POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL
United States.
—The principal iron ores of the United States are the extensive pre-Cambrian hematite deposits of the Lake Superior region; the bedded fossiliferous ores of the Clinton type of Alabama and other southern states; the magnetite deposits of New York, northern New Jersey, and southeastern Pennsylvania; the limonite ores of the eastern and southern states; and the mixed hematite and magnetite ores of the West. The United States is the largest producer of iron ore in the world, and annually yields more than two-fifths of the world’s supply. More than 80 per cent. of the output comes from the Lake Superior district and most of the remainder from Alabama, New York, and Pennsylvania. In 1917 there were mined in the United States 75,000,000 tons of iron ore, of which 63,000,000 came from the Lake Superior region, 7,000,000 from Alabama, 1,000,000 from New York, and about 500,000 each from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Tennessee, Virginia, and Wyoming; in 1918 the total production was 69,000,000 tons, of which 60,000,000 came from the Lake Superior district, 6,000,000 from Alabama, 900,000 from New York, 500,000 from Pennsylvania, and 400,000 each from Tennessee, Virginia, New Jersey and Wyoming.
The following table shows the approximate reserves of iron ore in the principal districts of the United States:
Table 14.—Iron-Ore Reserves of the United States in Gross Tons[30]
| Millions of tons. | |
|---|---|
| Lake Superior District (hematite) | 3,500 |
| Birmingham District (fossil hematite) | 355 |
| Tennessee and Virginia (fossil hematite) | 100 |
| Adirondack District (non-titaniferous magnetite) | 40 |
| Adirondack District (titaniferous magnetite) | 90 |
| Northern New Jersey and Southeastern New York (magnetite) | 15 |
| Southeastern Pennsylvania (magnetite) | 40 |
| Appalachian region (magnetite) | 50 |
| Northeastern Texas (limonite) | 260 |
| Western United States (magnetite and hematite) | 100 |
| Other Districts | 150 |
| Total | 4,700 |
[30] Kemp, J. F.: “The Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910 (with minor revisions).
The greatest single iron and steel industry in the United States is that of the United States Steel Corporation, which controls the following iron- and steel-producing companies: Carnegie Steel Co., Illinois Steel Co., Indiana Steel Co., American Steel & Wire Co., American Sheet & Tinplate Co., National Tube Co., The National Tube Co. of Ohio, Minnesota Steel Co., The Lorain Steel Co., Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co., and the Shelby Steel Tube Co., with a total of 124 blast furnaces, having an annual capacity of about 18,000,000 tons of pig iron. Most of the blast furnaces are in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and Alabama.
With the United States Steel Corporation is connected the Oliver Iron Mining Co., which produces about 43 per cent. of the iron ore mined annually in the Lake Superior district, this being equivalent to nearly 37 per cent. of all the iron ore mined annually in the United States. The Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co. is the chief producer of iron ore in Alabama.
Next in importance to the United States Steel Corporation as a producer of iron and steel is the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, with its subsidiaries, the Bethlehem Steel Co., Pennsylvania Steel Co., Maryland Steel Co., Jurugua Iron Co., Spanish-American Iron Co., and Bethlehem Iron Mines Co.
The works of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation have a total pig iron-producing capacity of 3,060,000 tons annually from 23 blast furnaces. Seven of the furnaces are in South Bethlehem, Pa., seven in Steelton, Pa., four in Lebanon, Pa., three in Cornwall, Pa., and four in Sparrow’s Point, Md. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation owns large iron-ore deposits in Cuba and Chile. Most of the ore consumed in its furnaces at present comes from Cuba, from the Lake Superior district, and from Cornwall, Pa.
Third in importance of the iron- and steel-producing companies of the United States is the recently organized Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co., controlling Worth Brothers, Midvale Steel Co., Remington Arms Co., Cambria Steel Co., and others. The combined pig iron-producing capacity of the 14 blast furnaces controlled by the Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co. is 2,420,000 tons of pig iron. Three of the blast furnaces are at Coatesville, Pa., and eleven are at Johnstown, Pa. This company owns important iron-ore deposits in Cuba and in the Lake Superior district.
Four other large companies produce more than a million tons of pig iron annually, these being the Republic Iron & Steel Co., with an estimated total capacity from its 11 blast furnaces in Ohio and Alabama of 1,430,000 tons of pig iron, and of 2,500,000 tons of ore from its mines in the Lake Superior district and in Alabama; the Lackawanna Steel Co., with an annual capacity in 1918 from its nine blast furnaces at Lackawanna, N. Y., of 1,440,000 tons of pig iron; the Jones & Laughlin Co., of Pittsburgh, with a capacity of 1,920,000 tons from 11 blast furnaces; and the McKinney Steel Co., with eight furnaces in Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania, and an annual capacity of 1,205,000 tons of pig iron. The last three companies named have extensive iron mines in the Lake Superior district.
Important iron and steel companies producing somewhat less than a million tons of pig iron annually are: the Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co., with an annual capacity of 990,000 tons of pig iron from six blast furnaces, all of which are at Youngstown, Ohio; the recently organized Steel & Tube Co. of America, having six blast furnaces in and near Chicago, with an annual pig-iron capacity of 900,000 tons; the Colorado Fuel & Iron Co., an important western iron and steel producer, which has six blast furnaces near Pueblo, Colo., with an annual capacity of 625,000 tons of pig iron, and has iron-ore mines in New Mexico, Wyoming, and Colorado; and the Schloss-Sheffield Steel & Iron Co. of Alabama, with seven blast furnaces and a pig-iron capacity of 530,000 tons. Many other plants with smaller capacity are scattered through eastern and central United States. So far as is known, practically the entire iron and steel business of the United States is in the hands of American capital.
Germany.
—The “minette” ore of the German Lorraine district before the war constituted by far the largest iron-ore reserve of Germany and is the chief source of present supply. Next in importance of the German ore reserves are the brown hematites occurring north of the Harz, and third and fourth in importance, respectively, are the deposits of the Lahn and Dill districts in the Rhineland, and those of Siegerland. All of these districts are in western and southwestern Germany and all of them, except Lorraine, are in the region lying east of the Rhine in Hanover, Westphalia, Hesse-Nassau, and Rhenish Prussia.
The Lorraine district is on the French border and forms a part of the large ore field of Luxemburg and northern France. The deposits, of sedimentary origin and Jurassic age, comprise extensive beds of oolitic limonite varying in thickness up to 20 feet, interlayered with marl and limestone. Seven principal beds of ore are found within a thickness of sediments ranging from 75 to 150 feet, the most important being known as the Grey seam. The tonnage[31] of “minette” ore available in the German Lorraine district is estimated at 1,830 million[32] as compared with 300 million in Luxemburg and 2,975 million[33] in northern France. The “minette” ores average 30 to 40 per cent. in metallic iron content and 0.3 to 0.7 per cent. or more in phosphorus.
[31] The ore reserves in this chapter are given in metric tons unless otherwise stated.
[32] Einecke, G., and Kohler, W.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.
[33] Nicou, L., idem.
The deposits of the Salzgitter and Ilsede districts north of the Harz Mountains are beds of brown ironstone conglomerate with an average thickness of 20 to 30 feet, consisting of limonite pebbles in a clayey or calcareous cement. These deposits cover many square miles, the reserves being estimated at 248 million tons. The ores contain 30 to 40 per cent. of iron and average 0.7 to 0.8 per cent. in phosphorus.
The ores of the Lahn and Dill region are mainly red hematites, that lie in an extensive sedimentary bed. They contain about 48 per cent. of iron, 0.2 to 0.3 per cent. phosphorus, and are high in silica. The reserves are estimated at about 135 million tons.
In Siegerland the iron ores are mainly carbonate, carrying 38 to 40 per cent. metallic iron and 6 to 9 per cent. manganese. They form irregular deposits abundantly scattered through the region, the available reserves being estimated at about 100 million tons.
The total iron-ore reserves of Germany (not including those of Luxemburg) actually available have been estimated at 2,540 million tons, and the probable further reserves at 1,067 million tons. Of these amounts, however, Lorraine has by far the largest part, so that the transfer of this province to France reduces Germany’s available reserves to 28 per cent. of the pre-war figure, and her further probable reserves to one-half, altogether reducing her iron-ore resources to one-third of the former amount.
As far as is known, the German iron and steel business is in the hands of German capitalists, who, besides, have important iron-ore holdings in France, Spain, Sweden, and elsewhere. Among the important iron-ore and pig-iron producing firms in Germany are Gutehoffnungshütte, de Wendel & Co., Krupp, Gebrüder Stumm, Aschener Hütten Aktien Verein, Rombacher Hüttenwerke, Thyssen & Cie., and others. All of these firms had large ore reserves in the Lorraine district when the war began.
France.
—The iron ores of France are divided into three distinct groups: the “minette” ores of the Briey, Longwy, Crusnes, and Nancy districts; the Silurian ores in Normandy; and the vein deposits of the eastern Pyrenees.
The “minette” ores of northern France form part of the great basin of “minette” ores of France, Luxemburg, and Germany already mentioned. In 1913 they furnished about 91 per cent. of the total production of France. The iron ores of Normandy and Brittany are of sedimentary origin and are composed of hematite or carbonate or a mixture of both. The carbonate becomes more abundant with depth. The iron-ore deposits of the eastern Pyrenees consist of both hematite and siderite and are of high grade, constituting the only considerable source of Bessemer ore in France. The iron content of the ores of Normandy and Brittany ranges from 30 per cent. to 50 per cent.; that of the Pyrenees ores from 51 per cent. to 57 per cent. The latter range includes calcined siderite.
The production of iron ore from French Lorraine was about 19,500,000 tons in 1913; that of Normandy and Brittany about 1,500,000 tons, and that of the eastern Pyrenees about 500,000, making a total production of more than 21,000,000 tons for France.
The following table shows the relative output of iron ore from the different iron fields of France and Germany during the last three normal years before the war:
Table 15.—Production of Iron Ore in France and Germany, 1911 to 1913
Metric tons
| District | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 |
|---|---|---|---|
| German Lorraine | 17,734,576 | 20,050,245 | 21,135,554 |
| Luxemburg | 6,059,797 | 6,553,930 | 7,331,050 |
| French Lorraine, including Briey, Longwy and Nancy | 14,878,000 | 17,235,125 | 19,499,166 |
| Germany, outside of Lorraine | 6,968,000 | 7,167,000 | 7,472,000 |
| France, outside of Lorraine | 1,584,000 | 1,925,000 | 1,686,000 |
The available reserves in the different districts of the French “minette” ore field are estimated as follows:[34]
Table 16.—Ore Reserves in French “Minette” Field
| Million tons | |
|---|---|
| Briey | 2,000 |
| Crusnes | 500 |
| Longwy | 275 |
| Nancy | 200 |
| Total | 2,975 |
[34] Nicou, L.: “Iron Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.
The list of operating companies in France shows a considerable number of German companies among the predominating French. German or probably German companies produced in 1913 six and a half million tons of iron ore, or one-third of the whole production. In the Normandy and Brittany region two German companies made 11 per cent. of the whole production; and in the eastern Pyrenees one German company produced 20 per cent. Altogether, German capital controlled over one-third of the iron and steel industry of France in 1913. The rest seems to have been in the hands of French capital.
The most important iron-producing firms in the Lorraine field in recent years have been those of de Wendel & Co., Gutehoffnungshütte, Société des Hauts Fourneaux et Fonderies de Pont-a-Moussons, Société des Forges et Acieries de la Marine et d’Homecourt, Société Anonyme des Acieries de Longwy, Société des Acieries de Micheville, and Société des Mines d’Ammermont Dommery. The first two firms are chiefly German and have controlled lands not only in German Lorraine, but also in French Lorraine. Thus, the iron-ore lands of the Lorraine district will, even after the cessation of the territory to France, be owned largely by German-controlled firms. Politically, however, France will have control of the output.
Great Britain.
—The iron ores mined in Great Britain come chiefly from the Cleveland Hills in Yorkshire and from Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Cumberland, Staffordshire, Leicestershire, Scotland, and Lancashire, in order of importance. More than one-third of the total production is derived from the Cleveland Hills. The ore from the Cleveland Hills, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, and Scotland is bedded oolitic siderite of Middle and Lower Jurassic age; that from Cumberland and Lancashire is hematite, exceptionally low in phosphorus, found in pockets in Carboniferous and Silurian limestones; and that in Staffordshire is siderite of the “black band” and “clay band” varieties found in the Coal Measures.
The following table shows the production of iron ore in the United Kingdom in 1915:
Table 17.—Production of Iron Ore in the United Kingdom in 1915
| Long tons | |
|---|---|
| Cleveland Hills | 4,746,293 |
| Lincolnshire | 3,149,079 |
| Northamptonshire | 2,517,150 |
| Cumberland | 1,323,408 |
| Staffordshire | 703,231 |
| Leicestershire | 685,137 |
| Scotland | 375,241 |
| Lancashire | 333,086 |
| Other Great Britain and Ireland | 402,387 |
| Total | 14,235,012 |
A large part of the iron ore in Great Britain can not now be worked profitably, and much of the ore that was merchantable a few years ago could not now be worked, on account of increased cost of transportation, labor, and particularly of fuel. The actual reserves of ore of present merchantable grade are estimated at 1,300 million tons; the total reserves have been estimated by H. Louis at 39,500 million tons.[35]
[35] Louis, H.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.
In 1915 the United Kingdom produced 14,000,000 tons of iron ore. In the same year nearly 7,000,000 tons were imported, of which 4,000,000 came from Spain and between one-half and one million from Algeria and Norway each, making a total of over 20,000,000 tons smelted in the United Kingdom. The total production of pig iron was nearly 9,000,000 tons, of which nearly 7,000,000 tons were produced in England, 1,000,000 tons in Scotland, and nearly 1,000,000 tons in Wales. Ireland produces no pig iron. The iron and steel industry of Great Britain, so far as information is available, is in the hands of British subjects.
Eckel[36] reviews the British iron-ore situation as follows:
The position of Great Britain as regards iron-ore resources is peculiar—perhaps more curious than satisfactory. The matter may be summarized by saying that England has still several hundred million tons of high-grade ore which would be salable anywhere; that she has in addition perhaps double that quantity of low-grade ore, workable because of its nearness to coal and markets; and that England, Scotland, and Wales have thousands of millions of tons of ore now unworkable, but which may be serviceable in the future provided that at that future date there is still any other good reason for making steel in Great Britain. This last limitation may not be palatable, but it is really the crux of the whole question, and it seems to have been overlooked by the British geologists who have discussed the subject. People do not make iron out of low-grade ores simply to use up the ores; and with an increasing coke cost and a narrowing export market it is a very serious question whether the bulk of these British carbonates will ever be used. The duration of the British steel industry will be fixed by its coal supply, and not by its supply of local ores; for so long as coke and markets justify it, ore can be imported to good advantage. If other conditions do not justify the importation of ore, they will certainly not justify the use of these hypothetical reserve tonnages.
[36] Eckel, E. C.: “Iron Ores, Their Occurrence, Valuation and Control,” p. 320, 1914.
Spain.
—Spain is rich in iron-ore reserves, but the iron and steel manufacturing industry has had little development. The annual production of iron ore in Spain during the last years before the war amounted to about 9,000,000 tons, of which more than 8,000,000 tons were exported. The consumption of iron ore by Spanish blast furnaces has been in the neighborhood of 800,000 tons annually.
The principal iron ores of Spain lie in the northwestern part, in the provinces of Viscaya, Oviedo, Lugo, and Santander; in the northeastern part, in the provinces of Teruel and Guadalajara; and in the southeastern part, in the provinces of Granada, Almeria, Murcia, Sevilla, and Huelva.
The iron ores of the Bilbao district of Viscaya are all of Bessemer grade, and for many years large amounts have been exported to England for use in Bessemer plants to supplement ores from the Cleveland and other districts of England. Because of their excellence, they have been in continuous demand, and the English iron and steel industry has depended to a considerable extent upon these and other high-grade ores of Spain. In more recent years, Germany has also become interested in the Bilbao iron fields, and in the last years before the war Germany took more than one-third of the total Spanish production, including large amounts of ore from southern Spain as well. Spanish interests own important deposits in southeastern Spain and in the Bilbao district.
Most of the ore of southeastern Spain is of high grade, being rich in iron and low in phosphorus. Nearly all of it is of Bessemer quality, and some is very low in phosphorus; the latter is exported extensively for use in the manufacture of low-phosphorus pig iron. The United States has been largely dependent in past years upon Spain for this grade of ore, more than 100,000 tons being imported annually.
Spain has a number of blast furnaces and steel plants, the principal ones being at Bilbao, in the Province of Viscaya. More than 300,000 tons of pig iron are produced annually in Viscaya, this being approximately three-fourths of the total output of pig iron in Spain.
European Russia.
—In European Russia[37] the principal deposits of iron ore are distributed over four chief districts: Ural Mountains, central Russia, southern Russia and the Caucasus.
[37] Bogdanowitsch, K.: “The Iron Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.
In the Ural Mountains for the greater part the ores are associated with igneous rocks. The most important deposits are in the neighborhood of Gora Blagodat, in the northern Ural regions, and near Gora Mongnitnaja, in the southern Urals. The ores are mainly magnetite and limonite and come from an extremely large number of small mines. In central Russia, over widely scattered areas, are deposits of calcareous ores, clay ironstones, and bog ores. Many of the deposits are thin and can not be profitably worked. The only reserves in southern Russia of any importance are divided among three centers: Krivoi-Rog, the Donetz basin, and the Kertsch peninsula. By far the most important deposits are the magnetite-hematite ores in the region of Krivoi-Rog. The ironstones of the Coal Measures in the Donetz basin and the limonite of the Kertsch peninsula are of secondary importance. The mines of Krivoi-Rog are extensively worked, and their reserves are estimated at some 86 million tons of commercial ore. The mines are controlled mainly by the following three companies: the Briansk company; Krivoi-Rog Iron Ore Co.; and the Providence company.
The following table shows the production of iron ore in different parts of Russia in 1912:
Table 18.—Output of Iron Ore in Russia
| Long tons | |
|---|---|
| Southern Russia | 5,679,000 |
| Ural | 1,817,000 |
| Central Russia | 286,000 |
| Other Russia and Siberia | 6,000 |
| Total | 7,788,000 |
The ore reserves of Russia may be summarized by districts as follows:
Iron-Ore Reserves in Russia
| Millions of tons | |
|---|---|
| Ural | 282 |
| Central Russia | 789 |
| Southern Russia | 536 |
| Caucasus | 14 |
| Total | 1,621 |
Eckel[38] reviews the iron-ore situation in Russia as follows:
On their face the ore reserves noted seem satisfactory enough, and until the data are examined more critically it is difficult to explain why the relatively large furnishing capacity of the Moscow and other central Russian districts is so far out of line with the comparatively small ore production of that area. As a matter of fact, however, the large total ore reserves credited to central Russia are in reality less important than they seem, owing both to grade of ore and thinness of the ore bodies. From an international viewpoint the ore deposits of southern Russia are the ones which require most attention; for these are so located as to be of importance to foreign competitors, while the total reserve tonnage is high, and the grade of much of the ore is excellent.
[38] Eckel, E. C.: “Iron Ores, Their Occurrence, Valuation and Control,” 1914, p. 326.
Actual available ore reserves of merchantable grade in Russia are estimated at 865 million tons.
Before the Revolution the greater part of the Russian iron and steel industries was controlled by syndicates.[39] The oldest of these consisted of manufacturers of medium sheets (1902); then followed manufacturers of joists and U-iron (1903), axles and tires (1904), iron tubes (1906), rails (1907), and bar iron and hoops. These six syndicates were afterwards combined into one, officially styled the Association for the Sale of Products of the Metallurgical Works of Russia, but generally known as “Prodameta,” from its telegraphic address. There were separate syndicates for wire, wire nails, and roofing sheets. The “Prodameta” consisted, at last advices, of nineteen works, of which sixteen are in southern Russia, and one each in Petrograd, Moscow, and the Ural region. The “Prodameta” expired at the end of 1915, but was provisionally prolonged for one year, and again at the end of 1916 it was extended for a similar period. The aggregate capital of the eighteen works was 198,400,000 roubles, and their net profit for 1915-16 was 76,200,000 roubles.
[39] Ironmonger Metal Market Year-Book, London, 1918.
Sweden.
—The iron-ore fields of Sweden are among the most important in Europe and have for the last ten or fifteen years furnished a large output, which has gone mainly to England and Germany. A relatively small amount of iron ore is used in Swedish iron-smelting works. The iron mines of central Sweden have been actively worked since about the beginning of the twelfth century, whereas those of Swedish Lapland have been developed recently. At present about one-half the output of iron ore in Sweden comes from Swedish Lapland, and the other half from central Sweden.
Swedish Lapland is estimated to have iron-ore reserves amounting to 1,128 million tons. The ores are mostly magnetite associated with igneous rocks and show wide difference in phosphorus content. Certain deposits or parts of deposits are composed of ores that are moderately low in phosphorus, whereas others are high enough to obtain a special bonus from German steel plants that produce high-phosphorus slag for fertilizer purposes. Practically all the ores of Swedish Lapland are exported. In recent years the total production has amounted to about 3,500,000 tons annually. The principal mines are worked by the Trafikaktiebolaget Grängesberg Oxelosund, in which English and German capital is interested with the Swedish government. The Swedish government controls the output of the mines and receives a large sum in royalties on the ore produced. The ore deposits from which ore is being produced at present are Kiruna, Gellivare, and Tuolluvarra, the first two being operated by the firm mentioned above and the last being an independent operation.
The ore reserves of central and southern Sweden are estimated at 140 million tons, included in a great number of relatively small deposits. Most of the mines of central Sweden are controlled by small Swedish operators. Some of the mines, however, such as Blotberg, are to a large extent under German control, and the largest one, Grängesberg, is operated by the same firm that controls the deposits of Swedish Lapland. Some of the ores of central Sweden, such as those of Dannemora, Norberg, Strossa, and Stripa, are very low in phosphorus, and are used in the manufacture of special low-phosphorus iron; others, like those of Grängesberg and Blotberg, contain more than 1 per cent. of phosphorus.
Austria-Hungary.
—The iron ores of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire are mainly low-grade hydrous iron silicates that require roasting, large deposits of iron carbonate, and some limonite. The total probable ore reserves have been estimated at 940 million tons, of which about 560 million are very low grade.
The principal sources from which the domestic iron ore used in the past in the Austro-Hungarian Empire has been obtained are the chamosite-hematite deposits at Nucitz and elsewhere in Bohemia; the siderite beds at Erzberg, in Styria, estimated to contain more than 200 million tons of ore; the siderite-limonite deposits on the slopes of the Carpathians; and deposits of various ores in northern and central Bosnia.
By far the largest of the deposits is that at Erzberg, owned and operated by the Oesterreichische Alpinen Montan Gesellschaft, presumably Austrian. The Bohemian deposits, also important, are largely under the control of the Prager Eisen Industrie Gesellschaft. The Carpathian deposits are largely controlled by local individuals and firms, among them Duke Philipp of Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha-Kohar. Thus the principal deposits have been largely under Austro-Hungarian control.
As a result of the war and the disruption of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Bohemian deposits, estimated to contain 35,100,000 tons of high-grade ore and 221,800,000 tons of low-grade ore, will come under the control of Czechoslovakia, whereas the Bosnian ores, with an estimated reserve of 21,500,000 tons, will go to Jugoslavia. Austria will retain control of the large Erzberg deposit in Styria, and the ores of the Carpathian region will continue under Hungarian control.
Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco.
—The iron ores of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, in northern Africa, are mainly high-grade hematite. The reserve tonnage of Algeria and Tunisia is estimated by Nicou at 100 million to 150 million tons, and about 30 million or 40 million tons is reported in the Spanish territory of Riff, Morocco.
The deposits of Morocco and Algeria are nearly all near the north coast, and the ores are shipped from various small ports, such as Melilla, Benisaf, Arzeu, Algiers, Bougie, and Bona. The deposits of Tunisia are 180 to 200 kilometers southwest of Tunis, the shipping port, with which they are connected by rail.
The principal mines of El Riff, Morocco, are owned by the Sociedad Española de Minas de Riff. German interests, the “Netta Company,” held a large concession, but since the war these interests are controlled by the Company of Bilbao.
The North African deposits are important as a source of high-grade low-phosphorus ore for European blast furnaces. All of the ore produced is exported, the annual shipments amounting to about 1,500,000 tons.
Cuba.
—There are two principal groups of iron-ore deposits in Cuba—the magnetite and hematite ore on the south coast, and the brown ore, or limonite, on the north coast. All are near the eastern end of the island. The ores of Firmeza and Daiquiri, on the south coast, are mixed magnetite and hematite, averaging about 58 per cent. iron and 0.03 per cent. phosphorus. They are associated with igneous rocks. A determination of tonnage is difficult because of the irregularity of the ore bodies, and estimates of reserves range from 5 million to 9 million tons. The brown ore of the north shore is hydrated brown hematite, a laterization product of serpentine. The dried ore averages about 46 per cent. iron, 0.01 per cent. phosphorus, and 1.7 per cent. chromium. The reserve tonnage, estimated as high as 3,000 million tons, is mainly contained in the three large deposits of Camaguey, Mayari, and Moa.
The principal deposits of Cuba are owned and operated by the Bethlehem Steel Co. Important undeveloped deposits are owned by the Buena Vista Iron Co. (Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co.), United States Steel Corporation, Guantanamo Exploration Co., and Eastern Steel Co.
Newfoundland.
—The principal iron ores of Newfoundland are bedded oolitic hematites, which average 50 per cent. to 52 per cent. in metallic iron. The ore reserves of Newfoundland have been estimated as between 3,250 million and 3,500 million tons, making them among the largest and by far the most compact iron-ore reserves in the world. The output of ore has been 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 tons annually, except during the war, when the production decreased. These deposits are important on account of both their size and their situation. Ore can be placed readily in American or European ports at a cost far lower per unit of iron than any competitive ore, so that the market is practically unlimited.
The ores have been mainly exported to Sydney, Nova Scotia, and to Philadelphia, while about 10 per cent. has gone to Holland (Germany). The phosphorus content is too high for normal economic basic open-hearth practice if the ores are used alone, but not too high for foundry use or for the basic Bessemer process developed in Europe.
The Wabana iron-ore deposits are owned and mined by the Dominion Iron & Steel Co., and the Nova Scotia Steel & Coal Co., two Canadian firms. Both companies operate steel plants near Sydney, Cape Breton.
Norway.
—The principal iron ores of Norway are low-grade magnetite and specular hematite, much of which can profitably be concentrated. They occur in the northern part, north of the Arctic Circle. Small deposits of high-grade ores, consisting mainly of magnetite lenses, occur in southern Norway.
The Sydvaranger deposits, in the extreme north near the border of Finland, are estimated to contain 100 million tons of low-grade magnetite. The ore is treated in a large concentrating plant erected by a Norwegian company but controlled by Swedish and German capital. The concentrates analyze 70 per cent. iron and 0.02 per cent. phosphorus. The Dunderland deposits on Rannenfjord, near the Arctic Circle, are estimated to contain 80 million tons of mixed low-grade specular hematite and magnetite.
In 1914 Norway produced 652,273 tons of iron ore, of which seven-eighths came from the Sydvaranger deposit.
Italy.
—The most important iron mines in Italy are the hematite mines of the island of Elba, which have furnished between 500,000 and 1,000,000 tons of ore annually in recent years. Ten or twelve large ore bodies are found in the eastern part of the island, all under control of the Elba Company, which has obtained a concession giving it exclusive iron-mining rights on the island. Important but as yet little developed magnetite deposits are found in the Aosta Valley, Piedmont, and limonite deposits are found on the island of Sardinia. These have furnished a very small output. Minor deposits of iron ore occur in Lombardy, in the Apennines of central Italy, and elsewhere. The total reserves of iron ore in Italy are estimated at about 25 million tons.
Italy has several important iron-smelting works, among them being the Elba Company furnaces on the island of Elba, the Piombino furnaces at Piombino, on the mainland opposite Elba, and the Ilva furnaces at Bagnoli, near Naples. In addition there are some small plants in northern Italy.
Italy’s iron-ore deposits and iron manufactures are controlled by commercial organizations, mainly Italian, but in part English. The Italian government exercises control over the ore deposits by granting concessions for comparatively short terms.
Agreements made among the Italian manufacturers for the rational division of work have led to the formation of a syndicate of the following firms: Ilva, Elba, Siderurgica di Savona, Metallurgica di Lestre, Ferriere Italiane, and the Piombino Steel Works. These firms undertook to maintain the syndicate for eleven years, dating from July, 1911. The affairs of the organization were directed by the Ilva Company. “In 1916 the constituent companies renewed their agreement up to the year 1930, but the Ilva Company ceased to direct the affairs of the Syndicate, and the relations between the Syndicate and the German Stahlwerks Verband were abrogated and replaced by Anglo-Italian relationships.”[40]
[40] Ironmonger Metal Market Year Book, 1918.
A further organization was made called the “Societa Ferro ed Acciaio,” a combination of steel works.
Italy is important as a producer of iron ore and as a manufacturer of iron products. She has been able to supply her own needs in iron ore for many years and at the present rate can continue to do so for probably twenty years longer. There appears to be no tendency toward expansion into other fields to control foreign ore deposits.
Italy produced 593,000 tons of iron ore in 1913; 669,000 tons in 1915; and 927,000 tons in 1916. In 1915, 408,000 tons of pig iron were produced, and 87,000 tons were imported.
Greece.
—Chromiferous iron ores are found in eastern Greece and adjacent islands. They contain 46 to 52 per cent. iron, 2 to 3 per cent. chromium, and about 0.10 to 1.00 per cent. nickel and cobalt. The normal annual production of iron ore in Greece has been in the neighborhood of 400,000 tons.
Canada.
—Small iron-ore deposits occur in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In Ontario there are two principal iron-ore districts—the Atikokan and the Michipicotan ranges. The ore in the former is magnetite, and in the latter hematite and siderite with some limonite. The ores of western British Columbia are largely magnetite. The principal deposits are on Texada and Vancouver islands, where the ore is of excellent grade, averaging 63 per cent. iron, 0.02 per cent. phosphorus and 4 to 10 per cent. silica. Low-grade magnetite ore is found at the Moose Mountain mine, Ontario, and is being concentrated.
There are a number of blast furnaces in Canada, among them being those of the Dominion Iron & Steel Co., Sydney; the Nova Scotia Steel & Coal Co., Sydney Mines, and the Londonderry Iron & Mining Co., Londonderry, all of which use ores from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia; the Algoma Steel Corporation, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario; the Steel Company of Canada, Hamilton, Ontario; the Canadian Furnace Co., Port Colborne, Ontario; the Canada Iron Foundries, Midland, Ontario; the Standard Iron Co., Deseronto and Parry Sound, Ontario; and the Atikokan Iron Co., Port Arthur, Ontario, which use largely Lake ores of the United States and Canada. The Moose Mountain Co., of Sellwood, Ontario, has a magnetic concentrating and briquetting plant using ore from the Moose Mountain mine. In May, 1920, the British Empire Steel Corporation, the second largest in the world, was formed by the merger of nine steel, coal, ship-building and transportation companies.
In 1912 Canada produced 156,000 tons of iron ore, and made 906,000 tons of pig iron.[41] In 1918 she made 1,066,071 tons of pig iron. The iron mines of Canada are largely of Canadian and partly of American ownership.
[41] Board of Trade, “Reports on Iron and Steel,” London, 1905-1918.
China and Manchuria.
—Little information is available on the extent of the iron-ore deposits of the Chinese Empire. The principal producing area is that of Tayeh, south of Yangtse River in the Province of Hupeh, where a series of ore bodies, consisting of mixed hematite and magnetite, occurs along the contact of limestone and intrusive syenite. The deposits are estimated to contain about 40 million tons of ore.[42] The Han-Yeh-Ping Iron & Steel Co., largely controlled in Japan, owns these deposits and the Han Yang steel plant near Hankow. Iron ore similar to that of Tayeh is reported to occur farther down the Yangtse at Tungling, in the Province of Ngan-whei, and also along the coast near Amoy, Province of Fukien. The deposits near Amoy are said to contain about 25 million tons.
[42] Bain, H. F.: “Notes on Iron-Ore Resources of China,” Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1918.
Of considerable importance are the mixed hematite and magnetite ores of Chin-ling-chen, near Kiaochow, Shantung Province. A series of ore bodies, some of them 100 feet in width, are said to occur along a contact zone two kilometers in length.[43] The deposits were exploited by Germans and are being developed by Japanese.
[43] Koert, W.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.
Sedimentary beds of oolitic ore of some extent are reported in the provinces of Chih-li and Kiang-si, but they are of low grade.
Bedded siderite ores similar to the Coal Measures ores of England have been mined for many years in Shan-si Province and smelted in native furnaces. In Hunan Province, also, this type of ore is mined.
The principal iron ores of Manchuria are magnetites that occur as a series of deposits in a northwest-southeast belt south and southeast of Mukden, in southern Manchuria. They are interbedded with schist, gneiss, and porphyry. In this belt are the An-shan-chang deposits that are now being developed by Japanese interests affiliated with the South Manchurian Railway, and the Miaor-kow deposits operated by a Sino-Japanese company, the Pen-hsi-hu Coal & Iron Co., Ltd. The southern Manchuria magnetite belt is reported to contain reserves amounting to about 500 million tons.[44] Much of the ore is of low grade.
[44] Wang, C. F.: “Coal and Iron Deposits of the Pen-hsi-hu District, Manchuria,” Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1918.
India.
—Iron ores of four types are found in India[45]: (1) lenses of specular hematite with some magnetite, occurring in quartz-hematite and quartz-magnetite schist of the Dharwar series and other older rocks; (2) granules of magnetite and hematite scattered through granite and schist; (3) clay ironstones in the Coal Measures of Bengal; and (4) lateritic ores.
[45] de la Touche, F. E.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.
The hematite-magnetite lenses interlayered with iron-bearing schists are the most important of the Indian ores, although it is only recently that they have been exploited. The Tata Iron & Steel Co. owns the principal deposits of this type, including Mayurbhanj, in Bengal, where mining is being conducted at present, and the large undeveloped deposits of the Raipur district, Central Provinces. Important deposits of this type are also found in southern India.
Magnetite and hematite derived from the disintegration of schist and granite are now being used by the Bengal Iron & Steel Co., of Barakar. They consist of surface accumulations of iron sands and are found in various parts of India. Clay ironstones scattered through shales were formerly used by the Bengal Iron & Steel Co., but its supply of these is exhausted. Lateritic iron ores lying at the surface are widespread but undeveloped.
The principal iron and steel company of India is that of Tata & Sons, an Indian firm. Its plant, which has been mining since 1912, is at Sakchi, in Bengal, and comprises three blast furnaces with a total monthly capacity of 24,000 tons of pig iron. There are also extensive coke ovens, open-hearth furnaces, and steel mills. Many additions are being planned. The Bengal Iron & Steel Co., which has been in operation for thirty years, has three small blast furnaces at Barakar, with a monthly capacity of 12,000 tons. A steel mill and rolling mill built by this company have been abandoned.
Several new developments are being planned in the Indian steel industry, among them being the Indian Iron & Steel Co., an English firm, which is building a plant near Asanol on the East Indian Railway.
The production of iron ores for 1915 was 390,270 tons, the production of iron and steel for 1914 was 504,564 tons and for 1915 to 1916 it was 584,775 tons. Total imports of iron and steel, 1914 to 1915, amounted to 698,635 tons, and 1915 to 1916, to 424,597 tons.
Japan and Korea.
—The iron ore used in Japanese furnaces is obtained in part from domestic mines and in part from Korean, Manchurian, and Chinese mines. The iron ore produced in Japan comes mainly from the Kamaishi group of deposits in the northern part of the island of Honshu. These mines yield more than one-half of the total annual production of iron ore in Japan, the remainder coming mainly from the Sennin and Kuriki mines, also in the northern part of Honshu; the Abuta and other bog ore deposits in Hokkaido, and the black sand deposits of Chugoku, in southern Honshu. The Kamaishi, Sennin, and Kuriki deposits consist of magnetite and hematite associated with sedimentary rocks near igneous intrusions. The iron-ore reserves of Japan are estimated by Inouye[46] at about 60 million tons.
[46] Inouye, K.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.
The Korean iron ores used in Japan have come mainly from the surficial limonite deposits of Hoang-hai-do, about 100 miles northwest of Seoul, which have been actively mined for 10 years or more. Recently Japanese-controlled blast furnaces have been established at Ken-ji-pho, Korea, which use ore from the Ken-ji-pho iron mine, situated in the same region as the Hoang-hai-do mines. The pig iron produced by this plant is sent to Japan for use in Japanese steel plants.
Chinese iron ore used in Japan has been obtained from the Tayeh mines of Hupeh Province. A part of the ore from these mines goes directly to Japan, and a part goes to the Han-Yang furnaces, near Hankow, to be manufactured into pig-iron and steel products which also go to Japan. The Han-Yeh-Ping Iron & Steel Co., which owns both the Tayeh mines and the Han-Yang furnaces, is a Chinese concern, the capital of which is at present controlled largely by Japanese banking firms.
Of considerable interest at the present time is the development by Japanese of the Chin-ling-chen iron-ore deposits on the peninsula of Kiaochow, Shantung Province. These deposits were being exploited by the Germans just before the war and have recently been taken over by the Japanese, who are continuing development.
Two important Japanese-controlled iron and steel manufacturing projects are at present being developed in Manchuria. The older of these is the plant of the Pen-hsi-hu Colliery & Mining Co. at Pen-hsi-hu, southeast of Mukden, where pig iron is being manufactured from ore obtained from the neighboring Miaor-kou magnetite mines. The pig iron is being sent to Japan. The other Manchurian enterprise is the An-shan-chang iron and steel works at Sha-ho-kou, south of Mukden. The ore is derived from the An-shan-chang iron mines and the pig iron and steel products which it is later planned to manufacture are to be sent to Japan. It is also planned to send Manchurian ore to Japan.
On [page 77] are shown the production and importation of iron ore into Japan in recent years:
Table 19.—Production and Importation of Iron Ore into Japan, 1914 to 1916
(Metric tons)
| Year | Produc- tion | Importation from | Total including other countries | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Korea | China | |||
| 1914 | 136,385 | 163,747 | 300,305 | 465,754 |
| 1915 | 136,121 | 204,101 | 311,310 | 516,132 |
| 1916 | 158,815 | 192,225 | 282,149 | 474,955 |
A considerable quantity of pig iron is imported into Japan from British India, Great Britain, and other countries.
The principal iron-smelting works in Japan are as follows: Imperial Steel Works, Yawata; Kamaishi Iron Works, Kamaishi; Wanishi Iron Works, Tanburi; Sennin Iron Works, Waka; Kuriki Iron Works, Kisen. All are controlled by Japanese, the first being the Japanese government works.
Poland.
—In Poland the chief deposits of iron ore are the limonite deposits in the Vistula district, carrying 22 to 50 per cent. iron. The production in 1912 was 289,000 long tons. The resources are estimated at 300 million to 800 million tons.
Belgium.
—Belgium’s production of iron ore in recent years has amounted to about 150,000 tons annually, of which more than half was derived from the “minette” ore beds in the southeastern part along the French border, and the remainder came in part from beds of oolitic hematite of Devonian age in the Namur and Liege basins and in part from bog-ore deposits in the northern part. In the past the largest production has come from the Namur basin, and there are still large reserves of these oolitic hematite ores. The total iron-ore reserves of Belgium are estimated to be about 62,500,000 tons.
The iron ore produced in Belgium supplies only a very small part of the requirements for the Belgian iron and steel industry, most of the ore being imported from France.
Portugal.
—The largest deposits of iron ore in Portugal are those of Moncorvo, in the northeastern part. The ore is a bedded sedimentary deposit of low grade and the estimated reserve is 45 million tons. Small deposits of magnetite and brown hematite are found in the southern part in the Province of Alemtejo. Portugal produced 48,342 tons of iron ore in 1913.
Turkey and Bulgaria.
—Minor deposits of magnetite and hematite occur in Bulgaria and former European Turkey, and in western Asia Minor several important ore bodies are known.[47] The largest of these deposits occurs in the Berut Hills, 90 miles northwest of the Gulf of Alexandretta. It is reported to be capable of producing 300,000 tons annually.
[47] Edwards, G. M.: “Notes on Mines in the Ottoman Empire,” Trans. Inst. Min. Met., vol. 23, 1913-14.
Other important deposits are found near Ayazmat, on the mainland opposite the island of Mitylene, and near Tireboli and Trebizond, on the Black Sea. The only producing mine is near Ayazmat.
Chile.
—Scattered iron-ore deposits occur in Chile in the coastal mountain region; the principal deposits extend a distance of about 150 miles parallel to the coast, some of them being north and some south of Coquimbo. The ore bodies are within 10 to 40 miles of the coast. Most of them are enclosed as lenses in granitic rocks; a few are in sedimentary rocks near the contact of igneous rocks.
Furnaces and a steel plant were erected by a French syndicate 10 to 15 years ago in southern Chile. The plant ran only a few months, there being apparently no market for the product. The iron ore was obtained from the Tofo deposit, and green wood was used for fuel.
Of the Chilean deposits, the largest, Algarrobo, is owned by a joint Dutch-German syndicate controlled by Wm. H. Müller & Co., and Gutehoffnungshütte. Tofo, next in size to Algarrobo, is under lease to the Bethlehem Steel Co. Most of the other deposits are owned by Chileans. The tonnage of Chilean ore controlled by different nationalities is approximately as follows:
| Millions of tons (long tons) | |
|---|---|
| German | 50 |
| American | 40 |
| Chilean (in part English) | 50 |
| Total | 140 |
Iron ore was mined at Tofo during 1914, 1915, and 1916, and exported to the United States. In 1915 about 153,000 tons were shipped. During the war the mining practically ceased.
Brazil.
—The iron-ore deposits of Minas Geraes, Brazil, are among the most important in the world. The ore bodies, which as yet are practically undeveloped, lie in an area roughly 100 miles square, the center of which is 225 miles in a direct line north of Rio de Janeiro. The principal ores are hematite and are associated as beds and lenses with a laminated ferruginous quartzite known as “itabirite” that covers many square miles. The interlayered beds and lenses of ore are high grade, carrying up to 69 or 70 per cent. of metallic iron and averaging between 0.003 and 0.025 per cent. phosphorus. Nearly all ores of this type are of Bessemer or low-phosphorus grade. There are also large areas of recently formed surface ores consisting of mixed hematite and limonite moderately high in phosphorus; these average 55 to 65 per cent. in metallic iron.
On account of the distance from the coast and high cost of transportation, only the high-grade bedded ores are considered at present as available. The Central Railroad of Brazil runs through the iron-ore district to the port of Rio, 310 miles from the southern edge of the district, but unfortunately, on account of heavy grades, it can not be used for extensive transportation of iron ores. As workable bodies of coal suitable for iron manufacture are not known to exist in Brazil, the Minas Geraes deposits have up to the present produced little ore.
The principal iron-ore deposits of Minas Geraes are owned by the Itabria Iron Ore Co., the St. John del Rey Gold Mining Co., Ltd., the Brazilian Iron & Steel Co., and the Compania Metallurgica, the first two being English, the third American, and the fourth Brazilian. The Deutsch-Luxemburgisches Bergwerks und Hütten Aktiengesellschaft (German), the Société Anonyme Franco-Bresiliene (French), Jules Bernard, Mathiew Goudchaux et Cie (French), the Minas Geraes Iron Syndicate (American), and others, own local deposits. The following table shows approximately the tonnage of ore controlled by each nationality:
Table 20.—Brazilian Iron Ore Controlled by Different Nationalities
| Millions of tons (long tons) | ||
|---|---|---|
| Bessemer | Non- Bessemer | |
| English | 145 | 300 |
| American | 160 | 420 |
| French | 21 | 15 |
| German | 40 | 10 |
| Brazilian | 44 | 400 |
| Total | 410 | 1,145 |
Iron ores similar to those of Minas Geraes, and magnetite deposits of minor importance are reported in other parts of Brazil.
Mexico.
—Mexico has important deposits of iron ore in the States of Lower California, Coahuila, Durango, Guerrero, Michoacan, and Oaxaca. The largest iron and steel making plant in Mexico is that of the Compañia de Aciero y Fierro de Monterey, State of Nuevo Leon, operated by Spanish capital. This plant produces between 50,000 and 100,000 tons of pig iron yearly. Ore is obtained from Coahuila, and coke from nearby coal fields. At Durango is a charcoal furnace, which has been idle for many years. It is owned by the Durango Iron & Steel Co. (American). Small iron-making operations exist in Hidalgo, Puebla, Vera Cruz and Oaxaca. The best known of the Mexican iron-ore deposits is that of Iron Mountain (Cerro de Mercado), near Durango City, a large body of magnetite. In Lower California there are important deposits of iron ore at several localities. They are owned by the International Development Co., an American firm with headquarters at Los Angeles, California. The deposits in Guerrero, Michoacan and Oaxaca are reported to be extensive.
South Africa.
—Various deposits of low-grade iron ore are found in South Africa. In Transvaal there is siliceous sedimentary hematite and magnetite in ferruginous schists of different ages, titaniferous magnetite associated with basic igneous rocks, and local clay-band ore; and in both Cape Colony and Transvaal there are lateritic surface ores. A 15-ton blast furnace has been built within the last year or two near Pretoria by the Pretoria Iron Mines Co., Ltd., for the purpose of manufacturing pig iron from local ores. This is the first attempt to establish an iron industry in South Africa.
Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.
—In Australia and New Zealand are some important iron-ore deposits, but only a few are developed. Most of the iron ore mined in Australia has been used for flux in copper, lead, zinc, and other smelting plants; a small amount has been used in the two local iron and steel works—that of the Broken Hill Proprietary Co., at Newcastle, New South Wales, and that of the Eskbank Iron Works at Lithgow, about 75 miles west of Sydney, New South Wales. The former is the more important, having in operation at the present time two blast furnaces as well as steel furnaces, rail mill, and plate mill.
Among the important Australian iron-ore deposits are the hematite ores of Coombing Park, near Carcoar, and of Cadia, near Millthorpe, both in New South Wales, estimated to contain reserves of 42 million tons of ore; the hematite deposits of the Murchison district, about 400 miles northeast of Perth, western Australia, where one single deposit—that of Wilgi Mia—has been estimated to contain more than 25 million tons; the Iron Monarch manganiferous iron-ore deposit, estimated to contain 20 million tons of ore, and the neighboring Iron Knob hematite deposit of one million tons, both about 40 miles from Port Augusta, at the head of Spencer Bay, South Australia; and the hematite deposits of Mt. Leviathan, estimated at 10 million tons, located about 250 miles from Normanton, on the Gulf of Carpentaria, Queensland. Numerous smaller and less important ore bodies are found in all the provinces.
The Coombing Park ores have been used at the Eskbank Iron Works, 90,200 tons being produced in 1916. The ore averages about 55 per cent. iron. The Iron Monarch deposit is being developed by the Broken Hills Proprietary Co., and the ore is to be used in the furnaces at Newcastle.
An important iron-ore deposit, estimated to contain 23 million tons of minable ore, is reported to occur on Blythe River, in the northwestern part of Tasmania, about 6¹⁄₂ miles from the coast. There have been rumors recently of a possible exploitation of this deposit.
In New Zealand large deposits of limonite occur in the Nelson district, in the northern part of South Island. The principal group of deposits, known as Parapara, is estimated to contain about 64 million tons. Titaniferous magnetite sands, measurable in millions of tons, are reported to occur in the southwestern part of North Island near New Plymouth.