Gardeners’ Calendar.
January.—Wheel out manure, trench and make ground for crops, mend fences, clean the stems of fruit-trees, do rough pruning and felling, and complete all arrears in winter work, as weather may permit. Every effort should be made to lay up as much land in the rough as possible; the more it is frozen through, the greater will be its fertility. In hard frost, wheel out manure; in rain, clear up all rubbish and let it smoulder in a heap, using the ashes as manure. Make ready for sowing peas, beans, cabbages, lettuce, silver-skin onions, radishes, carrots, and spinach in warm borders or frames. Protect artichokes. Manure asparagus beds without digging. Sow beans in rich deeply-dug ground in the open in the last week. Plant out cabbages. Sow cauliflower in frames for putting out in March-April. Plant crowns of horseradish 15 in. deep in dunged trenches. Sow peas in wooden or old zinc troughs in frames, and put out in the last week. Sow mustard and cress (separate) in pans or boxes in frames. Cover seakale with pots or plenty of litter.
Lawns should be well rolled after wet weather, and kept clear of rubbish. Walks should be re-gravelled and rolled, and the edgings kept level and regular. In favourable weather all empty borders may be manured and deeply dug, leaving them as rough as possible on the surface, so that the soil may be acted on by frost. Rose-beds should receive a heavy dressing of a mixture of pig-dung and horse-dung, lightly forked in during dry open weather; and see that the plants have the necessary protection. Planting may still be done when the soil is dry, but November is the best time for planting roses. Standard roses must be well secured to stakes. After severe frost, carnations, pinks, wallflowers, alyssum, arabis, pansies, and other spring flowering-plants should be examined; if heaved or loosened, the soil when dry should be made firm round them. Hyacinths, tulips, and kindred flowers will be benefited by a mulching of old mushroom-dung or leaf-soil, and must be protected from heavy rain. If slugs are troublesome, occasional dustings with soot and dry wood-ashes will keep them in check; but hand-picking, resorted to early on mild mornings, is the best remedy. Examine crocuses frequently to see if they are discovered by mice. Keep conifers and evergreen shrubs free from snow, to prevent them from being broken or disfigured by its weight; and prune any deciduous trees and shrubs that may require it. Choice trees, shrubs, and any herbaceous plants that were set out in autumn or early winter should have their roots protected from frost by a mulching of fern or litter. Keep shrubberies free from fallen leaves and weeds; but digging amongst shrubs cannot be too severely condemned, for many of the fibrous feeders must be destroyed, and the plants injured in consequence. About the middle or end of the month place stock bedding plants (ageratums, alyssa, heliotropes, lobelias, verbenas) in moist heat, when they will readily furnish cuttings, which can be propagated in a hotbed of leaves and dung if no house is available. Calceolarias and pelargoniums must be kept cool and dry by ventilation, and decayed leaves should be picked off. Dahlia roots should have rotten portions removed with a sharp knife. Sow lobelias early in heat, and prepare to sow all subtropical plants. Get ready for potting pelargoniums.
February.—All empty ground must be dug deep and thrown up rough to admit the frost. On cropped ground, prick over lightly between the plants. Sow several sorts of cabbage for filling up blanks; also broccoli, in pans and on warm slopes. Sow early beans in warm dry situations, and late ones on strong land. Sow frame plants (capsicums, cucumbers, melons, tomatoes) in moderate heat, and avoid over-watering while frosts endure. When capsicums are large enough, prick out in good light soil, in greenhouse or a hot corner, for pickling pods. Early carrots may be sown in frames or warmest borders; and parsnips in very deep-dug ground. Cauliflower, sown in mild heat, on richest soil, well watered, should be pricked out in good mould when quite small, and finally transplanted at 2½-3 ft. apart. Plant early potatoes in warm, sheltered, dry ground, in open weather. Alternate 2 or 3 rows of potatoes with a row of early peas, at the same time; they help each other. Sow long radishes for early crops and round ones for stock, in old frames with plenty of manure. Let celery for September use be sown in gentle heat, and pricked out 3 in. apart on an old hotbed, watering well. Plant garlic and shallots on dry, strong, deep land. Make new rhubarb plantations, and cover old plants to induce early growth. Sow lettuce in frames and warm borders; plant out when hardened. Make very small sowings of mustard in frames at successive intervals. Sow parsley, and sow or divide most other herbs. Round-seeded spinach and small white turnips can be sown in warm borders.
Have the lawn rough-broomed or bush-harrowed to remove worm-casts, then rolled, and turfed where needed. New grass may be sown, having the land previously well-drained, deep-dug, and levelled, sow in dry weather, rake and roll the seeds in, and repeat the rolling at intervals. Finish planting shrubs and climbers, and do pruning to these and summer-flowering roses in mild weather. Cleanse ferneries from dead fronds and weeds, and replace the surface soil with a dressing of peat and loam pressed well round the plants. Dig and manure beds filled with herbaceous plants. Plant choice kinds of ranunculus, and set out calceolarias and violas that have been confined in cold frames during the winter, pinching off the tops when they begin to grow. Pelargoniums may be boxed or potted off in leaf-soil, loam, and a little sand, keeping them in mild heat till well rooted. Take cuttings from plants put in heat last month, e.g. heliotropes, lobelias, and verbenas. Seeds of subtropical plants may be sown in heat, for putting out in large beds. Hardy annuals to succeed those sown in autumn may now be sown in pots.
March.—Hotbeds are now all-important for sowing capsicums, celery, egg-plants, lettuce, melons, New Zealand spinach, tomatoes, and vegetable marrow. Suckers of globe artichokes should be set out 2 ft. apart in rows 4 ft. asunder; whole sets of Jerusalem artichokes may be planted in strong soil, and are especially useful for hiding ugly fences. Weed and manure asparagus beds, and prepare for sowing new beds. Earth up early beans, set out seedlings raised in frames, and sow for main crop. Sow early beet. Several kinds of broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, and kale, should be sown now, the more delicate sorts in frames, and planted out in mild weather when forward enough. A second sowing of capsicums may be wanted. Early carrots may be sown at once, but main crops somewhat later in the spring. Set out early-sown cauliflower, and sow later kinds. Renew sowing and pricking out of celery. Divide and re-plant chives, and lose no time in planting garlic and horseradish. Sow leeks for planting out. Plant out and re-sow lettuce of several kinds. Onions for salading and pickling may be sown in quantity. Do not forget parsley. The main crop of parsnips must be sown in good time. The later kinds of pea must now be sown for the main supply. Plant late potatoes in quantity and follow with early kinds (to avoid May frost). Make successive sowings of radishes out of doors. Sow or plant seakale. Sow plenty of spinach and turnips. Try watercress in pans standing in water.
Fork over the ground between spring-flowering plants and in shrubberies when the weather is dry and favourable. Remove protection from roses, and finish pruning. Start dahlias in a hotbed, and divide and pot when they show shoots 1-2 in. long; treat cannas and Salvia patens in a similar manner. Finish potting ageratums, coleus, cupheas, heliotropes and pelargoniums. Box variegated alyssum, lobelias and verbenas, or, when hardened, plant them in frames. Prick off subtropical plants into pans, or place them singly in small pots, when large enough to handle; remove into larger pots as they require it. Plant gladiolus bulbs either in warm sheltered beds, or first in pots in a cold frame. Canary creeper and sweet pea should be sown in pots for early flowers; the latter also in the open. Harden all annuals sown last month in pots, ready for planting out in April. Sow asters and stocks in a frame in mild heat. Watering needs much care this month, on account of drying winds and frosts.
April.—Pay the utmost attention to weeding and hoeing, and keep the soil opened to sunshine and rain. Again weed and dress asparagus beds and sow or plant new ones. Sow a few beans towards the end of the month. Make a sowing of beet early in the month and a heavier one towards the end. Renew the sowing of broccoli at intervals, and keep up a constant succession of cabbage. Sow cardoons on level, heavily-dunged land, and main crops of carrots. Plant out cauliflower in mild weather, and protect with old flower-pots in keen winds and frost. Sow successive lots of celery in a warm open bed, and some in pans under frames for pricking out. Sow egg-plants in heat and pot when ready. Herbs such as chervil, chicory, clary, fennel, and hyssop, should be sown now in a dry sunny spot. Sow a little kohlrabi towards the close of the month; re-sow leeks. Keep up a succession of lettuce, sowing in frames and planting out. Sow maize in boxes in pits; harden off for transplanting at the end of May. Sow winter onions, and parsley for roots. Keep sowing peas for succession. Sow salsify and scorzonera early in the month in deep rich soil. Renew sowing of seakale in any good deep soil. Sow spinach (prickly seeded), and have a succession of turnips, freely hoeing and thinning as they come on. Sow vegetable marrow in gentle heat.
Let lawns be regularly rolled and mowed, and weeds rooted out. On thin places scratch up the surface with an iron rake, sow some seed, dress with fine soil and wood-ashes, and finish by bush harrowing and rolling. Mulch newly planted roses, shrubs, and trees, and well water in dry weather. Set out golden lilies from their winter frames among shrubs. Keep up potting and boxing cuttings. Plant hardy edging flowers, and those for carpet-bedding. Divide and re-plant violets, which, if massed in a border, can be taken up in October, put in a frame, and will then continue flowering through the winter. Make two sowings of hardy annuals, one early the other late in the month; cover the seeds very lightly. Beware of slugs as soon as the plants show up. Sow half-hardy annuals in the frame prepared for them, in shallow drills, and shade with mats till the plants appear; apply tepid water through a very fine rose, air when the weather permits, and prick out in frames to harden gradually when large enough. Sow perennials and give them the same care as the last-named group.
May.—Every vegetable may be sown in this month, and it will often happen that seeds sown out of doors now will afford better plants than those sown previously in heat and gradually hardened. This said hardening process demands the most constant wariness. Thin asparagus seed-beds, scatter dry litter as a protection on the bearing beds, and cut shoots for table in a regular manner. Beans will hardly pay for sowing now; top the plants when in flower if black fly is present. Sow dwarf and runner kidney beans for summer supply. Make an early sowing of winter beet. Sow broccoli for succession and put out as convenient. Plant out the most forward Brussels sprouts for an early crop in a sunny spot; it is rather late for further sowing. Cabbage may be continually sown and planted out. Sow capsicums in the open in the second half of the month, and plant out from hotbeds in warmest localities. Thin carrots, and sow a little seed to afford a crop of miniature ones in late summer. Plant out cauliflower as weather and ground admit, providing shelter on cold nights and abundant water. In forward situations, celery may be planted out in well-damped trenches and kept well watered. Sow and plant cucumbers in large frames and out of doors, selecting the sorts. Sow dandelion for next spring’s salads, and endive for autumn and winter use. Keep on sowing and planting out lettuce, not neglecting water and shade. Sow melons in frames, which need a high temperature; never shade after first planting. Sow and plant out New Zealand spinach on poor but sunny ground. Sow pickling onions in poor soil and allow to grow as thickly as possible. Renew sowings of peas, if needed. Sow Savoy cabbages for small hearts for early winter consumption. Plant out tomatoes in warm weather, choosing sunny spots. Sow turnips for succession. Plant out vegetable marrows and their allies (gourds, pumpkins, &c.) in warm weather, and cultivate like common “ridge” cucumbers, covering during cold nights.
Attend to lawn and footpaths, and plentifully water flowering shrubs in dry weather. Apply liquid manure to roses, search for insects and syringe often; disbud, and remove the weakest shoots and all suckers from the stocks. Lift plants which have done flowering; divide and replant them for autumn use. Propagate cuttings from them under glass. Lift bulbs, and spread them in a warm place to mature, storing as soon as the tops are dead. Dig and dress the borders ready for summer bedding-plants, which must now be hardened. Use soft tepid water only. Bed out the hardiest plants in good weather at the close of the month, beginning with calceolarias, verbenas, &c. Plant hollyhocks and pentstemons around shrubberies and in mixed borders, securing them to stakes. Thin hardy annuals and perennials, and sow again for the later season. Stake and tie out plants needing it. Plant out tender annuals when forward enough.
June.—Pay attention to weeding and watering, and remember with reference to the latter that it is better to water less often and copiously than frequently and in driblets. When the supply is short, reserve it for newly planted stuff. Dress asparagus with salt and liquid manure; cease cutting about mid-June. A few beans may still be sown for late crop. Plant out broccoli, and sow a little seed for the next April cutting. Sow plenty of cabbage and greens to put out as the ground becomes empty. Plant out, water, and shade cauliflowers, and sow for the autumn crop. Plant out celery, and give plenty of water and shade. Sow pickling cucumbers (gherkins) in the open. Repeat sowing and planting lettuce. Sow mushroom spawn in cucumber frames or in heaps of horse-dung. Sow salad onions and thin out keeping sorts. A few peas (earliest kinds) may still be sown. Sow turnips abundantly in the last week, hastening the early growth, then thinning well.
Keep shrubberies well hoed, remove or shorten sprawling branches, and gather seed vessels. Trim box edging. Thin and tie shoots of climbing shrubs. Mulch rose bushes, and never cease hunting for grubs. Hasten the filling of borders with bedding plants, avoiding too fine a surface to the soil. Plant strong-growing things deep, and press the soil well about them, not omitting stakes and pegs when wind may do damage. Let subtropical plants have good deep soil and shelter from shrubberies. Plant chrysanthemums and dahlias in mixed borders and around shrubberies. Keep the hoe going everywhere, and remove all dead flower-stalks except such as are needed for seed. Propagate cuttings of pansies and wallflowers; sow mignonette and sweet peas for late returns; sow and prick out stocks, and do not cease planting tender annuals, such as asters.
July.—Watering is the most important item in this month, even though occasionally showery. Avoid nuisance from rotting refuse by digging it into trenches. Sow a few early dwarf beans. Broccoli for succession may still be planted out, not forgetting the water; also sow walcheren. Sow several kinds of cabbage in some quantity. Thin out cardoons. Water and fork among cauliflower, and shade young heads from too much sun. Plant out celery, and sow a little seed for a supply for soups if liked. Water ridge and frame cucumbers with soft sunned water abundantly at intervals of some days. Sow endive early and late in the month, and plant out in frames or sheltered beds when ready. Take up garlic, onions and shallots when fully ripe, and plant out leeks in trenches as celery. Sow parsley. A few early peas may be sown still. Lift potatoes as soon as mature, leaving the foliage to finish withering afterwards; plant a few of a quick growing sort for digging as “new” in the autumn. Sow black Spanish radishes for winter crop. Make an early and plentiful sowing of turnips, and keep them thinned and weeded. Plant out abundance of winter green-stuff, in well-dug land, and water if needful.
Do not neglect the lawn; daisy-heads are best removed by a scythe. Cut back expanding shrubs, and trim box-edging and hedges, using the knife for large-leaved growths. Supply rose bushes with liquid manure, and begin budding when the sap flows freely and the bark commences to peel; take cuttings late in the month. Weed and fork round bedding plants and regulate edging plants, leading out and pegging down specimens required to fill a certain vacancy. Freely administer liquid manure to strong subtropical plants in dry weather. Lay carnations, cloves, and picotees, and prick out stocks and other seedlings. Get a shady bed ready for cuttings of pinks, taken at the third or fourth joint on bottom shoots from old plants. Take cuttings of wallflowers and pansies, potting or planting out the former, and transplanting the latter when rooted. Hoe round, trim, water, and thoroughly syringe violets. Stake and thin out chrysanthemums, freely dosing with liquid manure.
August.—Autumn seed-sowing demands the greatest care, to ensure the ground being previously sufficiently moist, and to avoid having the plants too forward when frosts commence. Cut down artichokes as soon as the heads are taken. Plant out broccoli where they will have a low screen against the north wind. Sow Brussels sprouts for spring planting out. Renew sowings and plantings of cabbages. Sow cauliflower in shelter or frames for spring growth, and water standing heads in driest weather. Earth-up celery when well grown. Sow corn salad for spring use. Plant out endive in shelter, and sow a little more. Sow hardy lettuce in a dry poor plot for winter and spring supplies. Make a couple of sowings (early and late) of several kinds of onion to stand the winter; take up and sun-dry the ripe crop. Sow prickly spinach at both ends of the month. Cut tomatoes and hang indoors in the sun to mature. Make a final sowing of turnips for spring crop.
Continue industrious in weeding, cleaning, trimming, pegging, and staking the flower beds, and begin to propagate cuttings. With the latter, commence with those which straggle and weak-growing kinds of plant first in order. Strike flowers of the heliotrope and verbena class in pots, put in a cold frame, shaded and watered. Look after dahlias, staking, thinning, and applying liquid manure. Propagate pansies and phloxes, and stake chrysanthemums and gladioli. Bud, thin, and well water roses.
September.—Weeding now demands more energy than is often devoted to it, and the remains of gathered crops must be cleared off. Keep on planting all available ground with cabbage while plants last. Plant out winter cauliflower, and re-sow a little under cover. Earth-up celery. Plant out and blanche endive; ditto lettuce, and make occasional fresh sowings where dry and open. Thin parsley by pulling out whole plants as wanted; cut down the strongest plants to induce fresh growth. Take up potatoes before wet weather sets in. Thin spinach when well up.
Harden all rooted cuttings of flowers by thorough ventilation of the frames. Keep up watering and vermin-hunting. Remove dead leaves and blooms from pelargoniums, and pinch out the points of heliotropes, verbenas, &c. Well weed and water the reserve of daisies, forget-me-nots, &c. Stake all plants needing it. Select firm and well-matured bulbs for flowering in beds, embracing crocus, hyacinth, narcissus, ranunculus, snowdrop, tulip, &c. At the end of the month sow hardy annuals for next spring flowers. Plant out seedling perennials where they are to remain, so that they may get well rooted before frosts come. Sever layers of carnations, clove-pinks, and picotees when rooted, and pot them in cold frames, protected from sun and rain. Plant out pinks that have been rooted under frames. Continue budding roses, and loosen tiers which are injuring the bark. Trim and secure all climbers. Prepare for planting pansies.
October.—Keep every part of the garden freed from fallen leaves and decaying rubbish, which should be dug into trenches as manure. Let the hoe be kept going where it cannot injure roots or stems. Dig all vacant ground and throw it up in the rough, so that the frost may penetrate. When digging, manure if the land is cold and heavy. Clear off asparagus beds and cover them with a good coat of half-rotten stable dung. Take up beet. Finish up cabbage planting at once. Earth-up and tie round cardoons. Take up carrots for storing; weed and thin the young crop. Plant out cauliflower. Earth-up celery, and prepare to cover it during frost. Blanche full-grown endive as required. Plant garlic in warm dry ground. Keep on planting lettuce. Take up parsnips for storing or as needed. Take up and store potatoes. Plant potato-onions in dry warm ground. Take up rhubarb for forcing and lay it by in a dry but cold place. Take up salsify for store. Plant winter greens on the chance of a mild winter.
This is the time for planting trees and shrubs. In advance of the frost, lift all flowers intended for keeping through the winter, not neglecting a good supply of pelargoniums. Propagate sturdy cuttings of calceolarias. Clean, dig, and manure all emptied flower-beds, and plant them with bulbs and hardy annuals for the spring show of flowers. Divide and transplant herbaceous plants.
November.—Maintain the activity in cleaning, trenching, and manuring; take in new ground where wanted; repair paths and fences; and be prepared with means of protecting things from frost. Scatter some litter among but not upon globe artichokes; lift and store Jerusalem artichokes. Complete unfinished asparagus beds. Sow beans in really warm dry land for the first crop. Cover remaining cauliflowers, or cut and store them in a dry shed. If much wet threatens, take up celery and store like cauliflower heads. Plant garlic. Take up and store horseradish, and re-plant. Plant potato-onions. Sow several sorts of early peas in a very warm, dry, sunny spot. Plant potatoes where the soil is light. Lift seakale for forcing in cellars or pits.
Lift all flowering plants which will suffer from frost. Finish planting beds of bulbs and other spring flowers. Complete the planting of trees and shrubs. Pay special attention to the watering, protection and ventilation of bedding plants, taking care to exclude frost and damp, and remove insects and decaying matter. Collect and dig in falling leaves and other garden refuse. Mulch between standing plants, especially around the stems, and secure a quantity of dry bracken or similar material for general covering and protecting purposes.
December.—Continue the efforts of last month in making preparations for the ensuing spring—clearing, digging, repairing, &c. Earth-up beans and celery, and provide a little covering for the latter. Give endive every protection. Put a hand frame over outdoor parsley or have some in a frame. Earth-up peas, and hand pick them free from drifted dead leaves. Prepare a warm border for early spring work, making it as light and rich as possible.
Carry on trenching and leaf-gathering, and roll lawns and paths. The draining of lawns and flower-beds can now be executed. Let spring flowering plants have the same attention as in January, and bedding plants the same as in November. Do not omit to help the branches of delicate trees to withstand the effects of snow and wind by tying them up with rope yarn (tarred twine).
Supplementary Literature.
Robert Thompson: ‘The Gardener’s Assistant; Practical and Scientific.’ London. Latest edition. 35s.
See also p. 1012.
[DOMESTIC MOTORS.]
It is an acknowledged fact that when an establishment has developed sufficiently to necessitate the employment of a considerable amount of manual labour to meet its various requirements, it is more economical and satisfactory in results to introduce mechanical labour in one or more of its many forms; this especially applies to country residences, where wood cutting, chaff and root cutting, pumping, &c., has to be done, and the machines of the dairy, laundry, &c., need propelling, and the same engine can be also utilised for electric lighting, as the light is only needed when the other machines are at rest. The superiority of mechanical over manual labour is obvious and the economy is now fully acknowledged. An engine has the advantage of executing the work with perfect regularity, the last hour’s work being executed as well and as rapidly as the first, and it works all day, and every day and, if desired, all night; and the one motor, if of sufficient power, is capable of being adapted to so many different purposes, together or independently.
181. Windmill.
Wind.—Wind engines or mills have the decided advantage of being very economical, but are necessarily irregular in action and are only suited for high or open situations. They are rarely of practical use in towns, or where buildings, trees, &c., exist in any size or number, but where the situation is favourable they are to be highly commended for several purposes, pumping especially. They invariably take the form of a strong vertical structure or framework, surmounted with the mechanism to which the sails are attached, and from which is carried a shaft to the base (somewhat similar to Miller’s wind mills). Warner & Co., of Cripplegate, London, make a specialty of these motors, adapted for numberless purposes, and in which high powers are attainable. Fig. 181 shows an annular sailed wind engine, as applied for pumping; it will be understood that the engine can be stood immediately over the well, or it can be fixed in some more convenient and suitable position and connected with the well by shaft or by pipe.
The illustration will acquaint the reader with details more fully, and it will be noticed that these engines are self-regulating, i.e. means are provided to shift the position of the sail automatically as the wind varies; in the larger sizes “striking” gear is fitted for setting the blades of the sail out of the wind when needed. The illustration represents a No. 2 Warner’s wind engine, with 10 ft. sail, price 25l., including pump and timber supports; this size is capable of raising 240 gal. of water per hour 50 ft. high, but the sizes may be smaller or larger as the requirements demand; after the first cost the expense is comparatively ended, as only lubrication is needed.
Water.—Water wheels also have the advantage of being economical, and greater reliance can be placed on the regularity of water than in wind power; but it is only for those that have rivers, streams, &c., at disposal. Those that are favourably situated cannot too highly prize the power they possess, as very regular and very high powers can be obtained at will and at a moment’s notice, free of cost (excepting first outlay), and requiring scarcely any attention.
182. Water wheel.
Water wheels are of three kinds, viz. overshot, breast, and undershot; as the names signify, the water flows over, or to the breast, or under the wheel, the difference in construction consisting in the shape of the blades on the wheel’s circumference. The first of the three is undoubtedly the most powerful, as not only is the impulse of the flowing water imparted to the blades, but the blades themselves are so constructed that they retain a portion of the water for about a third of a revolution and thus very materially assist by gravitation; the breast wheel is driven by the weight of the water retained by the blades only, and the undershot wheel is driven by the impulse of the water flowing beneath.
Warner & Co., of Cripplegate, London, make a specialty of these machines. Fig. 182 shows an overshot wheel adapted for pumping pure water from a well, and delivering it at any high elevation while being worked by a stream of impure water.
There is practically no limit to the size and power of these wheels, a 50 ft. wheel giving as high as 54 horse-power. The illustration is a No. 1 Warner’s galvanised iron overshot wheel, price 25l., including framework and double action pump, with air vessel complete, capable of lifting ½ gal. of water per minute 60 ft. high through 400 ft. of delivery pipe. The power of these wheels is not only increased as the diameter increases, but also by increasing the width of the blades; for instance, a Warner’s wrought iron overshot or high breast wheel of 20 ft. diameter with blades 3 ft. wide, develops 11 horse-power, and the same diameter with 6 ft. blades very naturally gives double (22 horse-power), but with only about 30 per cent. increased cost.
183. Improved Turbine.
Turbines are a form of water motor which require a head of water, i.e. the water for propelling them must be supplied by means of pipes from a height; for a moderate power, with the majority of turbines, it should be not less than 12 ft.; the higher the head of water the greater the pressure, and the smaller the turbine requires to be for a given amount of work or power (this applies to all water motors), consequently the cost of the motor is less, the pipes smaller, and there is decided economy in the quantity of water used as the height increases. The pressure of water in pipes is 1 lb. to the square inch for every 2 ft. 4 in. in height (not allowing for friction); thus it will be seen that the surface in a turbine upon which the pressure of water is exerted, requires to be double the area with a 20 ft. fall than with a 40 ft. fall for given power. A Warner’s 5 horse-power turbine for 16 ft. fall uses 220 ft. of water per minute with a wheel of 13 in. diameter, giving 377 revolutions a minute, and costing 60l., whereas a 5 horse-power turbine for 30 ft. fall uses 118 ft. of water with an 8 in. wheel giving 853 revolutions a minute and costs 45l. Fig. 183 shows a Warner’s (Redtenbacher Jouval) improved turbine fitted and connected to a driving shaft. This turbine is made to work with as low a fall as 2 ft., giving 1 horse-power, but the cost is necessarily high. It will be seen from the illustration (which is in section), that the water is made to pass between fixed oblique blades or palettes, and strikes on the oblique blades of the wheel beneath, these latter blades being at an opposite angle to the fixed blades above; thus a pressure, varying with the height of head of water, is directly exerted on every square inch of the blades of the wheel and great power is obtained.
184. Blake’s Ram.
Hydraulic Rams are self-acting water motors, for the supply of water to great heights and distances; they require a fall of water of 12 in. upwards, and are made to supply either the water that works them, or to supply well water while being worked by a stream of impure water; one of the best makers and authorities upon these motors is John Blake, of Oxford Street Works, Accrington, Lancashire. Fig. 184 shows a Blake’s ram of ordinary construction, for raising a portion of the water that works it; a No. 2 (smallest size), price 12l., will raise 300 gal. per day, to say 800 ft. high; a No. 16 will raise 100,000 gal. per day. Fig. 185 shows a ram raising water to a reservoir for general purposes.
185. Blake’s Ram in use. 186. Haag’s Motor.
A hydraulic ram is undoubtedly the most economical means of raising a supply of water, either for a single residence or for a small town, as they work day and night without attention (or intermittently if desired), and work as well submerged as above water; but they, of course, depend entirely upon a fall of water being obtainable, and this fall or supply must be constant.
187. Thirlmere Motor.
188. Hydraulic Blower.
Hydraulic Engines are made in various forms, being commonly worked in a similar manner to a steam engine, water under pressure acting upon the piston in place of steam. Fig. 186 represents a “Haag’s” patent water motor adapted for a chaff-cutting machine; Fig. 187 a series of “Thirlmere” water motors, showing the capacities; Fig. 188 a Bailey’s patent hydraulic blower, for chamber or church organs, smiths’ bellows, &c. All these motors are manufactured by W. H. Bailey & Co., of Albion Works, Salford, Manchester, and being small and inexpensive, they are very suitable and convenient for working sewing machines, knife cleaners, washers and manglers, and any domestic machine that entails considerable labour. The power of these motors varies with the pressure of water, if connected with the town’s main (by arrangement with the water company), a very high pressure is generally obtained.
A “Haag’s” motor, No. 2 (smallest size), gives from ¼ to ½ horse-power, 220 revolutions (of the flywheel) a minute, and costs 10l. A “Thirlmere” motor, No. 00 (smallest size) gives from 1/70th to 1/30th of a horse-power, and costs 2l. 2s. A Bailey’s blower No. 1 (smallest size), at 50 lb. pressure, gives a boy power with a 10 in. stroke, and costs 6l. 6s., and is suitable for a chamber organ; these latter are made to work either vertically or horizontally.
189. Ramsbottom Engine.
Fig. 189 is a “Ramsbottom” 3 cylinder hydraulic engine (Jno. Ramsbottom, Saynor Road, Hunslet, Leeds). This is considered one of the most efficient hydraulic motors yet made, and it possesses an advantage in having no dead points (see Flywheel of Steam Engine), and its action is exceedingly steady and uniform. The illustration will acquaint the reader with its constructive details, which are simple and few in number.
No correct idea can be given as to the cost of working these motors, for as before explained, it depends entirely upon the pressure of water obtainable.
Steam.—Steam engines are made in very many forms, and it would be impossible for us to describe even a small proportion of those made; for small purposes they are most generally made having engine and boiler combined, but where moderately high powers are needed, and space has to be considered, it is found more economical and convenient to keep them separate; the supply of steam from boiler to engine being conveyed by a pipe. It might be here mentioned that it is necessary that all steam chambers and pipes be coated or covered with some non-conducting material, to prevent loss of heat and consequent condensation of steam, and it is found advantageous to keep the steam at as high a temperature as possible, to increase its efficiency; with most large engines the steam is superheated (i.e. heated to higher than its ordinary temperature) as it passes from boiler to engine.
It is not our intention, neither would it be possible in our limited space, to give a practical treatise upon the steam engine, but it will doubtless be interesting and instructive to many if a general description of the chief features be given. They practically consist of the “boiler,” to which is attached the “feed pump,” “water gauge,” “steam gauge,” and “safety valve.” The “engine,” which consists of the cylinder and piston, “governor,” “cranks,” “eccentrics,” and flywheel.
Boilers take many forms, but in actual principle consist of two sorts, both being cylindrical, one being clear inside, and the other nearly filled with flue tubes, which very greatly increase the heating surface. The first mentioned, which is generally used for large works, and is known as a Cornish boiler, Fig. 190, has a cylindrical outer shell, within which is a smaller cylinder, the space between the two, which is closed at both ends, containing the water as shown. This boiler is fixed in brick-work, and the furnace is situated within the inner cylinder. To increase the power of these boilers, large water tubes are carried across the inside of the inner cylinder (opening into the water chamber at each end) where the flame and heat pass after leaving the furnace.
190. Cornish Boiler. 191. MULTITUBULAR BOILER. (SECTION)
Multitubular Boilers are generally those that are attached to or combined with the engine, where space is a primary object (locomotive engines have multitubular boilers). Fig. 191 shows the arrangement of this boiler in a vertical position with horizontal tubes (shown without the engine); they are also very commonly made with vertical tubes. All boilers are, or should be, provided with ample accommodation for removing the incrustated deposit, which forms with moderate rapidity, as the water is continually boiling, and as evaporation in a steam boiler is very rapid, the supply of water is constantly being renewed, and each successive charge of water brings its proportion of lime to be deposited. (For fuller details upon incrustation and causes, see Bathroom.)
The Feed Pump is a small pump of ordinary shape and construction, situated near and worked by the engine, its purpose being to supply water to the boiler when needed. Mechanism is provided for throwing it in and out of gear as the water gauge indicates; it will be readily understood that no means can be provided for filling a steam boiler by hand, that is to say, it must be done mechanically, as no loose cover can be provided.
192. WATER GAUGE.
193. STEAM GAUGE.
The Water Gauge (Fig. 192) consists of two suitably constructed cocks, both being screwed into the boiler one above and one below the correct or average water level, a strong glass tube extending between them as shown; the water level is necessarily the same in the glass tube as in the boiler and consequently the attendant can see at a glance when water is needed; the object of having cocks at each end of the tube is to prevent the escape of water and steam by closing the cocks should the tube be broken.
The Steam or Pressure Gauge (Fig. 193) is a circular brass case with a dial in front, somewhat similar to a clock; within the case is a small curved tube made so as to be somewhat elastic, this tube is in direct communication with the steam in the boiler. A somewhat peculiar action is relied upon, which is, that as the pressure of steam is exerted within this curved tube, it tends to straighten it, and this, by a simple arrangement of wheels, causes the pointer to move round the dial, which is provided with figures round its edge showing the pressure in pounds (to the square inch) that is exerted in the boiler as the indicator points to them.
194. SAFETY VALVE. (SECTION)
The utility of the safety valve (Fig. 194) is obvious. They are invariably made so that by means of a weight or other device they can be regulated to blow off at whatever pressure the engineer dictates, the pressure being indicated by the pressure gauge.
Fig. 195 represents a cylinder with piston inside; the cylinder should be encased with wood or some non-conducting material, or be provided with an outer iron casing or “jacket,” the space between the casing and the cylinder being converted into a steam chamber. Whatever method is adopted, the object is to keep the cylinder from losing its heat and to prevent condensation. The “ports” are openings through which the steam passes; by means of “slide valves” the steam is alternately admitted and expelled from each of these, so that the opening which serves to admit steam on the instroke serves as an exit for the steam on the outstroke, and the slide valves are worked from the main crank shaft by valve gear and eccentrics.
195. Cylinder, with piston inside.
The Valve Gear is the arrangement of rods that connect the eccentrics with the slide valves.
The Piston consists of a circular disc of metal made to most accurately fit the interior of the cylinder; to this is connected a rod as shown, called the piston rod, which is in direct communication with the crank. It will be seen that when the steam is admitted into one end of the cylinder the pressure causes the piston to travel towards the other end; when the piston reaches a certain point (called the dead point) the slide valve shifts and the inflow of steam is changed to the other end, and this causes the piston to travel back again, and so it continues; an instroke and outstroke give one revolution to the crank and flywheel.
196. ECCENTRIC.
An Eccentric (Fig. 196) is an ingenious piece of mechanism that answers exactly the opposite purpose of a crank, viz. to convert a rotary motion into a backward and forward movement. An eccentric is a circular iron disc, with the main crank shaft passing tightly through it, but the shaft does not pass through the centre; hence the term “eccentric.” This disc is encircled and revolves within an iron strap, which is attached to the valve rod or gear. It will be readily seen that as the disc revolves it gives a reciprocating movement to the rod, causing the slide valve to which it is connected to open and close the ports in the cylinder, and the object in attaching the eccentrics to the crank shaft is that the piston rod and valve rods may have an equal and corresponding action, which it will be understood is absolutely necessary.
197. CRANK. CRANK. 198. DISC CRANK.
The Crank (Fig. 197), which on small engines is generally attached to one end of the crank shaft, is one of Watts’ most famous inventions (but which, however, was pirated from him), and its object is to convert the backward and forward movement of the piston rod into a rotary motion at the shaft. Disc crank plates (Fig. 198) are now getting into favour as having a steadier action, and it is to all intents and purposes a crank, but of improved form.
The Flywheel is a heavy cast-iron wheel attached to the crank shaft on the opposite end to the crank itself; it serves more than one useful purpose, viz. giving great steadiness to the motion, assisting propulsion to some extent by its momentum and carrying the piston over the dead points (a dead point is the position which the piston is in when it has finished one stroke and about to return just at the time it becomes quite still for an instant, and this is called the dead point, and it happens at the end of each stroke).
The Pulleys are of two kinds, fast and loose; they are light wheels about one-sixth the diameter of the flywheel, at whose side they are attached to the extreme end of the shaft. They have broad flat faces or rims, and their object is to carry the strap or belting which transmits the power from the engine to the work. The fast or driving pulley is the one that is secured to the shaft and revolves with the flywheel; the loose pulley is the one that is not secured to the shaft, and rotates loosely upon it when occasion demands; a forked arrangement transfers the belting from the fast to the loose pulley when it is necessary to stop the machinery, or vice versâ.
199. Governor.
The Governor (Fig. 199) is another ingenious and important invention of Watts, and serves a most useful purpose; it will be understood that if when an engine was working with the full strain of the machinery upon it, the belting was to break, the engine would immediately begin working at an alarming speed, most destructive to itself (this does not apply to engines, such as locomotives, that have constant attention); the governor, as the name implies, controls this. By referring to the illustration, it will be seen that as the speed of the engine increases, the faster the governor rotates (it being connected with the crank shaft); this, by centrifugal action, makes the two balls fly out, and this causes a valve in the steam inlet to partially close and so check the supply of steam from boiler to engine, thus very naturally reducing the speed.
Lubricators (self-acting) are provided wherever necessary, and it is important that a motor of any description be well lubricated at its wearing parts or wherever friction takes place; this reduces the wear and tear to a minimum, and very greatly adds to the motor’s efficiency.
Steam is produced by subjecting water to heat, and so causing it to evaporate; steam is commonly understood to be (by those that have not studied the subject) a white watery vapour, whereas it is exactly the reverse, it is practically as dry and colourless as the atmosphere, and possesses similar characteristics in its unlimited expansibility and compressibility; it only assumes the white vapoury appearance when it escapes in the air which is at a lower temperature than itself, as it then condenses into its original form, water; if steam was ejected into a compartment that was heated to say 220° the steam would retain its own form and be quite colourless and invisible. The expansive power of steam is put to good purpose in what is known as the “cut-off” and also in compound engines; the cut-off is an arrangement whereby the steam is cut off from the cylinder, when the piston has been impelled ½ or ⅝ of a stroke, and the expansion of the steam completes the stroke. In compound engines (which are large and have 2 cylinders) the steam, after doing service in the first cylinder, is conducted to a second of greater diameter, where by expansion it exerts a lower pressure, but on 2 or 3 times the piston area, so giving units of work equal to the first cylinder. Engines are now made with 3 cylinders, thus fully utilising this economical plan.
Horse-power.—When steam engines first came into use they were applied to work previously done by horses which worked the mills; it was, therefore, convenient and desirable to say what number of horses an engine would supersede, hence the term horse-power, which means a capacity to produce a mechanical effect equivalent to raising 33,000 lb. one foot per minute. The indicated horse-power of an engine is the pressure exerted by the steam on the piston without allowing for friction, the indicated horse-power is therefore higher than the power that will be realised; the nominal horse-power is that which is obtained by measurement of the cylinder and piston area, and is a commercial standard, but a deficient one, and most makers’ lists now show engines which by improvements will give 1 and 2 actual horse-power higher than the nominal.
The makers of steam engines might be named “legion,” but the two following are firms of repute, making somewhat a specialty of small motors. Fig. 200 shows a combined vertical engine and boiler complete with feed pump and water tank base, and requiring no fixing (makers Hindley & Co., 11 Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C.); the boiler is multitubular (vertical tubes) and the sizes vary from 2 to 6 horse-power, costing from 62l., to 122l.; if coal fuel is not available, and it is desired to burn wood, peat or inferior fuel, it is usual to have the boiler a size larger costing from 3l. to 10l. extra. It will be noticed that the water tank forming the base, causes the feed water to become heated. The plan of heating the feed water is now universally followed, as it will be understood how disadvantageous it is to pump cold water into the boiler when it is in full work. Feed pumps are now made to pump boiling water if required. Fig. 201 shows a Hindley’s horizontal steam engine complete with pump, but without boiler, made in sizes from 2 to 15 horse-power, costing from 24l. to 100l.
200. Hindley’s Vertical Engine. 202. Tangyes’ Vertical Engine.
201. Hindley’s Engine.
Fig. 202 is a Tangyes’ (Tangyes, Limited, 35 Queen Victoria Street, London) vertical steam engine and boiler complete, and mounted on a wheeled bed for portability, the cost being 2 horse-power 63l., 3 horse-power 79l. Fig. 203 is a Tangyes’ vertical engine without boiler, and on firm base, price, 2 horse-power 22l., 3 horse-power 29l., including feed pumps.
We have purposely omitted the use and description of condensers, as they are only of real use with very large engines (except with marine engines to which condensers are always fitted as the cold water for condensing is at hand in unlimited quantities); a good use to which the exhaust steam can be put is to heat the feed water; Fig. 204 is a Tangyes’ feed-water heater; it will be seen that the heating medium is the exhaust steam from the engine. These are made with brass tubes, which on account of great expansion and contraction will not permit the incrustation to adhere to their surface, and it falls in a scaley and sandy mass to the bottom where a mudhole and handhole are provided for periodical cleaning; the cost of these varies with the size of the steam exhaust pipe, for a 2 in. pipe the price is 13l.
If the exhaust pipe is carried any distance, it must be thoroughly well insulated, or the steam will condense, and the water will run back into the cylinder; this really occurs to a small extent with the best management, consequently a “steam trap” is used, the object of which is to discharge water resulting from condensation. The management of a small steam motor is practically simple, but moderately constant attention is needed; it must be seen that the supply of water is kept up in the boiler, the water and pressure gauges must be occasionally looked to, and the lubricators must be replenished regularly. The want of skilled attention is felt when a small accident or breakdown occurs, but this of course applies to all motors.
203. Tangyes’ Vertical Engine without Boiler. 205. Davey’s Safety Motor.
204. Tangyes’ Feed-water Heater.
Davey’s Safety Motor (Fig. 205) is a revival of the atmospheric engine of 1705 in general principle, but with various decided improvements. The word “safety” is used advisedly, as there is no pressure exerted by the steam higher than atmospheric pressure (15 lb. to the square inch), consequently it is as non-explosive as a teakettle, and no steam gauge or safety valve is required and the motor can be placed in charge of the most unskilled attendant. The power is obtained by the condensation of steam producing a vacuum and thereby making available the pressure of the atmosphere. This motor has a cylinder and piston; as the piston is proceeding on the outstroke the cylinder is charged with steam at low pressure; at the proper moment a jet of cold water is admitted which instantly condenses the steam, producing a vacuum, the pressure of the atmosphere immediately asserts itself outside of the piston pressing it back on the instroke, after which the action is repeated; so it will be seen that the piston relies upon the momentum of the flywheel for the outstroke and the pressure of the atmosphere (15 lb. to sq. in.) for the instroke. This is an economical motor, the consumption of fuel (gas coke) averaging 6 lb. per horse-power per hour, and the makers claim that the cost of fuel and water (if the latter has to be paid for) combined is less than the cost of gas for working a gas engine for a given amount of work.
These motors are also made to work with a pressure of steam about 2 lb. above atmospheric pressure, and this can then be utilised for steaming purposes, such as for cattle foods, &c.; this also applies to any steam motor. The cost of these motors is for ¾ indicated horse-power 45l., with a 2 ft. flywheel 160 revolutions a minute, or a larger size, 4½ indicated horse-power, 100l., with a 4 ft. flywheel.
Gas.—Gas engines are now occupying considerable attention and receiving general favour; the attention needed in working these motors is comparatively nil, and they admit of such exact regulation that there is practically no loss of power and fuel, for in reducing speed or work the supply of fuel (gas) must first be reduced. A noticeable feature is the extreme cleanliness, as there is no furnace and stoking, no boiler safety-valve nor pressure gauge, &c.; and it is a common thing to find these motors left for hours without attention, as the supply of fuel is unvarying and self-acting lubricators of good make only require attention about once a day. A still further and important advantage possessed by these motors is the almost instantaneous starting and stopping, making them particularly well adapted for electric lighting apparatus in event of a sudden darkness arising. The majority of these remarks, it will be noticed, apply to many motors. All gas engines are practically worked upon the same principle, but differing in detail; there is, however, a practical difference in one respect, and that is, that some consume the gas in its ordinary state as supplied from the gas mains, whilst others consume it after the piston has first compressed it; the latter is undoubtedly the most effective in results, as the difference may be compared to igniting gunpowder in the barrel of a gun in a loose state, or after it has been rammed close.
206. Otto Gas Engine.
These motors are in construction somewhat similar to steam engines, having a cylinder and piston, crank, flywheel, governor, &c.; the gas is utilised by leading it to a combustion chamber (one end of the cylinder) and at a proper moment igniting it, the expansion (or explosion) impelling the piston forward; the piston is brought back by the momentum of the flywheel, and on its return journey passes off the products of combustion; most gas engines are worked with one ignition or impulse to every 2 or 3 strokes, or they can be regulated to an impulse for every stroke for high speeds; the cylinders of these motors usually have water jackets, as the temperature naturally becomes very high, a small pump circulating the water which is supplied from a small water tank at the side, or the engine may have a water tank base, the same water being used over and over again.
A desirable feature in a gas engine is that it be “noiseless,” they are now made that even the exhaust pipe is noiseless. Speaking of the exhaust pipe, this should be carried into the open air, as if carried into a flue or chamber, a leakage of gas up this pipe would be a source of danger, and this pipe must be kept clear of woodwork some 6 or 10 in., according to size.
Large motors are provided with a self-starting apparatus, but small motors require a turn or two given to the flywheel by hand at starting.
The consumption of gas with these motors costs from 1d. to 2d. per horse-power per hour, varying with the size; a 1 horse-power costs about 1¾d. The following are a few gas engines by reliable makers. Fig. 206 shows an “Otto” vertical gas engine (Crossley Bros., Limited, 24 Poultry, London), made in sizes from 5 man to 5 horse-power (nominal), giving from 1 to 9 indicated horse-power; a medium size, 1½ nominal horse-power (3 indicated horse-power), costs 103l., with water vessel, 4 ft flywheel, 180 revolutions a minute.
207. Horizontal Otto.
208. Stockport Gas Engine. 209. Bisschop Gas Engine.
Fig. 207 shows an “Otto” horizontal, made in sizes from ½ to 16 nominal horse-power, giving 2 to 40 indicated horse-power (the larger sizes have 2 flywheels); the cost of a 2 nominal horse-power (4 indicated horse-power) is 138l., with water vessel, 4 ft. 6 in. flywheel, 160 revolutions a minute. The Otto is at present receiving the greatest share of favour, and it certainly is a good one.
Fig. 208 shows a “Stockport” horizontal gas engine (J. E. Andrew & Co., Limited, 80 Queen Victoria Street, London), made in sizes from 6 man to 8 nominal horse-power, giving from 1½ to 15½ indicated horse-power; a medium size, 2 nominal horse-power (4 indicated horse-power), costs 128l., with water tank complete.
Fig. 209 shows a “Bisschop” vertical gas engine (J. E. Andrew & Co., as above), made in sizes from 1 man to 4 man power, costing from 28l. to 40l. This small engine requires no water tank.
Fig. 210 is the “Hercules” vertical gas engine (Turner Bros., St. Albans), sizes 1 man to 3 horse-power, costing from 18l. 15s. to 105l., with water tank complete. This is about the cheapest engine in the market.
210. Hercules Gas Engine. 211. Atkinson’s Gas Engine.
Fig. 211 is an Atkinson’s differential compression gas engine (British Gas Engine Co., 11 Queen Victoria Street, London), made in sizes from ¾ to 8 nominal horse-power, costing from 62l., to 210l., with water tank complete. The chief feature and novelty in this engine is its having a piston at each end of the cylinder, as will be seen by the illustration. This engine is somewhat new, but the principle is good, and it has, no doubt, a good future.
212. Atkinson’s Horizontal Gas Engine.
Fig. 212 is a 6 horse-power Atkinson’s horizontal gas engine. This engine is made in sizes from 3½ to 16 nominal horse-power, costing from 153l. upwards, with water tank complete.
A disadvantage which all gas engines very naturally have is the inability to use them in rural districts, where no gas supply exists.
Petroleum engines are now gaining favour, as they are equal to gas engines in cleanliness and results, and need as little attention, and they can be used anywhere, as a supply of fuel is so easily attainable. The ordinary and common petroleum of commerce is the fuel used, and the various makers contend that these motors are more economical than gas engines, the cost of fuel varying from ¾d. to 1¼d. per horse-power per hour, according to size. The construction of this motor is very similar to a gas engine, ignition and expansion (explosion) of petroleum taking the place of gas.
213. Spiel’s Petroleum Engine.
Fig. 213 is a “Spiel’s” vertical petroleum engine (Shawlaw & Co., Suffolk Works, Birmingham), made in one size only, 3 man nominal power (1 horse-power indicated), price 46l. 8s., with water tank.
“Spiel’s” horizontal petroleum engine, made in sizes from ½ to 8 nominal horse-power (1½ to 17 indicated horse-power), with 3 ft. 9 in. to 5 ft. 9 in. flywheels, and costing from 59l. to 246l., with water tank complete. The extra cost of a centrifugal oil pump attached is from 50s. to 70s.
214. Etéve Petroleum Engine.
Fig. 214 is the “Etéve” horizontal petroleum engine (Priestmann Bros., 52 Queen Victoria Street, London), made in sizes from ½ to 10 nominal horse-power (1¼ to 20 indicated horse-power), with from 3 ft. 4 in. to 5 ft. 6 in. flywheels, and costing from 60l. to 275l., with water tank complete. This motor is also made mounted on a truck for agricultural purposes.
A petroleum motor is especially suited for launches and small yachts, on account of its cleanliness, and dispensing with the roomy and dirty coal bunker, the store of oil being in tanks under the seats, &c.; what is most important is that there is no smoke, and the engine requires but a few minutes to start and attain full speed.
A high authority gave his opinion to the writer that the small motor of the future will be undoubtedly the petroleum engine.
Hot-air or Caloric Engine.—This motor is worked by the expansion of atmospheric air when subjected to heat. Fig. 215 is a sectional drawing of the “Rider” hot-air pumping engine (Hayward, Tyler & Co., 39 Queen Victoria Street, London), and we cannot do better than copy the makers’ description of its working parts. “The compression piston C first compresses the cold air in the lower part of the compression cylinder A, into about one-third its normal volume, when by the advancing of the power piston D and the completion of the down stroke of piston C, the air is transferred from the cylinder A through the regenerator H and into the heater F, without appreciable change of volume. The result is a further increase of pressure, and this impels the power piston up to the end of its stroke. The pressure still remaining in the power cylinder and reacting on the piston C, forces the latter upwards till it reaches nearly the top of its stroke, when, by the cooling of the charge of air, the pressure falls to its minimum, the power piston descends, and the compression again begins, the same air being used continuously. E is a water jacket for cooling the air more effectually, K K are leather packings, L is a check valve which remedies any leakage of air.” This engine is made in three sizes, ¼, ½, and 1 horse-power, costing 40l. to 100l. including lift and force pump, as at Fig. 216, the higher prices being fitted with driving pulley for power. These engines are especially well adapted for pumping, a ¼ horse-power with 2 in. pump delivering 500 gal. per hour 40 ft. high, the engine costing 42l. complete. There is no skill required in working them, the only labour needed being to start and stop the engine, to replenish the fire (coke fuel), and the necessary attention to lubricators. The consumption of coke is 2½ lb., 4 lb. and 9 lb. per hour for the three sizes respectively; this represents a cost of about one halfpenny per 1000 gal. of water raised 30 ft. high; it will be understood that all pumping engines can be fitted with gear for deep-well work when necessary.
215. Rider Hot-air Engine. 217. Horizontal Hot-air Engine.
216. Engine with Lift and Force Pump. 218. Vertical Hot-air Engine.
Fig. 217 is “Bailey’s” horizontal hot-air engine (W. H. Bailey & Co., Albion Works, Salford, Manchester) with pulley for driving, made in sizes from ¼ to 3½ horse-power, costing from 35l. to 150l. complete, but requiring a brick stove to be built in connection with it.
Fig. 218 is a “Bailey’s” vertical hot-air driving engine, made in sizes from ⅛ to ½ horse-power, costing from 80l. to 42l. This engine, it will be noticed, has the stove or furnace complete. These engines are also made with pump attached for domestic and other water supply, similar to the “Rider.” Coke fuel is the best, but any combustible can be used, such as wood, peat, cinders, or common coal. The cost of working the “Bailey” engines is about the same as the “Rider.”
Electricity.—Electric motors are not of practical use except in residences, &c., where an electrical installation (worked by an engine) already exists or is going to be fitted; as, to attempt to propel an electric motor by a battery would, though possible, be very expensive, and the battery would have to be of enormous size to obtain any power of importance,—to work a sewing machine, for instance.
In buildings that are lighted by electricity or have an electric apparatus of any description that is worked by an engine and dynamo, an electric motor can be used with success and good results. This form of motor has several advantages, foremost amongst which is its portability and the absence of shaft and belting to transmit the power, and the power can be transmitted long distances, the connection between the dynamo (which is always near the engine) and the motor being by two wires only; thus the power generated by the engine can be carried throughout a building into the most obscure nooks or attics if desired, or one engine of good size will provide power for a neighbourhood, or in other words, the electric power for motive purposes can be transmitted anywhere and everywhere, the same as for lighting.
219. Immisch’s Electric Motor.
Fig. 219 is an Immisch electric motor (Mr. M. Immisch, Malden Crescent, Kentish Town), made in sizes up to 30 and 40 horse-power. The price of 1 horse-power is 24l. Fig. 219 shows the motor as applied to domestic purposes, driving a knife-cleaner and coffee-grinding machine: the same motor can of course be applied to other purposes where rotary motion is applicable.
The Electrical Power Storage Company, Limited, 4 Great Winchester Street, London, E.C., also make electric motors in various powers; Fig. 220 is their smallest pattern, made in sizes from ⅓ to 7 horse-power (effective), costing from 10l. to 90l. The cost of working with power transmitted from the engine (gas or steam, &c.) by means of dynamo and electric motor can be computed as being but little in excess of working direct from the engine itself, but with the advantages already stated; this especially applies where the engine and dynamo are already in existence, as before stated.
220. Electric Motor.
Clockwork.—Motors with the mechanism propelled by a spring have not yet been brought to any degree of perfection or efficiency. A self-acting motor of this description was being manufactured and attached to sewing machines by a company formed in London, but it is to be regretted that for some reason the company has now ceased to exist: their motor could be adapted to any make of sewing machine, and their efforts were worthy of success, for they were applied to the domestic machine, which, although a grand institution, entails labour both trying and harmful.
See also p. 1012.
[HOUSEHOLD LAW.]
The wants of modern society are so various, and the relations consequently created are so far-reaching, that it is absolutely impossible, within the space that can be spared to the subject in this manual, to fully explain the position in law of a householder or head of a family. The reader of the following remarks must never forget that they attempt to state a few general rules merely, and that there are few, if any, households which are not in some respects under the sway of some special Act of Parliament or some special agreement with somebody. The chapter will, it is hoped, keep its reader, with these limitations, clear of some litigation, and show him some of his rights; but it has been written on the principle that silence is far better than a misleading statement.