
In Central Norway the snows become soft by 9 a.m., though not to the same extent as in the Alps. Still, an early start is desirable when a fine expedition is contemplated. Especially is this the case when crossing the Justedals-brae or other huge snow fields.
Avalanches fall as they do in the Alps, but rarely between the end of June and the beginning of September, and stones, icebound at night, are loosened by the sun in the morning, and come toppling down in the orthodox manner, and may, perchance, be a danger to the unwary. In fact, the ordinary dangers associated with high mountains exist equally in Norway.
In some regions magnetic rocks occur, and then the compass is of no use. Where this is the case, and mists come on, and there is no wind to indicate the cardinal points, the interest of the expedition may unexpectedly be increased.
Ice, hard blue ice, is much more often encountered on the Norwegian glaciers and gullies than in the Alps.
On very steep snow slopes and glaciers in the Far North one frequently comes upon a deep square-sided groove in the snow; at the top of the slope it may be 12 feet wide and 4 feet deep. This imperceptibly widens, during a descent of between 1500 and 2000 feet, to a groove, still square-sided but now 20 to 25 feet in width and 7 or 8 feet deep. Such grooves are most difficult to cross, and on one memorable expedition on Rulten, when victory was almost assured, the party was driven back by the apparent danger of making such a crossing. These grooves show no sign of the work of falling stones or rocks, but are probably, at an earlier period of the year, caused by water. I have never met similar grooves in Central Norway, nor yet in the Alps.
After a long spell of fine weather during the nightless days of the summer months, the glaciers may become very dangerous by reason of a peculiarity in the character of their crevasses. The larger and the flatter the glacier, the greater the danger. This is especially the case on the Justedals-brae, though by no means confined to that region. The condition is caused, in my belief, principally by the comparatively low altitude of the sun above the horizon. The rays of the sun are directed more horizontally upon the snow, and for a considerably larger number of hours during the long days in Norway than is the case in the Alps. This approximation to horizontality causes an abnormal melting power to be directed to the under side of the snow eaves and of the bridges of open crevasses. Especially is this the case when these eaves are attached and frozen to the north or northerly walls of the crevasses. Under these conditions crevasses of 25 or 30 feet in width may only have the appearance of a width of 2 or 3 feet. Not only this, but they often have clear-cut and well-defined edges and not jagged lines. On the surface there may be little or no indication of the hidden dangers which are shielded from view.
The interest in hot seasons may be much increased by the presence of ‘pink snow,’ Protococcus nivalis, which has been known to lie in patches covering several acres.
In Norway there are several great snow fields, Greenlands in miniature. Hill and dale on these snowy uplands are alike covered with glacier, and only here and there rocky islets or nunataks appear, and usually as alpine gardens. In nearly all cases the rock below the ice sheet is gneiss, and if the glaciers were to disappear, rolling fjelde, or rounded hog-backed peakless mountains 5000 to nearly 7000 feet in height, would appear. Such snow fields are rare in the Alps; consequently British mountaineers have little experience, on a large scale, of glaciers which rest on broad, gently sloping ridges, and which slowly descend, maintaining connection at the same time with glaciers on either side moving nearly in the same direction. The process is natural enough. The results are more or less novel and appalling. On the ridges gravitation is at work, and the ice moves onwards in three directions: down the main axis of the ridge and downwards on each side. In years of little snow, consequently, scores of quadrangular masses of névé and ice are left, on every side of which are deep square-walled crevasses. Woe betide the party which descends such a ridge without using the greatest care. Few men may have experienced these conditions, but those who have will always retain a lively memory of them.
It is not necessary to repeat, to mountaineers, that most Englishmen who have climbed in Norway return again and again, to a country which has still much of the romance of exploration, and, for them, the sympathetic interest of an historical connection with their racial consciousness. I myself like to believe that we, who take our pleasures on the mountains—and the more grisly these mountains are the better we like them!—have inherited the passion from our ‘Norsk ancestry,’ who, as we gather from an old Saga, indulged in the sport of cliff climbing nearly one thousand years ago.
CHAPTER XVII
THE SOUTHERN ALPS OF NEW ZEALAND
BY MALCOLM ROSS
While distance lends enchantment, it also, not infrequently, presents difficulties. The mountaineer, probably more than most people, realizes this as, beside his winter fire in England, he sees through the smoke-rings of evening pipes alluring visions of the pine-clad Rockies, of the lonely Caucasus, of the giant Himalaya, of the high Andes and of the far-distant Southern Alps. Most climbers are also workers, and it is the time taken and the expense of the journey that no doubt give them pause when they think of the distant ranges; but more particularly of the Himalaya or the New Zealand Alps. In regard to the latter, however, the expedition need not be an expensive one. The return passage from London to New Zealand by the big direct liners is not costly.
Routes, etc.
A good service is run by the New Zealand Shipping Company and the Shaw Savill & Albion Company. The voyage out is by the Cape of Good Hope and the return by Cape Horn. The return passages by the alternative and more interesting route between London and Lyttelton cost £132 first class and £75, 10s. second class. The British steamers on this route belong to the P. & O. Company and the Orient Company. The passage occupies about six weeks, but it can be shortened by a week by crossing the English Channel, taking train across France and joining the steamer at Marseilles.
The advantage of this route is that we are often within sight of interesting lands and call at quite a number of ports—Gibraltar, Marseilles, Port Said, Suez, Aden, Ceylon, Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne and Sydney. At the southern end of the journey time can be saved by taking train from Adelaide to Melbourne, and thence a Union Company’s steamer to the Bluff, which is the southernmost port in New Zealand. The New Zealand steamers on this route may not, however, be considered so good as those running from Sydney to Auckland or Wellington, and the passage to the Bluff is generally a colder and more stormy one than that from Sydney in the more northern latitude. Besides, Sydney, with its charming harbour, is well worth seeing, and time can still be saved by taking train right through from Adelaide to Sydney. Still quicker though slightly more expensive routes are those across the Atlantic via San Francisco or Vancouver. A change of scene is provided by either of these routes, which avoid the heat of the Red Sea and the cold of the more southern route taken by the direct steamers. Another alternative would be to go East and return by the Western line, thus circumnavigating the globe; and variations in the latter route can be made by which Java, China and Japan can be visited. Yet a further choice will be opened up with the completion of the Panama Canal. My own preference would be to take a return ticket by P. & O. steamer between Marseilles and Adelaide, travel by train from the latter port to Sydney, and from Sydney proceed direct to Wellington, New Zealand, by one of the Union Company’s steamers. At Wellington full particulars regarding the charges en route to Mount Cook and the cost of guides and accommodation can be obtained from the Tourist Department or from the writer of this chapter, who will willingly place at the disposal of any climber any information and advice that he can give.
Local Conditions, Guides, etc.
At Mount Cook there is an accommodation house, under Government control, and all charges are reasonable. The best guides are servants of the Government. Their services, however, may not always be available when most wanted, and a man will do better, if he can afford it and desires it, to bring with him his own guide.
The ideal party would be one of three first-rate amateurs, or two amateurs and a good guide, used to both rock and ice work. It would be practically independent of local assistance, and ready to seize all opportunities of fine weather to do first-class climbs or new expeditions. The local guides would willingly co-operate with or advise such a party regarding local conditions, weather, routes, etc.
The weather in New Zealand, as in all mountainous countries, plays an important part in such expeditions, and the climber of high peaks will be well advised to keep his eye on the dreaded north-wester, which sweeps across the Pacific Ocean and assails the beetling crags and snowy summits of the great range with a force and fury which it is difficult successfully to combat.
Our mountains, though not so high as those of the European Alps, are practically the same height from a mountaineering point of view, because in New Zealand the snowline is so much lower and the ranges rise directly from lower elevations than they do in Switzerland. Our alpine chain seems to be more heavily glaciated and the rocks more friable than is the case in Europe. Our glaciers are certainly larger, and the moraines upon and beside them such as to tax the patience if not the endurance of the climber unused to them. The scenery is grand from the purely alpine point of view, but one used to Swiss mountains will miss the well-formed road, the fine hotels and the high mountain hut, to say nothing of the mountain railway, which we must hope may never become the vogue in New Zealand.
On the west coast the scenery is more varied than on the east, because of the forest that clothes the lower Alps; but the weather is wetter, and the dense vegetation often a bar or at least a hindrance to the attainment of a high bivouac. The difficulty is accentuated when one has to carry one’s own tent and provisions on one’s own back, although there is not nowadays the same difficulty in obtaining porters which the pioneers had to put up with. Such huts as there are, are low down in the valleys; and if new ground is to be broken, the expedition should come provided with its own tents and sleeping-bags, and be prepared often to spend the night under the more or less friendly shelter of some detached rock. To the mountaineer, however, the dispensing with such luxuries will only add to the joy of his new climbs and tend to make him more fully appreciate the luxuries of civilization when, with his peak in his pocket, he returns again to the lower altitudes. From the technical point of view the climbing is very much like what it is in Switzerland; but the strange climber would always do well to remember that the dangers from avalanches and falling rocks are not so accurately mapped out as they are in ranges that have been climbed by several generations of experienced mountaineers.
While the new field will certainly prove fascinating from the climber’s point of view, it is also worth remembering that it abounds in objects of interest to the geologist, the botanist and the zoologist. The glaciers are among the largest and most interesting in the world; the flora is of the most diversified character; and the fauna, though limited, is curious.
Topography and Structure.
Large as the glacier system is at the present day, it is small as compared with the extent of the glaciers which descended far down the plains in the Pleistocene period. The greatest accumulation of ice and snow lies at the head of the Tasman and Murchison glaciers, on the eastern side of the main range of the Alps. The Mueller, the Hooker and the Godley glaciers, on the same side, are, however, likewise of large extent; while on the western side of the Mount Cook Range there are other glaciers of large size, one of which—the Franz Josef glacier—descends to within about 600 feet of the sea, and has beautiful tree-ferns, and a vegetation which appears almost semi-tropical, growing within a few yards of its terminal face.
One peculiar feature of the Southern Alps is the absence of any number of low sub-alpine passes over the main range. The principal low passes are the Haast Pass, leading from Lake Wanaka to the west coast; the Hurunui Pass, dividing the sources of the river of that name; and Arthur’s Pass, over 3000 feet high, across which the coach runs through the wonderful scenery of the Otira Gorge to Hokitika and Greymouth. The first point to be noticed in regard to the central chain is that it does not present an unbroken line of watershed, but rather a series of peaks and broken ridges, separated from each other by deep ravines, and for the most part not easy of access. The clue to this system of ravines and ridges is to be found in the fact that the Palæozoic rocks forming the main range have been at a very early period subjected to extensive pressure, the effect of which has been to crumple them up into huge folds, the upper portions of which have been removed, leaving the remaining portions of the strata standing up on edge, either in a vertical position or at very steep inclinations. The strike of the beds differs from the general direction of the dividing range by 33°. The rule which has been found to prevail in other mountain chains of similar formation appears also to hold good in the central chain—viz., that the greatest amount of denudation has taken place along the original ridges, which are now occupied by valleys, whilst the existing peaks and ridges are on the sites of former depressions.
The next feature to be noticed is the jointed structure of the rocks. Although the joints cross each other in all directions, apparently without order, there are two prevailing systems of joints which have an important influence on the configuration of the surface. These are: First, a system of vertical cross-joints at right angles to the stratification, and running in unbroken lines for great distances, with such regularity that they might easily be mistaken for planes of stratification were it not for the frequent occurrence of beds of trap-rock, the outcrop of which marks unmistakably the true bedding; secondly, a system of joints, more or less inclined to the horizon, not running in parallel planes, but arranged in a series of curves radiating from a common centre.
The effect of this system of jointing, combined with the strike of the beds, or the direction of the axis of folding, is to produce two distinct systems of valleys in the central chain, the direction of which is very remarkable. The one radiates from a common centre, situated about fifty miles north of Mount Darien, in the sea near Cliffy Head. This system includes all the principal valleys from the Teremakau on the north to the Makarora on the south, their direction varying from N. 82° E. to S. 30° W., giving the idea that the country has been starred, just as a mirror is starred by a violent blow. To the other system belong the valleys of rivers and watercourses, running either on the strike of the beds, or in the direction of the cross-joints, or in a zigzag course, following alternately these two directions and giving to the cliffs which bound these valleys a peculiar rectangular appearance, resembling ruined masonry on a gigantic scale.
The western slope and part of the central chain consist of crystalline rocks and metamorphic schists resting on a basis of granite, that presents itself here and there to the view in the rugged bluffs and declivities on the west coast. To the eastward of the crystalline zone stratified sedimentary rocks appear, such as slates, sandstones, conglomerates and indurated shales. These compose the greater part of the eastern side of the central chain, exhibiting everywhere huge foldings. The extensive development of limestones such as are peculiar to the European Alps is totally lacking, and it is easily seen that only the eastern half of a complete mountain system has been preserved, while the western half is buried in the depth of the main.
Flora and Fauna.
At Mount Cook the botanist has a splendid field before him. The alpine and sub-alpine flora is of the most beautiful and diversified character, and to the traveller making his first visit from Australia or the Northern Hemisphere it will also have the charm of novelty. Among the shrubs there is considerable variety, and many of the bushes are during the autumn laden with prettily coloured berries. Among the larger trees a variety of beech is most prominent. The pretty green foliage of the broadleaf is also conspicuous, and a number of the Coniferæ. But it is probably among the herbaceous plants that the botanist will delight most to linger.
On Mount Torlesse, in the lower and more eastern range, Dr. von Haast, during his early explorations, collected over two hundred flowering plants, over thirty of which were new to science, and even in these later years new discoveries are still being made.
Splendid herds of red deer inhabit the heights and vales of the lesser Alps, so that after the mountaineer has bagged his peaks he can change his ice-axe for his rifle and bag a few fine heads as well. Recently chamois have been successfully acclimatized in the Mount Cook region, while elk and moose have been liberated in other localities. In the rivers of both the North and the South Island there are fish that will make the rods bend and the reels give to some purpose.
The birds of the alpine and sub-alpine regions are especially interesting. The kiwi and the kakapo, those strange flightless birds of the South and West, will prove a novelty to the explorer from northern climes; while the inquisitive friendly weka, with his rudimentary wings, and the curious kea, who digs into the loins of the living sheep with his powerful hooked beak to make a meal of the kidney fat, will be a never-failing source of interest to the traveller, who will find the former a thief and the latter rather a noisy companion whilst he is endeavouring to seek repose in one or other of the iron-roofed mountain huts. Wood-pigeons and a bush parrot known as the kaka are also to be found, and, in unexplored country, may make a welcome addition to the larder. A native thrush, two species of cuckoo that come down from the equatorial islands, wrens and fly-catchers are also met with; while the tui and the bell bird sometimes fill the woods with glorious song. In a chapter on mountains there is not space to do them all justice; but anyone who is specially interested in that strange bird, the kea, will find his habits and his character more fully described in my recently published book, A Climber in New Zealand.
Glaciers.
The following table, showing comparative sizes of the Canterbury or east coast glaciers compiled by Mr. T. N. Brodrick of the New Zealand Government Survey Department, will give some idea of the extent of the glaciation and prove interesting to anyone contemplating a mountaineering expedition to the Southern Alps:
Table showing Comparative Sizes of the Canterbury Glaciers
| Name. | Area of Glacier. | Area of Country from which Supply of Ice is drawn.[35] | Length of Glacier. | Average Width. | Greatest Width. | Narrowest Width. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acres. | Acres. | Mls. Cs. | Mls. Cs. | Mls. Cs. | Mls. Cs. | |
| Tasman | 13,664 | 25,000 | 18 0 | 1 15 | 2 14 | 0 60 |
| Murchison | 5,800 | 14,000 | 10 70 | 0 667⁄10 | 1 5 | 0 42 |
| Godley | 5,312 | 10,560 | 8 0 | 1 3 | 1 55 | 0 58 |
| Mueller | 3,200 | 7,740 | 8 0 | 0 50 | 0 61 | 0 37 |
| Hooker | 2,416 | 4,112 | 7 25 | 0 413⁄10 | 0 54 | 0 30 |
| Classen | 1,707 | 3,972 | 4 70 | 0 43¾ | 0 73 | 0 21 |
First-class mountains in the New Zealand Alps may be said to range in height from 10,000 feet to 12,347 feet, which latter is the height of Mount Cook. All the mountains of 10,000 feet and over have now been climbed; but there is much interesting work yet to be done in connection with new routes and high pinnacles and passes on the main range, while there are still many untrodden peaks of the second class scattered over a wide extent of explored and unexplored country. In short, there is in New Zealand work for generations of climbers yet to do.