Darning
Darning.—The plain, or ordinary darn, was for a long time the only one employed in repairing any material, whether linen or woollen; the materials, soft darning cotton, merino, Angola worsted or Berlin wool, and filoselle, rather finer than the fabric to be mended.
In using filoselle for darning or for embroidery, it is necessary to feel for the right way of the thread, or the filoselle will become rough and work against the grain. Before threading your needle, draw the filoselle through your finger and thumb, and you will soon learn to know the difference between the smooth and the rough way. A great help in feeling anything is to shut the eyes. When you buy new stockings and socks, do not wear them until you have sewed them over heel and toe. There is an open bar in heels and toes that soon breaks, unless secured by sewing over. To do this, stretch the heel or toe very tightly over your left hand; this opens these little bars, and enables you to see holes top and bottom, when you can sew them over. You must not do it like herringboning, but straight, and from left to right. This plan prevents many a darn.
The Plain Darn is not limited to the repairing of house linen or garments; it is also applied to carpets, curtains, tapestry hangings, and even chair cushions and covers, which all need a close inspection after a periodical cleaning. For all these we mostly have recourse to the darn called point de reprise—the great distinction between this and the point de toile being that, instead of precisely taking up one and leaving down one, it consists in taking up and leaving down an irregular number of stitches, according to the value and strength of the material. The point de reprise is also used in lace-making, embroidery, wool and guipure work; besides, on account of its quick execution, it is generally chosen for the mending of stockings. Materials: A darning or egg-eyed needle, and either cotton, silk, merino, Angola, or linen thread. Method of working: When a hole has to be mended it may be prepared in two ways, either by drawing together all the broken threads as nearly as possible into their original position, and securing them with a needle and fine cotton, or by cutting off all irregularities, and carefully paring the edges; the latter method is undoubtedly the neater. Hold the part to be mended well stretched over the first and second fingers of the left hand, and for the foundation proceed as follows: Point the needle from the chest, and make an ascending row of regular perpendicular stitches, leaving a rather long loop to allow for stretching or shrinking in washing. For the descending row turn the needle towards the chest, and return in the same manner, taking up the thread left down in the preceding row, thus inverting the order of stitches; continue to do this till the hole is well covered by a series of long threads parallel to each other. Crossing: Place the work so that the threads run horizontally, and darn as before, commencing the same distance from the sides, as from the upper and lower edge, or else a hole will soon make its unwelcome appearance close to the new darn. A little judgment is necessary in deciding the closeness of the stitches, as it is evident that a worn-out material will not bear such close and heavy mending as a comparatively new one. The best mode of covering a plain darn is that which gives it the form of a cross; to this there are a few exceptions, such as the diagonal darn and the double square darn shown in Fig. 169.
168. Plain Darn. 169. Double Square Darn.
Double Square Darn.—When a fabric wears gradually from actual age, the hole is more generally confined to one spot, but in these accidental slits the damage extends over a considerable portion of the material, while the latter is still sound, hence the necessity of specially shaped darns, in which the crossing to avoid clumsiness merely covers the part suddenly torn. The double square darn is principally used for sheets, tablecloths, &c., which have been blown about by the wind while drying, and caught by an unlucky thorn or nail. Materials: A fine darning needle and linen thread. Method of working: With the needle bring the torn edges together, and secure them on a piece of toile cirée, then conceal the slit with rows of darning, which measure exactly double its width and its length; reverse the work, and repeat the process, so that the tear forms two sides of a square of crossed darning.
170. Diagonal Darn.
Diagonal Darn.—This is an irregular-shaped darn, often had recourse to by experienced housekeepers in the repair of those unfortunate slits, constantly discovered in kitchen or nursery tablecloths, or in linen pillow-cases, sheets, &c., when they have seen their best days. As the tear is made on the bias, the mending threads must of course run in a corresponding direction; this imparts to the work the peculiar shape of a double pyramid or egg-boiler, with a square in the centre, inclosing the slit, putting us in mind of the star pattern familiar in knitted quilts. Materials: Flourishing thread, and a fine darning needle. Method of working: Commence at the extremity of the slit at the distance of its own length above it, and terminate the first row of darning at an equal length below it; proceed by letting each row decrease one stitch on the upper side, and increase one stitch on the lower side in harmony with the tear. Turn the work, and cross in exactly the same manner.
Mottled Darn.—To mend a material woven in two shades, form the fresh warp by a series of foundation stitches matching exactly the texture and tint of the ground; then cross the former threads by others of the same colour as the woof. This method will produce a speckled darn.
Strengthening Darn.—When upon inspection an article is found to be wearing thin, strengthen the weak parts by a few rows of darning, worked rather far apart, so as not to put too much strain on the material. Both cotton and needle must be very fine, for fear of breaking the threads. For strengthening stockings there is a new and pretty way of doing so on the right side, which imitates a spotted pattern, and leaves no loops. It consists in crossing the webs with horizontal rows of stitches, passing the needle over and under one web alternately. This style is very appropriate for heels and toes, but in the case of frail spots here and there an invisible strengthening may be effected by passing the needle upwards and downwards between the webs.
Reprise Perdue or Imperceptible Darn is nothing more than a skilful execution of the linen stitch, with the exception that it is worked with the ravellings of the material itself, and that no loops are left, the thread being cut as each row is completed. In the days when linen held pre-eminence in fabrics, the reprise perdue was a name which belonged exclusively to this particular darn; but, as each new material was introduced, the need of a repair in its exact imitation was naturally felt and met; hence the term has now extended itself to any darn which reproduces the worn fabric so exactly that the most practised eye can scarcely detect any difference. The imperceptible darn is specially used to conceal an accidental tear or burn in costly textures, such as Indian muslins, cashmeres, and fine cambric, and in spots where the defects would be likely to attract much notice, as the front or sides of boots and slippers made of satin or prunella, &c. Above all, however, is this style of darn valuable to manufacturers, for hiding either the faults or the accidental damages done to their goods. Materials: A long fine darning or straw needle, and ravellings of the fabric. There are one or two materials, such as cloth and baize, which do not ravel out. For the repair of the former it is best to use very fine silk, and for the latter ravellings of mohair braid of the same colour. When the exact shade of the material cannot be matched by the mending thread, the darn should be well stretched on a board in front of the light, and completed by a few touches of paint carefully applied with a camel’s-hair pencil. Method of working: Draw the broken threads as nearly as possible to their original position, and cut off the frayed parts so as to have the edges perfectly even. When practicable, turn the stuff on the wrong side, and mount the hole on a piece of stiff paper—not newspaper, as the printing will dazzle the eyes. A piece of toile cirée would here be specially valuable, as its green colour affords great relief to the strained sight. The work being now ready, execute the darn in the pattern of the material, letting the rows, instead of forming a decided line, be rather irregular, and lose themselves in the fabric.
171. Rep Darn.
The Rep Darn, as its name implies, is employed in the repairing of rep, as well as poplin, Brussels carpeting, and, in fact, any ribbed material. This darn generally consists merely in replacing the surface by covering each rib with a perpendicular row of sewing stitches, slanting one thread downwards. If by chance the warp threads be also much worn, they will require strengthening by one or two threads passed across vertically, and secured to the back by a few run stitches. Materials: Worsted, wool, or twist to match precisely the colours of the fabric, and a darning needle.
Lace Patch or Darn.—This circular patch is a light and pretty way of mending a hole caused by the accidental fall of a spark or cigar-ash on tablecloths, napkins, &c. It may be executed in any of the open stitches so much used in guipure work, though the feston stitch, being the one generally adopted, is illustrated in Fig. 172. The same stitch can also be applied to lessening the width of stretched-out buttonholes, making an openwork gusset between the fore-finger and thumb of a kid glove, widening the sides of fingers, or filling in a hole that has split near the welt, to which is then added an elastic loop.
172. Lace Patch. 173. Lace Patch.
Detail of Lace Patch.—Materials: Embroidery cotton or flourishing thread, which, being soft and flat, fills up the little interstices after washing, and renders the patch almost invisible even in damask; in this case, therefore, twisted cotton or silk should never be employed. Egg-eyed needle.—Shape the circle carefully, then overcast the edge of the hole by buttonhole stitches placed rather far apart, and taken in more or less deeply, according to the texture of the stuff. Fill in the space by working rows of feston or buttonhole stitches round and round, keeping the thread all the time under the needle, and gradually decreasing in circumference till the centre is reached, when draw the thread closely, and secure it safely on the wrong side. Before attempting this patch on the article itself, it is well to practise it upon a piece of coarse material, in order to acquire dexterity in the work, and thus avoid either puckering or tightening. For a triangular patch such as the one used in gloves, lay the foundation on the widest side, letting the stitches be more or less apart, according to the size of the silk or the openness of the work. Form the patch by rows of buttonhole stitches, going from left to right and from right to left, without breaking off the silk, putting the needle in the centre of every loop, and slipping a stitch at each row, until at the angle there is but one left.
174. Swiss Darn.
Swiss or German Darn.—More appropriately called web stitch, as it imitates exactly the web itself, and is, therefore, the true stitch for mending all hosiery and knitted articles. By the web is understood the texture of threads woven in a loom, forming a tissue of threads interwoven with each other, those extending in length being called the warp, and those stretched across, the weft or woof. The origin of this stitch is comparatively of recent date, for it can only have been known since the introduction of stocking knitting in the reign of Elizabeth. The method comprehends the plain web, the rib, Jacob’s ladder, and grafting. Materials: A sewing needle, rather finer than the loop through which it has to pass, smooth darning, or, still better, embroidery cotton, wool or silk matching to a shade, a wooden or indiarubber ball, and a piece of stiff brown paper or toile cirée. Method of working: Cut the hole even, ravel out the edges of the horizontal sides, leaving at each a row of open loops, clear and distinct as if prepared for picking up dropped stitches in knitting. (Fig. 174).—Foundation. Secure the thread on the wrong side by 3 or 4 perpendicular stitches of common darning. Turn the work, stretching it over the first and second fingers of the left hand; keep it in place by the third finger and thumb. Cover the gap by a succession of vertical threads, commencing, one or two webs from the edge. Bring the needle out at the top between two webs, pass the thread alongside the hole, and insert the needle at the lower part, in the centre of the right-hand web, and draw it through the centre of the left-hand web. Carry the thread upward to the same point from which it started, that is, by putting the needle in the same hole, and take up a complete web. The result will be an elongated V, with the angle uppermost. Form a second V in the same manner, and there will then remain half a web only from the hole. Pick up, on the needle, this half web and the first loop, and pass the thread upwards to form the point of the V, by meeting the thread on the last bar; that is, put the needle in the hole from which the previous thread has emerged, and again take up two loops. Continue thus till the gap is covered, letting the needle point always towards the left, and passing it back one loop to the right at each stitch. This fresh ground will then represent a series of long narrow vandykes. Finish by fastening the thread on the wrong side, in the same manner as at the beginning.
175. Crossing.
Crossing.—Conceal the foundation by working backwards and forwards rows parallel to each loop in identical imitation of the web. For the first line attach the thread to the work, and bring the needle out between two webs, precisely as for the first process. Take up the two bars on either side of the thread, entering where the woven stitch is indented, and emerging where it comes out; then insert the needle above, and one bar to the right, picking up again two bars or stitches (Fig. 175). Next enter one bar below, and to the right raise two bars, and so on to the end of the row; each web thus forms a V shape. Special care is needed for the 1st row, as on it depends the arrangement of the webs. This line completed, bring the needle out one bar perpendicularly downwards, in readiness for the second, and work from left to right instead of from right to left, putting the needle above every accompanying purl of the wrong side, or the stitches will be disconnected. The beauty of the work consists entirely in its evenness and flatness, hence the utility of the toile cirée or wooden ball, as it keeps the work well stretched. When a ball is used, the stocking is strained over it and held in place by the left hand, the thumb meanwhile resting on the top of the ball.
176. Web Stitch. 177. Foundation of Single Web.
Single Web.—Having now thoroughly explained the ordinary or double web stitch we will just mention the single one, a lighter and consequently less durable mode of repairing, often employed in silk and Lisle thread stockings. Its execution is very similar to that of the former stitch. For the foundation, bring the needle out in the centre of a web, pass the thread across, along the side of the hole, insert the needle again in the centre of a web and the first loop. Then continue to take up alternately two loops on the upper and lower edge, letting the last loop of one stitch be the first of the next. The foundation will then have the appearance of a succession of elongated U’s in contrast with the series of V’s formed by the double web stitch (Fig. 176). The crossing follows the same rule as the foundation (Fig. 177). Another single web, more rapid, but not so neat, is executed as follows: Make the whole perfectly even, and holding the stocking lengthwise towards you, fill up the gap with common darning, taking up the edge web on either side, not placing the rows too closely. Now for the imitation of the web, turn the work so that the darning lines are horizontal, commencing at the lower part of the hole, and ascend to the top by twisting the thread under each bar, to resemble a kind of cord stitch. Descend by stitches in the reverse direction, and thus complete an exact web.
The Rib is a variety of Swiss darning scarcely known, and will doubtless be highly appreciated by mothers in particular. This stitch, though apparently showing the wrong and right side alternately, is really completely executed on the right side alone. Method of working: Lay the foundation, as for a simple web; then cover by an equal number of pearl and plain stitches. The change from plain to pearl is executed thus: instead of putting the needle straight under two threads, pass it beneath the second bar of the raised web, and over the first bar of the adjoining one; point the needle downwards and bring it out one bar to the right, cross over two bars and slant it upwards one thread to the left, so that it emerges from the identical hole the first stitch entered. Continue to slip the needle over two bars, sloping it alternately upwards and downwards, till the hollowed web or purl stitches are completed. Then reverse the work by crossing over the last bar, and passing under the first bar of the raised web or garter stitches, in readiness for the next plain one. The wider the rib, the more easy its imitation.
Jacob’s Ladder, or Dropped Stitch.—This frequently occurs in stockings, as well as in silk or cotton gloves, knitted petticoats, &c., and so rapidly forms a long ladder of open bars that we can here almost literally apply the maxim, “A stitch in time saves nine.” No better remedy seems to be devised by careless workers than passing the needle under and over the bars, which, being wider than the space left for them, cannot be properly stretched, and the result is an unsightly and puckered darn, especially when the mischief extends to two or three adjacent rows. The following mode is undoubtedly the right one: Take up a dropped or slipped stitch, as in knitting, by inserting a fine crochet hook into the first loop below, and draw through it the first rung or bar of the ladder. Then continue to pass each succeeding row into the loop left on the crochet needle till all are raised, when the last remaining loop is fastened firmly and neatly by a needle threaded with cotton, silk, or wool. A chain stitch is thus formed, very similar to the web.
178. Grafting.
Grafting.—To graft means to join one thing so that it receives support from another. In the mending of stockings, &c., the term signifies joining two pieces together, or strengthening a thin part. The joining consists of seaming, patching, and refooting. In stockings, vests, sleeves, &c., where the worn part can be taken off all round, a fresh piece is put in by means of a seam perfectly invisible, provided the cotton or silk match precisely in colour and quality. Cut off the decayed portion, and prepare the edges of the piece to be united. Rest the work on the first and second fingers of the left hand, keeping it flat by the pressure of the thumb; or hold it as for sewing, in which case graft rather loosely to avoid any ridge. Take up on the needle two loops parallel to each other (Fig. 178), pass the thread through these, drawing two webs together. Repeat on the opposite side, and continue thus to the end of the row; the needle at each time enters a loop already picked up and a fresh one. Fasten off as for web stitch.
179. Detail of Patch. 180. Patch set in.
Patching is a neat and expeditious method of filling up large holes, specially valuable for weak sight, or in repairing silk and thread stockings; or, in short, any fine material with loops so small as to render the raising up of each stitch a very tedious task. It is very similar to the linen buttonhole patch. Method of working: Cut out the unsound part straight to a thread, and prepare a patch of the same material to fit the gap exactly. Border with rather close buttonhole stitch the perpendicular edges of both hole and patch (Fig. 179). Attach lightly the 4 corners, graft the upper and lower edge, and sew the buttonholed by drawing together the opposite loops of each stitch (Fig. 180).
Refooting.—This process comprises herringboning, and the three different stocking, seams—grafting, buttonholing, and stitching. When the foot of a stocking is apparently past mending, separate it from the sound part of the leg, and rip up the 4 seams, thus detaching the sole from the upper part with the heel. Pin or tack each part on brown paper, outline the shape in chalk, then cut out, allowing nearly ¼ in. for turnings. Unpick the leg seam of any old stockings, spread them flat, and upon them place the paper pattern, the lines of which are followed precisely in the cutting out. The two pieces being ready, unite by buttonholing the side seams of the foot, and the centre seam of the leg. Method of working: Leave ¼ in. turnings, and buttonhole each folded edge. Then holding the work as for sewing, join the rows, either by a buttonhole stitch taken in each of the opposite loops, or by neat sewing. In most cases, however, a single buttonholed or sewn seam may suffice. When completed flatten the seam, and secure each turning by tiny herringbone stitches, carefully avoiding puckering. If preferred, a tiny ribbon sewn over the seam, can replace the turnings, though it will not be equally lasting. The toes and the two parts of the heel are united by stitching on the right side. Ravel out the edge loops, and lay the pieces opposite each other as for sewing, with the loops of the back in exact correspondence with the front ones. Insert the needle in the first loop, and bring it out in the next one, pass it back to the hole it first entered and bring it out again; thus each stitch occupies two bars. The joining of the sole and heel is accomplished on the wrong side. The ravelled-out loops of the sole are stitched on the ⅛ in. turning of the heel, which is fastened down on the latter itself by an almost imperceptible herringbone. This stitched seam is also occasionally used in stockings reheeled by knitting. The new foot is lastly grafted to the leg. It is almost useless to make any remarks on the most advantageous way of cutting out the pieces, as this depends so much on the size and condition of old legs at command. Nevertheless it may be advisable to suggest that if the width is insufficient to manage the instep and heel in one single piece, the latter can be slit up at the clocks, thus making two heel parts, to be connected with the front by the buttonhole seam, scarcely visible on the right side, especially when hidden by an embroidered spray. Such refooting may be considered rather long and complicated, but is most important for the elaborate and expensive hose now worn.
Supplementary Literature.
Misses S. F. A. Caulfield and B. C. Saward: ‘The Dictionary of Needlework; an Encyclopædia of artistic, plain, and fancy needlework; with over 800 illustrations.’ London, 1882. 21s.
Beeton’s ‘Book of Needlework; including tatting, crochet, knitting, netting, embroidery, point lace, guipure d’art, Berlin work, monograms, initials, names, crewel work, pillow lace, and lace stitches.’ London. Latest edition. 7s. 6d.
[THE LIBRARY.]
The library in a house is a haven to which the unlucky wight, kept indoors by a steady rain overhead and a slushy mire underfoot, may, or ought to be able to, seek retreat and pass many hours of quiet and thorough enjoyment, instead of wandering aimlessly about the house, and looking out of the windows with an idiotic expression on his face at the dim and misty landscape. But how can it be a peaceful, restful refuge, when the would-be reader finds a vast number of volumes, treating of all manner of subjects, intermixed in a most marvellous fashion; flighty romantists, witty memoir writers, heavy theologians, enigmatic scientists, and deep-thinking philosophers elbowing each other and almost crushing the unlucky poets out of sight? Dismay seizes the daring explorer of the wonders of a country-house library; the book he wants is not to be found, and what is more he does not know where to look for it, great names stare at him from all sides, and seem to sneer at him for being so foolish as not to read them; but then he wants a particular book, and in despair, rather than face the long row of books which seem to jeer at his unsuccessful attempt to get what he is in search of, he composes himself down to read Punch, or stare out at the drip, drip, dripping rain.
Let us see if this can be avoided. Of course it can; the way to change the whole aspect of affairs is so to arrange the books on their shelves that the veriest stranger, after he has been in the library a couple of minutes, should know where to look for what he wants, and put his hand on the book if it be in the collection.
The twelve essential rules for the management of the library are:
1. Arrange your books on their shelves into classes, according to the subjects they treat of.
2. Put everything in its proper place.
3. Always keep directories, peerages, gazetteers, atlases, county maps, and lexicons in convenient and easily got at places. It will often save much time and trouble to keep them in book slides on the table, or in a separate bookcase.
4. Write your name and address in a large bold handwriting on the fly-leaf of every volume.
5. If you have your books specially bound, let the same style and colour of binding be used for one class of books.
6. Never allow animals in a library. They are apt to do serious mischief to MSS. and books, while chasing some imaginary rat. Newton had the results of many years of hard brain work completely destroyed through the pranks of his favourite little dog.
7. Keep servants out of the library, except at stated intervals, and, when admitted, let them be under your personal supervision. Everybody will remember that the first part of Carlyle’s ‘History of the French Revolution,’ while yet in MS., was used by a servant to light a fire.
8. Avoid dampness or excessive heat; books require warm dry air, in order to preserve their bindings. Thus it will be seen that the more the books are read the better it will be for the books.
9. On no account let the library be turned into a refreshment room for a juvenile party.
10. Never allow MS. notes, letters, &c., to litter the tables and the room. MS. notes should be kept in folding pads, or in drawers, and letters carefully filed and put away.
11. No book should be left open and placed face downwards, in order to mark the place where the reader has left off; no other practice so speedily spoils books as this.
12. Always have a good index or catalogue of the contents of your library.
The last is as important a rule as any. A library without a catalogue is, as Thomas Carlyle expresses it, “A Polyphemus without an eye in his head.” Isaac D’Israeli, who has left us such a vast treasure-house of book lore, says that the man who possesses a fine library cannot be “more animated than a leaden Mercury who does not aspire to make some small addition to his library, were it only by a critical catalogue. He must be as indolent as that animal called the sloth, who perishes on the tree he climbs, after he has eaten all its leaves.”
The task of cataloguing must not dismay the amateur; the task is a most useful one, and can easily be managed. The best catalogue would be this:
Let it be divided into three primary divisions: The body, containing the titles, authors’ names, date, and place of publication, and the size and description may be added if considered necessary; index of authors’ names, with the number of the pages of the catalogue on which their works will be found, and an index of subjects.
The body should be divided into thirteen divisions, which are: 1, Theology; 2, history and biography; 3, science and philosophy; 4, art; 5, bibliography; 6, antiquities; 7, political and commercial; 8, poetry; 9, travels; 10, MSS.; 11, novels; 12, miscellaneous; 13, periodical literature. These may be subdivided, if necessary. The subdivisions are: History into (1) national, (2) local, (3) biography, and (4) genealogy; science into (1) medicine, surgery, and chemistry, (2) natural history, (3) geology, and (4) mechanics; art into (1) painting, sculpture, &c., (2) music; antiquities into (1) chronicles, ballads, and other ancient literature, (2) history of antiquities; political into (1) standard works, (2) pamphlets, &c.; travels into (1) ancient, (2) modern; miscellaneous into (1) law, (2) drama, (3) educational, (4) miscellaneous.
The books in the body should be entered under the authors’ names, alphabetically arranged, under each division, the full titles, description, &c., following. A very good plan is to tack to each entry in the catalogue finding symbols, as “Bookcase A, shelf 3,” which denotes where the book is to be found.
Now as to the actual mode of taking the census of the books to be catalogued. A large number of sheets of paper, about the size of ordinary writing paper, must be procured, each sheet being divided into three columns. The centre column (the largest of the three) is reserved for the full description of the book as it is to stand in the body of the catalogue; the column on the left is reserved for the exact account of the subject treated of by the book; that on the right for the author’s name, as in the following example:
| Subject Index. | Travels. | Author’s Index. |
| Columbus, Life and Voyages. | Irving, Washington. | Irving, Washington. |
Page* | The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus. 3 vols. Crown 8vo. One vignette. London, 1850. | Page* |
* Of course, the number of the page which should follow these entries cannot be filled in until the body of the catalogue is properly written out, when, as each entry is made in the catalogue, the number of the page in which the entry is made is placed both in the left and right columns.
The slips, when duly filled up, should be set aside in packets under their respective divisions. As soon as every book has been noted down, there remains nothing more to be done but to transcribe alphabetically the various slips on sheets of foolscap, and the task is completed.
Any works which are published anonymously should be entered in the third primary division under the heading “Anonymous,” and have the abbreviation “Anon.” added in the body or first primary division. Supplements may be from time to time prepared, carefully pursuing the same method as observed in forming the original catalogue. The supplement is then attached to the catalogue, the first page having a piece of parchment gummed on, with about an inch protruding from the cover; on this the words “Supplement of 188-” should be written.
The ancient learned Greeks and Romans had their book-shelves, or rather rows of niches, in which the parchment rolls were placed, made of cedar wood, encrusted with precious metals. Although this would, perhaps, be impracticable in our days, still the bookcases should be solid and massive, yet elegant. In some libraries the bookcases run right round the room, but no higher than 3 ft. to 4 ft., the tops forming a resting-place for various curiosities. This method, of course, leaves the upper part of the wall clear, whereon to hang pictures, trophies of arms, armorial shields, or other mural decorations. Other libraries have cupboards, or rather bookcases, with wooden panelled doors of 2 ft. to 2 ft. 6 in. high, the regular bookcases being placed on the top of these. This is a very good plan, for the lower part of the bookcase may serve as a convenient resting-place for magazines, pamphlets, newspapers, and drawings.
One great point to be observed is to have the books protected by good glass; it gives a better appearance to the whole room when the glass is really good, and, above all, the books are safe from the injurious effect of dust or damp.
Magazines and periodicals are generally bound, and, therefore, may be placed on the shelves. A number of pamphlets relating to a certain subject may be cheaply, neatly and easily bound at home. Each pamphlet should be taken and opened at the middle; then, with the aid of a needle and some strong twine, it should be sewn in such a manner as to leave two loops, occupying about two-thirds of the length, on the outside at the back. When each pamphlet has been treated in a like way, taking especial care that each loop is of equal size, two strips of coarse canvas must be cut, long enough to wrap entirely round the whole set of pamphlets. Two pieces of pasteboard, of the exact size you wish the volume to be, must be procured; then, having previously passed the canvas strips under the loops of twine, you carefully paste or glue the canvas, and place them on the boards. Two pieces of clean paper, well gummed, are placed inside the cover over the canvas strips. A piece of canvas, or, better still, leather, of about double the thickness of the back of your volume, and the exact height of the pasteboard cover, is glued on to the back, a good piece overlapping on each side of the cover. Now nothing remains to be done but to glue a piece of parchment behind, writing on it the description of the contents. The whole is placed under a substantial weight, and in a couple of days you have a neat volume instead of a collection of stray sheets of printed paper.
Dabblers in literature, and the searchers after general knowledge, frequently cut out from papers and periodicals articles and paragraphs which interest them. These accumulate and soon encumber the writing-table, library-table, and the mantelpiece, and ultimately find their way into the fire or the waste-paper basket. This may be obviated and a more orderly appearance be given to the room, by collecting these newspaper scraps in a box or drawer, and at convenient intervals pasting them, in alphabetical order, into a large book formed of cheap paper. The cartridge paper should be folded twice; thus each sheet gives eight pages, and the printed scraps pasted in in two rows or three columns, leaving a good margin, whereon the subject treated of in the newspaper scraps should be legibly written, the date and name of the paper whence the scrap has been cut being written at the end of each cutting.
The foregoing notes are due to the late E. C. Rye, Librarian of the Royal Geographical Society.
Books placed in a library should be thoroughly dusted two or three times a year, not only to keep them in all their freshness, but also to prevent any development of insects and to disclose signs of dampness. The interior of a book also asks that care, which unfortunately is neglected very often. After having taken a book from the shelves, it should not be opened before ascertaining that the top edge is not covered with dust. If it is a book that has had the edge cut, it should be dusted with a soft duster, or the dust simply blown off. If it is a book which has uncut edges it should be brushed with rather a hard brush. By this method in opening the volume, one need not be afraid that the dust will enter between the leaves and soil them.
A library has generally three kinds of enemies to be guarded against, viz. insects, damp, and rats or mice. Every one knows how to guard against damp and rats or mice. Several means are adopted to keep insects at a distance. The first consists in the proper choice of woods: these are cedar, cypress, mahogany, sandal, or very dry and sound oak. All these are compact or of very strong aroma, and are such as insects do not like to pierce. Another source of safety is the use of astringent or poisonous chemicals in the binding of books.
The insects that make ravages in books multiply very rapidly; and very few libraries are free from them. The microscopic eggs, that are left by the female, give birth to a small grub, which pierces the leather boards and book for its nourishment, and to get to the air. These are familiarly called bookworms, but by the scientific world they are known as Hypothenemus eruditus which eats the leather, and Anobium striatum which bores through the paper. The larvæ of the Dermestes also attack wood as well as books.
Alum, as employed in the paste used by binders, is not an absolute preventive, although it contributes greatly to the preservation of the leather. Resin as used by shoe-makers is preferable, and in effect works in the same way; but oil of turpentine has a greater effect. Anything of strong odour, like aniseed or bergamot, mixed perfectly but in small quantities, preserves the paste during an unlimited time.
[THE FARMYARD.]
This chapter will embrace the ordinary domestic animals, birds, &c., usually kept at a country-house.