The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers

by Unknown

THE WORLD’S GREATEST EXPLORERS

Explanation of Abbreviations.—Arab., Arabian; Brit., British; Carthag., Carthaginian; Dan., Danish; Dut., Dutch; Egypt., Egyptian; Eng., English; Fr., French; Gen., Genoese; Ger., German; Ital., Italian; Norw., Norwegian; Port., Portuguese; Rus., Russian; Scot., Scotch; Span., Spanish: Swed., Swedish; U. S., United States; Ven., Venetian.

B.C.1400-1250.—Egyptians make invasions of Habesh, Arabia, Phœnicia, Syria.

B.C.1350(?).—Greeks undertake Argonautic expedition to Colchis.

B.C.1000.—Phœnicians voyage to Ophir, Gades, Britain.

B.C.750.—Greeks extend colonies in the Mediterranean and Pontus Euxinus.

B.C.700.—Samians discover Spain (Tartessus) for the Greeks.

B.C.600.—Phœnicians circumnavigate Africa by order of Necho.

B.C.—Himilco (Carthag.) visits Atlantic coast of Europe, Sargasso Sea. Said to have visited Britain.

B.C.500.—Anaximander (of Miletus) makes the first maps.

B.C.500.—Hecatæus (of Miletus) writes the first geography.

B.C.470.—Hanno (Carthag.) coasts west Africa as far as Cape Palmas.

B.C.330.—Pytheas of Massilia sails to Thule, North Sea, Scandinavia.

B.C.330.—Nearchus (Macedon.) sails from the Indus to Red Sea.

B.C.329-325.—Alexander the Great makes expedition to Iran, Turan and India.

B.C.290.—Egyptians navigate the east coast of Africa.

B.C.218.—Hannibal crosses the Alps.

B.C.120 (about).—Eudoxus of Cyzicus attempts circumnavigation of Africa.

B.C.61-58.—Romans, under Julius Cæsar in Gaul, Germany, and Britain.

B.C.30 (since).—Romans extend their geographical knowledge and commerce as far as central Asia.

B.C.20—Strabo (Greek) describes Roman Empire and first mentions Thule and Ireland.

B.C.15.—Tiberius discovers the Lake of Constance; Drusus, the Brenner Pass.

A.D.84.—Roman general, Agricola, circumnavigates Britain.

150.—Claudius Ptolemy (Egypt.) constructs his geography and atlas.

518-21.—Hoei-sing (Chinese) visits Pamirs and Punjab.

671-95.—I-tsing (Chinese) visits Java, Sumatra and India.

861.—Norsemen discover the Faroe Islands. North Cape of Europe rounded.

865.—Naddod (Norse) discovers Iceland. Visited by Irish monks about 795.

876.—Gunnbjörn (Norse) reaches Greenland coast. Rediscovered by Erik the Red (983).

985.—Erik the Red (Norse) colonizes Greenland.

1000(?).—Lief Erikson (son of Erik the Red) discovers Newfoundland (Helluland), Nova Scotia (Markland), and coast of New England (Vinland)[?].

1154.—Edrisi (Sicily), geographer to King of Sicily, produces his geography.

1200 (about)—Arabian trading merchants discover Siberia.

1253.—Ruysbroek reaches Karakorum, the ancient seat of the Mongol Empire.

1271-95.—Marco Polo (Venet.) travels in central Asia, China, India, Persia.

1290.—Genoese reach the Canaries, Azores, etc.

1325-52.—Ibn Batuta (Arab.) travels through the whole Mohammedan world, northern Africa, eastern Africa, southern Russia, Arabia, India and China.

1327.—Sir John Mandeville (Eng.) travels in India.

1415-60.—Prince Henry (Port.) gives an impetus to Portuguese voyages of discovery.

1419-20.—J. Gonzales and Martin Vaz (Port.) discover Porto Santo and Madeira.

1442.—Nuno Tristao (Port.) reaches Cape Verde, etc.

1460(?).—Cintra and Costa (Port.) sail to coast of Guinea.

1474.—Toscanelli (Ital.) sends Columbus his map showing the western route to Cathay (China).

1485.—Diego Cam (Port.) reaches the mouth of the Congo river.

1487.—Bartholomew Diaz (Port.) rounds Cape of Good Hope.

1492-98.—Columbus (Gen.) discovers America, West Indies, Trinidad, Cuba, etc.

1497-98.—John Cabot (Anglo-Ven.) sails along eastern coast of America from Labrador as far as Florida.

1498.—Vasco da Gama (Port.) finds route to India by Cape of Good Hope.

1499.—Amerigo Vespucci (Ital.) discovers Venezuela, and that America was not “part of Asia.”

1499.—Pinzon (Span.) discovers mouth of Amazon river and Cape St. Roque.

1500.—G. Cortereal (Port.) reaches entrance of Hudson Strait, called by him Strait of Anian.

1500.—Alvarez Cabral (Port.) coasts Brazil (named by him Ilha da Vera Cruz, being southern part of Bahia State).

1502.—Columbus(Gen.) reaches central America on his fourth voyage.

1512.—Ponce de Leon (Span.) reaches Florida.

1513.—Portuguese reach the Moluccas.

1513.—Balboa (Span.) crosses Isthmus of Panama and discovers Pacific Ocean.

1516.—Solis (Span.) reaches La Plata.

1517.—Sebastian Cabot (Eng.) discovers Hudson Strait.

1519-21.—Cortez (Span.).—conquers Mexico.

1519-21.—Magellan (Span.) first to circumnavigate the globe. Passes through the Strait of Magellan, crosses the Pacific, and discovers the Philippines.

1534.—Pizarro (Span.) completes the conquest of Peru.

1535.—Diego d’Almagro (Span.) conquers Chili.

1535-42.—Jacques Cartier (Fr.) finds Gulf of St. Lawrence. Ascends river to Hochelaga (Montreal).

1539.—Francesco de Ulloa (Span.) explores Gulf of California.

1540 (about).—French continent of Australia seen by French sailors.

1541.—Pizarro and Orellana (Span.) discover Amazon river.

1542.—Antonio de Mota first reaches Japan.

1542.—Ruy Lopez de Villalobos (Span.) discovers Pelew Islands, and takes possession of Philippine Islands for Spain.

1542.—Pinto (Port.)—visits Japan,

1553.—Sir H. Willoughby (Eng.) reaches Nova Zembla.

1576.—Frobisher (Eng.) coasts Labrador and Baffin Land.

1577-80.—Sir F. Drake (Eng.) made second circumnavigation of the globe, and first saw Cape Horn. Explored western coast of North America nearly as far as Vancouver Archipelago.

1587.—J. Davis (Eng.) finds Davis Strait.

1596.—Barentz and Heemskerk (Dut.) discover Spitzbergen, Bear Islands, etc.

1598.—Mendaña (Span.) discovers Marquesas Islands.

1606.—Quiros (Span.) reaches Tahiti (Sagittaria), and other South Sea Islands.

1606.—Torres (Span.) discovers Torres Strait. Dutch reach Australia.

1608.—Champlain (Fr.) discovers Lake Ontario.

1610.—H. Hudson (Eng.) reaches Hudson Bay and makes discoveries in North America.

1614-17.—Spillbergen (Dut.) circumnavigated the globe.

1616.—W. Baffin (Eng.) enters Baffin Bay.

1616.—La Maire and Schouten (Dut.) round Cape Horn.

1616.—Dirk Hartog (Dut.) sails up west coast of Australia.

1618.—G. Thompson (Eng.) sails up Gambia.

1642.—Abel Tasman (Dut.) discovers Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania) and New Zealand.

1643.—Vries (Dut.) explores eastern coast of Japan, Saghalien, and Kurile Island.

1645.—Deshnev (Cossack) rounds east cape of Asia from the Kolyma to the Anadyr.

1660.—French discover the lake region of the St. Lawrence.

1673.—Marquette and Joliet (Fr.) explore the Mississippi from the north.

1725-43.—Russians explore the coasts of Siberia.

1728 and 1741.—Bering (Dan.) and Tishirikov (Rus.) explore Bering Strait and the northwestern coast of America.

1768-79.—Capt. Cook (Eng.) voyages round the world. Surveys the Society Islands, Sandwich Islands, eastern coast of Australia, Cook Strait in New Zealand, Antarctic Ocean, northwestern coast of America, etc.

1770.—James Bruce (Scot.) discovers sources of the Blue Nile.

1770.—Liakhov (Rus.) discovers New Siberian Islands.

1785-88.—La Perouse (Fr.) explores north of Japan, Saghalien, etc.

1789.—A. Mackenzie (Scot.) explore the Mackenzie river.

1792.—Vancouver (Eng.) visits Vancouver Island, discovered by Perez, 1774. Exploration of the northwestern coast of America.

1795-1806.—Mungo Park (Scot.) journeys to and explores the Niger districts.

1799-1804.—Alex, von Humboldt (Ger.) makes explorations in South America and writes “Cosmos.”

1801-1804.—Flinders (Eng.) explores southern coasts of Australia.

1803-6.—Krusenstern (Rus.) surveys in Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsk, Saghalien, etc.

1804-6.—Lewis and Clark make extensive explorations in northwestern United States from the Mississippi to the Columbia river.

1805-9.—Salt (Eng.) makes visit to Abyssinia.

1807-8.—Klaproth (Ger.) makes exploration of the Caucasus.

1819.—Long (U.S.) makes exploration of Rocky Mountains.

1819.—Wm. Smith (Eng.) explores South Orkney Islands and South Shetlands. Visited by Weddell in 1822.

1823.—Wrangel (Rus.) discovers Wrangel Land.

1823.—Denham and Clapperton (Eng.) discover Lake Chad.

1825-26.—A. G. Laing (Scot.) reached Timbuktu from Tripoli, Africa.

1827-8.—René Caillie (Fr.) made journey from Kakandy to Timbuktu and Morocco, Africa.

1830-32.—Biscoe (Eng.) discovers Enderby Land and Graham Land.

1831.—Sir J. C. Ross (Eng.) finds magnetic North Pole.

1832.—Laird and Oldfield (Scot.) explore the Niger and Benué rivers.

1835.—Sir F. Schomburgk (Ger.) makes explorations in Guiana, South America.

1837.—Wood (Eng.) discovers sources of the Oxus.

1840.—Trümmer discovers remains of ancient Nineveh.

1841.—Sir James C. Ross (Eng.) discovers Victoria Land, with volcanoes Erebus and Terror.

1841-73.—D. Livingstone (Scot.) spends thirty years’ travel in central South Africa.

1845.—Sir John Franklin (Eng.) sails on his last voyage never to return.

1848.—Rebmann and Krapf (Ger.) discover Mt. Kilima-njaro. Sighted Mt. Kenia.

1849-55.—Richardson and Barth (Eng.-Ger.) explore western Sudan and Sahara.

1850.—Sir R. M’Clure (Irish) discovers Northwest Passage.

1852-4, 1861.—Sir C. R. Markham (Eng.) makes explorations in Peru.

1856-59.—Du Chaillu (Fr.) explores basin of Ogowé river, west Africa.

1858.—Sir R. Burton (Scot.) discovers Lake Tanganyika.

1858.—Speke and Grant (Brit.) discover Victoria Nyanza.

1860.—Sir S. Baker (Eng.) explores Upper Nile. Discovers Albert Nyanza, 1864.

1867-72.—Richthofen (Ger.) makes extensive explorations in China.

1869.—G. Nachtigal (Ger.) makes explorations in Lake Chad region and central Sudan, Africa.

1870-1886.—Prejevalsky (Rus.) journeys in Mongolia, Tibet, etc.

1872.—Payer and Weyprecht (Austrian) explore Franz Josef Land.

1872-76.—“Challenger” Expedition (Brit.) explores the depths of the oceans.

1874-75.—Lieut. Cameron (Eng.) crosses equatorial Africa.

1876-90.—H. M. Stanley (Eng.) explores Congo Basin; Mt. Ruwenzori; Forests on the Aruwimi, etc. Africa.

1878-79.—Nordenskjold (Swed.) finds northeast passage.

1878-89.—Thomson (Scot.) journeys through Masai Land, British South Africa, Sokoto, Morocco, etc.

1878-85.—Major Serpa Pinto (Port.) twice crosses Africa.

1878-92.—Emin Pasha (Ger.) travels and surveys in Equatorial Africa.

1879.—Moustier and Zweifel (Swiss) find sources of the Niger.

1881-85.—Greely (U. S.) discovers Grinnell Land and northwestern coast of Greenland.

1885.—Wiesmann (Ger.) journeys across Africa from west coast, Congo Basin.

1886.—Peary (U. S.) explores North Greenland.

1887.—Capt. Younghusband (Eng.) travels from Pekin to Kashmir.

1893-96.—Nansen (Norw.) reached his “Farthest North” in lat. 86° 13′ 6′′ N.

1897.—Jackson (Scot.) makes surveys and explorations in Franz Josef Land.

1893-97.—Sven Hedin (Swed.) makes explorations in north central Asia.

1895-96.—Pr. Henri d’Orléans travels in Tonkin and China.

1897.—Andrée (Swed.) attempts to cross over the North Pole in a balloon, with fatal results.

1898-99.—De Gerlache (Belgian) attempts to reach the South Pole with the “Belgica,” first ship to winter within Antarctic circle.

1899.—Major Gibbons makes explorations in Congo and Zambezi headwaters.

1900.—Borchgrevink (Brit. Ex.) reached lat. 78° 50′ S. via Victoria Land.

1900.—Duke of Abruzzi (Ital.) reached lat. 86° 33′ N. via Franz Josef Land.

1900-02.—Sven Hedin (Swed.) made important journey in central Asia.

1908.—F. A. Cook (U. S.) claims to have reached the North Pole, April 21.

1909.—R. E. Peary (U. S.) reached the North Pole, April 6.

1911.—Roald Amundsen (Norw.) reached the South Pole, December 14.

1912.—Capt. Scott (Eng.) reached the South Pole, but perished before returning.

COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF NATIONS
Showing their Origin, Chief Events, Changes or Extinction, from the Earliest Period to the Present

I. [1]FROM EARLIEST HISTORIC RECORDS TO THE TIME OF ABRAHAM, X-2250 B. C.

[1] All dates down to the First Olympiad, 776 B. C., are almost wholly conjectural. Dates here given, however, are from the latest and best authorities.

The earliest history of mankind, so far as we now know, begins with the peoples known as Semites. Northern Arabia is generally accepted as their primitive home. Issuing thence, they conquered or settled Babylonia and Egypt, and through amalgamations with the native races (of which we know very little), became the earliest historic Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians. Historians sometimes assume that the native races were Mongolians, traces of which still persist in China, Thibet, Finland, The Caucasus, and perhaps, among the American Indians.

B. C.	Greeks (Cretans and Mycenæan)	Egypt (Heb. Misraim)	Border Peoples (Between Egypt and Babylonia)	Babylonia (Heb. Shinar)	Border Peoples (East of Babylonia)
		I. Prehistoric Period		I. Sumerian Period
5000	5000. Extensive excavations in Crete reveal a prehistoric civilization before the BronzeAge.	5000. Egyptian records name the Gods as the earliest rulers and Kings, who were decendentsof gods, succeeded them. Actual history begins by revealing, in the Nile valley, a number of districts or nomes held together chiefly by areligious bond.	A variety of tribes and peoples dwelt on the ill-defined borders of Egypt and Babylonia.We come to know their names later through their attacks upon the various states. These tribes and other migratory peoples from the olderSemitic centers became the founders of the Syrian states and Asia Minor.	5000. Government in Babylonia had reached the form known as the city state. The southerngroup of cities (known collectively as Sumer) comprised Eridu, Lagash (Shirpurlo), Ur, Larsa, Uruk (Erech) and Isin: the northern group(known as Accad or Akkad) comprised Agade (Accad), Sippar, Nippur, Kutha, and later Babylon.	Out of these tribes developed the Elamites, Medes, Persians, and Hindus.
		4241. Earliest fixed date marking the introduction of the calendar.
4000		4000. Pre-dynastic kingdoms flourish in Upper and Lower Egypt.		4000. Lugalzaggisi of Uruk, first great conqueror made expeditions to the Mediterranean and north ofMesopotamia.
				II. Semitic or Chaldean Period
		3800-3600. Pre-dynastic kings Ka-ap and Ro are placed within these dates according to recentinterpretations of tombs and vases.		3800. Sargon I. begins to rule. He and his son Naram-Sin, kings of Agade, extendtheir conquests to Armenia, Elam, Arabia and the Mediterranean. These reigns were an early “Golden Age” ofBabylonia.
		II. The Old Kingdom (Includes Dynasties 1 to 10)		3750. Naram-Sin built temple of Sun-god at Sippur. Fusion of Sumerians and Semites follows hisreign.
		3400. Accession of Menes and beginning of dynasties. Under Menes the kindgoms wereunified.
	I. Prehistoric Period	Tombs erected at Abydos by successive kings; wars with Libyans and others; mining in Sinai.
3000	3000-2500. Rising civilization on coasts and islands of the Aegean Sea and in Crete.	2900-2750. Fourth dynasty is most important. Kingsmemorialized by Pyramids at Gizeh and Abu Roash. Capital probably at Memphis.		3000. The Kings of Ur. Under this dynasty Ur became the seat of government. Temples were built in both Northand South.	3000. Assyria (Asshur) founded by a colony from Babylonia. Niniveh also in existence.
			2700. The Phœnicians settle on the Sidonion coastand build Aradus (Arvad); later Tyre and Byblos.	2800. Gudea, priest-king, or governor of Lagash (Shirpurla or Tello) became the chiefruler. Built a palace, temples and statues of bronze.
		2590-2570. Primitive sea-voyages made to Palestine. Governmentcentralized at Memphis. Landed nobles in evidence.		2600-2400. Dynasties of Isin and Larsa, respectively. This was a period of strife among the various centers.
2500	2500. The cities of Mycenæ and Tiryns already founded.	2500. Semitic (Amoritic) migrations into Syria and Palestine, about Jerusalem.	2445-2160. Kings resided at Heracleopolis; numerous struggleswith Thebes to which seat of government was finally removed.	2400. First Babylonian dynasty. The South lost itspoliticalpower and the city of Babylon became for the first time the seat of government.	2400. Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, invades SouthBabylonia.

B. C.	Greeks (Cretans and Mycenæan)	Egypt (Heb. Misraim)	Border Peoples (Between Egypt and Babylonia)	Babylonia (Heb. Shinar)	Border Peoples (East of Babylonia)
		I. Prehistoric Period		I. Sumerian Period
5000	5000. Extensive excavations in Crete reveal a prehistoric civilization before the Bronze Age.	5000. Egyptian records name the Gods as the earliest rulers and Kings, who were decendents of gods, succeeded them. Actual history begins by revealing, in the Nile valley, a number of districts or nomes held together chiefly by a religious bond.	A variety of tribes and peoples dwelt on the ill-defined borders of Egypt and Babylonia. We come to know their names later through their attacks upon the various states. These tribes and other migratory peoples from the older Semitic centers became the founders of the Syrian states and Asia Minor.	5000. Government in Babylonia had reached the form known as the city state. The southern group of cities (known collectively as Sumer) comprised Eridu, Lagash (Shirpurlo), Ur, Larsa, Uruk (Erech) and Isin: the northern group (known as Accad or Akkad) comprised Agade (Accad), Sippar, Nippur, Kutha, and later Babylon.	Out of these tribes developed the Elamites, Medes, Persians, and Hindus.
		4241. Earliest fixed date marking the introduction of the calendar.
4000		4000. Pre-dynastic kingdoms flourish in Upper and Lower Egypt.		4000. Lugalzaggisi of Uruk, first great conqueror made expeditions to the Mediterranean and north of Mesopotamia.
				II. Semitic or Chaldean Period
		3800-3600. Pre-dynastic kings Ka-ap and Ro are placed within these dates according to recent interpretations of tombs and vases.		3800. Sargon I. begins to rule. He and his son Naram-Sin, kings of Agade, extend their conquests to Armenia, Elam, Arabia and the Mediterranean. These reigns were an early “Golden Age” of Babylonia.
		II. The Old Kingdom (Includes Dynasties 1 to 10)		3750. Naram-Sin built temple of Sun-god at Sippur. Fusion of Sumerians and Semites follows his reign.
		3400. Accession of Menes and beginning of dynasties. Under Menes the kindgoms were unified.
	I. Prehistoric Period	Tombs erected at Abydos by successive kings; wars with Libyans and others; mining in Sinai.
3000	3000-2500. Rising civilization on coasts and islands of the Aegean Sea and in Crete.	2900-2750. Fourth dynasty is most important. Kings memorialized by Pyramids at Gizeh and Abu Roash. Capital probably at Memphis.		3000. The Kings of Ur. Under this dynasty Ur became the seat of government. Temples were built in both North and South.	3000. Assyria (Asshur) founded by a colony from Babylonia. Niniveh also in existence.
			2700. The Phœnicians settle on the Sidonion coast and build Aradus (Arvad); later Tyre and Byblos.	2800. Gudea, priest-king, or governor of Lagash (Shirpurla or Tello) became the chief ruler. Built a palace, temples and statues of bronze.
		2590-2570. Primitive sea-voyages made to Palestine. Government centralized at Memphis. Landed nobles in evidence.		2600-2400. Dynasties of Isin and Larsa, respectively. This was a period of strife among the various centers.
2500	2500. The cities of Mycenæ and Tiryns already founded.	2500. Semitic (Amoritic) migrations into Syria and Palestine, about Jerusalem.	2445-2160. Kings resided at Heracleopolis; numerous struggles with Thebes to which seat of government was finally removed.	2400. First Babylonian dynasty. The South lost its political power and the city of Babylon became for the first time the seat of government.	2400. Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, invades South Babylonia.

II. FROM THE AGE OF ABRAHAM TO THE RISE OF ASSYRIA, 2250-1100, B.C.

Great Events of Period. Abraham becomes first great leader of the Hebrews. Egyptian revolt from the Shepherd Kings. New Egyptian empire. Rise of Assyria—originally settled by emigrants from Babylonia. Wars with Babylonia. Sidon, a Phœnician city, at its zenith. Phœnician colonies established round the Mediterranean. Advanced civilization in Crete. Exodus of the Hebrews from Egypt under Moses. Hittites rise to great power, contending equally with Egypt and Assyria.

B. C.	Greeks	Egypt	Hebrews and Phœnicia	Babylonia-Assyria	Border Peoples
			I. Patriarchal Age (2250-1200)	III. Early Babylonian Empire (2250-1750)
2500		2250. Rise and triumph of Thebes.	2250. Period of Abraham,patriarch of the Hebrews, who left Ur, wanderednorth to Horan and finally entered Canaan (Palestine).	2250. HAMMURABI (Amraphel?), great ruler and lawgiver, united thewhole of Babylonia. His code of laws one of themost important of Oriental discoveries. Under him Babylon reached high degree of culture.
		III. Middle Kingdom (Includes Dynasties 11 to 17)		2100. Second Babylonian dynasty: lasted about 300 years.
2000	2000-1000. Achæans and Greeks settle in Greece proper, and Ionians in Asia Minor.	2000-1788. This period reached its highest development in the Twelfth dynasty, which was Theban. Obelisks,public works, regulation of Nile, Lake Mœris, and the Labyrinth belong to this period.	2000. Semitic emigrants enter Phœnicia.
	1800-1600. “Golden Age” of Cretan civilization. Great palace at Knossos completed.	1788-1580. The Hyksos, orShepherd Kings, conquer Egypt and rule about 100 years. The invaders introduce the horse into Egypt. Period of comparative obscurity.	1800. Hiksos (Hittites?) consolidate Syrian power at Kadesh and over-run Egypt.	IV. Kassite Period (1750-1150)	1800-1500. Assyria ruled by patesis or governors.
				1750. Third, or Kassite, dynasty of foreign kings in power for nearly 600 years.	1750. The Kassites, a mountain people north of Elam, subdue Babylonia. An Elamite dynasty with its capital at Susa, gave rise to the Persian nation (1750-836).
		IV. The Egyptian Empire (Includes Dynasties 18-20)
		1580. After the expulsion of the Hyksos, Egypt was organized as a military state. Syria was conquered and madetribute by 1500.	1550. Phœnicia made tributary to Egypt.
1500		1479-1447. Thutmose III. rules at Thebes and the Empire increasedrapidly in power and extent. Egyptian fleet was developed, temple at Karnak erected.	1500-1220. Palestine under Egyptian domination.
		1414-1383. Amenhotep III., Great king, called the“Magnificent.” Built temple at Luxor and elsewhere. Tel-el-Amarna Letters with Syria and Babylon.
1400	1400. Probable Mycenæan invasion destroyed Cretancivilization.			1400. Burnaburiash, greatest of Kassitekings, established political relations with Egypt. Settled boundary with Assyria. See Tel-el-Amarna Letters.
	1400-1300. Bloom of the Agean and Mycenæan civilization.	1383-1365. Amenhotep IV. Very importantreign. Official religion changed from polytheism to monotheism; chief seat of worship removed from Thebes to Tel-el-Amarna. Syrialost.	1350. Joseph inEgypt. Hebrews settle in Goshen.	V. Period of Decline (1300-745)	1350. Great expansion of Assyria; capitalremoved from Asshur to Kalkhi (Ninevah).
		1326-1300. Seti I. Restorer of ancient monuments; great temple at Abydos; began greathall at Karnak; tomb in Valley of Kings.
1300		1300-1234. RAMESES II., the Great. Subdues Syria at Kadesh; built temples at Abu and Simbel; built Pithom andRaamses. Supposed Pharaoh of the Israelite oppression.	1300. Period of Sidon’s greatest power.	1300. Kassites absorbed into the Semitic population of Babylonia.	1275. Continuous struggle between Assyria and Babylonia.
		1234-1214. Merneptah drove out foreign invaders. Supposed Pharaoh ofthe Exodus.	1250. Oppression of the Israelites.	1250-1210. Decline of Babylonian power and rise of Assyria.	1250. King of Assyria conquers Babylon and rules seven years.
1200	1200. Dorian invasion ended the grand prehistoric age ofGreece.	1202-1171. Rameses III., greatest king intwentieth dynasty. Built temples at Karnak and Medinet Habu. Great naval battle at Pelusium.	1220. Exodus of the Israelites under MOSES.
	1193-1184. TROJAN WAR.	V. Decay of the Empire (1150-525)	II. Period of the Judges (1160-1020)	1100. Babylon subjected by TIGLATH PILESER I. of Assyria.Great expansion of Assyrian empire.

B. C.	Greeks	Egypt	Hebrews and Phœnicia	Babylonia-Assyria	Border Peoples
			I. Patriarchal Age (2250-1200)	III. Early Babylonian Empire (2250-1750)
2500		2250. Rise and triumph of Thebes.	2250. Period of Abraham, patriarch of the Hebrews, who left Ur, wanderednorth to Horan and finally entered Canaan (Palestine).	2250. HAMMURABI (Amraphel?), great ruler and lawgiver, united the whole of Babylonia. His code of laws one of themost important of Oriental discoveries. Under him Babylon reached high degree of culture.
		III. Middle Kingdom (Includes Dynasties 11 to 17)		2100. Second Babylonian dynasty: lasted about 300 years.
2000	2000-1000. Achæans and Greeks settle in Greece proper, and Ionians in Asia Minor.	2000-1788. This period reached its highest development in the Twelfth dynasty, which was Theban. Obelisks,public works, regulation of Nile, Lake Mœris, and the Labyrinth belong to this period.	2000. Semitic emigrants enter Phœnicia.
	1800-1600. “Golden Age” of Cretan civilization. Great palace at Knossos completed.	1788-1580. The Hyksos, orShepherd Kings, conquer Egypt and rule about 100 years. The invaders introduce the horse into Egypt. Period of comparative obscurity.	1800. Hiksos (Hittites?) consolidate Syrian power at Kadesh and over-run Egypt.	IV. Kassite Period (1750-1150)	1800-1500. Assyria ruled by patesis or governors.
	1750. Third, or Kassite, dynasty of foreign kings in power for nearly 600 years.			1750. The Kassites, a mountain people north of Elam, subdue Babylonia. An Elamite dynasty with its capital at Susa, gave rise to the Persian nation (1750-836).
		IV. The Egyptian Empire (Includes Dynasties 18-20)
		1580. After the expulsion of the Hyksos, Egypt was organized as a military state. Syria was conquered and madetribute by 1500.	1550. Phœnicia made tributary to Egypt. 1500-1220. Palestineunder Egyptian domination.
1500		1479-1447. Thutmose III. rules at Thebes and the Empire increasedrapidly in power and extent. Egyptian fleet was developed, temple at Karnak erected.	1500-1220. Palestine under Egyptian domination.
		1414-1383. Amenhotep III., Great king, called the“Magnificent.” Built temple at Luxor and elsewhere. Tel-el-Amarna Letters with Syria and Babylon.
1400	1400. Probable Mycenæan invasion destroyed Cretancivilization.				1400. Burnaburiash, greatest of Kassitekings, established political relations with Egypt. Settled boundary with Assyria. See Tel-el-Amarna Letters.
	1400-1300. Bloom of the Agean and Mycenæan civilization.	1383-1365. Amenhotep IV. Very importantreign. Official religion changed from polytheism to monotheism; chief seat of worship removed from Thebes to Tel-el-Amarna. Syrialost.	1350. Joseph inEgypt. Hebrews settle in Goshen.		1350. Great expansion of Assyria; capitalremoved from Asshur to Kalkhi (Ninevah).
		1326-1300. Seti I. Restorer of ancient monuments; great temple at Abydos; began greathall at Karnak; tomb in Valley of Kings.		V. Period of Decline (1300-745)
1300		1300-1234. RAMESES II., the Great. Subdues Syria at Kadesh; built temples at Abu and Simbel; built Pithom andRaamses. Supposed Pharaoh of the Israelite oppression.	1300. Period of Sidon’s greatest power.	1300. Kassites absorbed into the Semitic population of Babylonia.	1275. Continuous struggle between Assyria and Babylonia.
		1234-1214. Merneptah drove out foreign invaders. Supposed Pharaoh ofthe Exodus.	1250. Oppression of the Israelites.	1250-1210. Decline of Babylonian power and rise of Assyria.	1250. King of Assyria conquers Babylon and rules seven years.
1200	1200. Dorian invasion ended the grand prehistoric age ofGreece.	1202-1171. Rameses III., greatest king intwentieth dynasty. Built temples at Karnak and Medinet Habu. Great naval battle at Pelusium.	1220. Exodus of the Israelites under MOSES.
	1193-1184. TROJAN WAR.	V. Decay of the Empire (1150-525)	II. Period of the Judges (1160-1020)	1100. Babylon subjected by TIGLATH PILESER I. of Assyria.Great expansion of Assyrian empire.

III. FROM THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE TO THE TIME OF XERXES THE GREAT, 1100-485 B. C.

Great Events of Period. 1100-1000: Heroic age of Greece; Hebrews reach their highest point of national power. Beginning of the Medo-Persian nations. Celts disperse over western Europe and into British Isles. 1000-900: Homeric age. Celts already in Britain, with bronze in use. Phœnician trade extended from Senegal to India. 900-800: Decline of Phœnician cities. 800-700: Ethiopian supremacy in Egypt. Assyrian conquests continue; Tiglath-Pileser III.; Sargon; Babylonia rises to height of its power. 700-600: Zenith and fall of Nineveh, and Assyrian empire. Media rises to power. Perhaps last migrations from the Aryan center—Teutonic and Slav races. 600-500: Zenith and fall of Babylon. Long reign of Nebuchadnezzar; he ravages Egypt. The seventy years’ captivity of Judah. Rise of Persia. Founding of the Roman republic. Establishment of democracy in Athens.

B. C.	Rome	Greeks	Egypt	Phœnicia-Lydia Phrygia	Hebrews		Babylonia-Assyria		Persians	China, Japan, India	B. C.
		II. Formation of Greek States (1100-500)					VI. The Assyrian Empire.
1100	1100. The Etruscans already in central Italy.	1100-950. Great migrations in Greece of Dorians and Thessalians.Ionic colonies founded in Asia Minor.	1091. At beginning of the twenty-firstdynasty two lines of kings: one at Thebes and another at Tanis. Power of Tanis established and great wall built.	1100. Tyre attains first rank among Phœnicianseacoast towns.			1100-930. History of Babylon of littleimportance until 600 B. C. Assyria the great power of Western Asia till the rise of the New Babylonian Empire after the destructionof Nineveh in 607 B. C.		1100. Formation of a powerful empire in Bactria. Deedsof kings celebrated in the Shahnameh of Firdusi.	China: 1123-255. Chow dynasty. Feudal system developed.	1100
		1068. Codrus, last king of Athens. Beginning of rule of archons.			1040. Samuel, last of the“Judges.”
					III. Period of Monarchy
					1020. Saul, king. Jerusalem, the capital of all Israel.
1000		1000. Period of HOMER. Poems of Homer reflect the Mycenæan and Aegean period of theGreeks.	A very complex and obscure period.		1000. David, king.				1000. Period of ZOROASTER and Zoroastrianism, was chief of the Magi, a priestly tribe ofMedia.		1000
			987-952. Pasebkhanu II. King Solomon married one of his daughters.	970. King Hiram sent material forSolomon’s Temple.	977-937. SOLOMON, king. Began building thetemple about 973. Married a daughter of King Pasebkhanu II. of Egypt.
			952. Sheshanq (Shishak of the Bible), married to sister of the wife of King Solomon. Great conquests in Syria.Capture of Jerusalem.				930-640. Brilliant epoch of Assyria. Aperiod of conquest, expansion, architecture, sculpture and literary activity.
					IV. Divided Monarchy (937)
900					Judah and Israel		886-858. Ashur-Nasir-Pal. One of the greatest Assyriankings. Extended the empire. Moved the government to Calah (Nimrod) from Ashur. Built a great palace there.				900
		820. Legislation of Lycurgus founded the stability of Sparta.		846. Carthage founded byElissa (Dido).			858-823. Shalmaneser II. Ceaseless wars made him master of Western Asia. First contact withIsraelites. Jehu, King of Israel, among those who sent tribute. Built palace at Calah (Nimrod). Protectorate over Babylon.		I. Ancient Persian Period (836-640)
							810-781. Ramari-nirrari IV. captured Damascus. Married Babylonian princess Semiramis.
800				800. Phrygia an independent monarchy.						India: 800. Bramanic period of Vedic literature.	800
	I. Mythical Period of the Kings (753-510)	776. First Olympiad, or first year theOlympian victor was recorded.	780. Rise of independent kingdom in Nubia.							China: 780-700. Constant struggles between central power and feudal states.
	753-716. Romulus.
	753. Rome founded.
	750. Sabines incorporated with Romans.	750-550. Colonizing period of the Greeks.					745-727. Tiglath-Pileser II. (Identical with the king Pulof the Bible) made Babylonia subject to Assyria.
		743-724. FIRST MESSENIAN WAR between Messenia and Sparta.		728. Midas of Phrygia foments rebellion against rule ofSargon in Northern Syria.	735-715. Ahaz became tributary to Assyria. Isaiah denounced the alliance.		728. END OF OLD BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.		740. Western Iran (Media and Persia) subject to Assyria.
			VI. Nubian Period (722-654)	727. Tyre captured by Assyria. Phœnician decline begins.			727-722. Shalmaneser IV. suppressed the revolt of the Phœnician cities and the kingdom ofIsrael.
	715-673. Numa Pompilius. Traditional founder of religiousinstitutions.		722. Egypt lost Palestine to Assyria.		715-686. Hezekiah. Began religious and socialreforms.	722-705. Sargon II. conquered Samaria and destroyed the Kingdom ofIsrael. He received tribute from Arabia, Egypt, and Cyprus; suppressed revolts in Armenia, Media and Babylonia, and united the latter withAssyria.
			707. Shabako, the Nubian, gains all Egypt, incites revolt in Syria and Palestine against Sargon.Later is defeated by Sennacherib.			705. Sennacherib.Invaded Judah. Palace at Nineveh and library. Assyrian art most flourishing from Ninth to end of SeventhCentury.
700	700-200. Etruscan influence very strong.			700. Cimmerian invasion shortly destroys Phrygian Kingdom.					700-600. Scythians sweep over Media, Persia and Assyria.		700
				689. Gyges, first important King of Lydia.	681. Esarhaddon. Wars withPhœnicia, Cilicia, Edom, Medes, and Arabs. Conquest of Lower Egypt.
	673-641. Tullus Hostilius. Alba Longa destroyed.		670-660. Assyrian supremacy. Nubians expelled byAshur-bani-pal but hold Thebes until 654.			668. Ashur-Bani-Pal (Sardanapalus). Expelled Nubians from Egypt and established his supremacy for a time. Best period ofart. Creation tablets and Deluge tablets. Gyges, King of Lydia, killed during a revolt.			II. Period of the Median Empire.
									655-633. Phraortes united Media.
	641-616. Ancus Marcius. Capture of Ostia. Warwith Latins.	645-628. SECOND MESSENIAN WAR. Sparta victorious.	653-610. PSAMETIK I. re-united Egypt. In alliance with Gyges, King ofLydia, made Egypt independent of Assyria. Built a magnificent palace at Sais, the new capital. Revival of art, religion andliterature.	636. Last Assyrian governor of Phœnicia.					640. Medes revolt from Assyria andestablish the Median Empire (640-558).	Japan: 660-585. Jimmu Tenno, first Mikado. Largely legendary.
		625. Corinth at its zenith. Periander, tyrant.				626. Assyrian power declining at death ofAshur-bani-pal. NABOPOLASSOR, Assyrian governor of Babylon, makes the latter independent, and wars against Assyria.			633-593. Cyaxeres, with Nabopolassor of Babylonia, capture Nineveh anddestroy the Assyrian Empire.
		621. Laws of Draco at Athens.
	616-578. Tarquinius Priscus. Treaty with Latins. Temple of Jupiter on the capitol. Importantadvance in power and civilization.		610-595. Neku II. InvadesSyria, but is vanquished at Carchemish by Nebuchadnezzar II. of Babylonia.	610. Alyattes, King of Lydia, battles with Cyaxares ofMedia. Erected magnificent buildings at Sardis.		610. Fall of Nineveh. END OF ASSYRIAN EMPIRE, dividedamong Medes and Babylonians.
					608-597. Jehoiakim. Jeremiah.	608. New Babylonian Empire.
						604-551. NEBUCHADNEZZAR II. makes Babylonia the leading nation of the East. ConqueredJerusalem (586) and subdued Tyre (585). Splendid architectural era at Babylon.
600		600-590. FIRST SACRED WAR.									600
		594. Solon, archon of Athens. Laws and reforms.		586-573. Tyre besieged by Nebuchadnezzar. Phœnicia a Persianprovince (538).	586. Capture of Jerusalem byNebuchadnezzar, temple destroyed and Jews made captive.			593-558. Astyoges, last King of Medes. Cyrus revolted, deposed the king, became king of Persia andmaster of the East.
	578-534. Servius Tulius. Rome consolidated. Rise of patricians and plebians.	560-527. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. Ionia and Greek cities of Asia conquered by Cyrus of Persia.	570-526. Aahmes II. Encouraged Greeksettlement. Magnificent buildings at Naucratis and Sais.	568. Crœsus, son ofAlyattes, subdued all the Grecian cities of the coast.				II. Period of the Persian Empire (558-330)
				546. Sardiscaptured and Lydia absorbed into Persian Empire.		555. Nabonidus, father of theBiblical Belshazzar, great builder and restorer of temples.		558-529. CYRUS, emperor. Conquered Crœsus, King of Lydia.		China: 551. CONFUCIUS born. Greatestfigure in Chinese history.
				538. Phœnicia became a Persian province.	538-332. Palestine under Persian dominion.	539-538. War of Cyrus against the Babylonians. Babyloncaptured. The Babylonian Empire incorporated with the Persian.
	534-510. Tarquinius Superbus. End of the Kings. Rome a Republic with two Consuls.	The Rise of Athens.		530. CARTHAGE becomes independent.		529-522. Cambysesconquered Egypt by his victory at Pelusium.
			525. Psametik III. defeated by Cambyses at Pelusium. Egypt a Persianprovince.
			520. Capture of Thebes (Luxor) and transplantation of6000 Egyptians to Susiana.		520-516. Temple rebuilt at Jerusalem.	521-485. DARIUS son of Hystaspes was made king.
				Phœnicia: through its influence the wholecountry is allowed to carry on its trade as usual, under the authority and protection of the king of Persia.		Darius has special interest because he was first to extend Persian authority into Europe, and thuspaved the way for the subsequent invasion of Greece.				This great Chinese philosopher, introduces anew religion, opposed to that of Fohi, and boldly inveighs against the viceand immorality of the times.
	II. The Republic to the Beginning of the Punic Wars (510-264)		The Persian kings exact a large tribute. The fisheries of Lake Mœris, etc.			518. Revolt of Babylon, and destruction of that city after a twenty months? siege. Indian campaign,in which the countries north of the Indus become subject to Persia. Indus the boundary of the empire.
	Struggle between patricians and plebians and development of Roman consolidation.	510. Athenian democracy fully established.				513. (?). Unsuccessful expedition of Darius against theScythians with a land force of 700,000 men. Macedonia and Thrace tributary.
	508. First commercial treaty with Carthage.			508. Carthage makes its first commercial treaty with Rome.
500		III. Persian Wars (500-449)		500. Carthage trades with the Greeks.		500-494. The Ionian colonies rebel, and are assisted by the Athenians, which gives riseto the Perso-Grecian wars and the national hatred between the two countries.					500
		See under Persia.
	498. First Dictator.			Carthage effects an alliance with the Persians against Sicily.	According to Philo, the history of Judith and Holofernesfalls under the reign of Artaxerxes. Under the same king lived Esther and Haman.	499. Sardis burnt by the Ionians. Grecian wars follow.
	First struggle, on account of the oppression of the debtors.					494. The Greeks and their allies defeated in navalengagement at the island of Lade.
	493. Tribunes of the people.					493-490. War of Darius against the European Greeks. Revolt among the Egpyptians.
						492. First expedition, under Mardonius, unsuccessful.
	491. Comitia Tributa, in which the people have the preponderance.	490. Marathon. The Athenians under Miltiades defeated thePersians under Datis. Free government and Greek civilization saved.				490. Second expedition, defeated at Marathon byMiltiades.
	Second struggle, respecting the division of lands.	Athens mistress of the sea.
	486. First Agrarian law.	489. Miltiades attacks Poros and fails. His condemnation and death follow.	486. Revolts, but is again subdued by Xerxes.			486. Egypt revolts and is not reduced to subjection until484.
	Continual wars against the neighboring states.	485. Gelo, master of Syracuse.	The tribute increased.			485. Death of Darius. He was succeeded by his son XERXES.

B. C.	Rome	Greeks	Egypt	Phœnicia-Lydia Phrygia
		II. Formation of Greek States (1100-500)
1100	1100. The Etruscans already in central Italy.	1100-950. Great migrations in Greece of Dorians and Thessalians. Ionic colonies founded in Asia Minor.	1091. At beginning of the twenty-first dynasty two lines of kings: one at Thebes and another at Tanis. Power of Tanis established and great wall built.	1100. Tyre attains first rank among Phœnician seacoast towns.
		1068. Codrus, last king of Athens. Beginning of rule of archons.
1000		1000. Period of HOMER. Poems of Homer reflect the Mycenæan and Aegean period of the Greeks.	A very complex and obscure period.
			987-952. Pasebkhanu II. King Solomon married one of his daughters.	970. King Hiram sent material for Solomon’s Temple.
			952. Sheshanq (Shishak of the Bible), married to sister of the wife of King Solomon. Great conquests in Syria. Capture of Jerusalem.
900
		820. Legislation of Lycurgus founded the stability of Sparta.		846. Carthage founded by Elissa (Dido).
800				800. Phrygia an independent monarchy.
	I. Mythical Period of the Kings (753-510)	776. First Olympiad, or first year the Olympian victor was recorded.	780. Rise of independent kingdom in Nubia.
	753-716. Romulus.
	753. Rome founded.
	750. Sabines incorporated with Romans.	750-550. Colonizing period of the Greeks.
		743-724. FIRST MESSENIAN WAR between Messenia and Sparta.		728. Midas of Phrygia foments rebellion against rule of Sargon in Northern Syria.
			VI. Nubian Period (722-654)	727. Tyre captured by Assyria. Phœnician decline begins.
	715-673. Numa Pompilius. Traditional founder of religious institutions.		722. Egypt lost Palestine to Assyria.
			707. Shabako, the Nubian, gains all Egypt, incites revolt in Syria and Palestine against Sargon. Later is defeated by Sennacherib.
700	700-200. Etruscan influence very strong.			700. Cimmerian invasion shortly destroys Phrygian Kingdom.
				689. Gyges, first important King of Lydia.
	673-641. Tullus Hostilius. Alba Longa destroyed.		670-660. Assyrian supremacy. Nubians expelled by Ashur-bani-pal but hold Thebes until 654.
	641-616. Ancus Marcius. Capture of Ostia. War with Latins.	645-628. SECOND MESSENIAN WAR. Sparta victorious.	653-610. PSAMETIK I. re-united Egypt. In alliance with Gyges, King of Lydia, made Egypt independent of Assyria. Built a magnificent palace at Sais, the new capital. Revival of art, religion and literature.	636. Last Assyrian governor of Phœnicia.
		625. Corinth at its zenith. Periander, tyrant.
		621. Laws of Draco at Athens.
	616-578. Tarquinius Priscus. Treaty with Latins. Temple of Jupiter on the capitol. Important advance in power and civilization.		610-595. Neku II. Invades Syria, but is vanquished at Carchemish by Nebuchadnezzar II. of Babylonia.	610. Alyattes, King of Lydia, battles with Cyaxares of Media. Erected magnificent buildings at Sardis.
600		600-590. FIRST SACRED WAR.
		594. Solon, archon of Athens. Laws and reforms.		586-573. Tyre besieged by Nebuchadnezzar. Phœnicia a Persian province (538).
	578-534. Servius Tulius. Rome consolidated. Rise of patricians and plebians.	560-527. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. Ionia and Greek cities of Asia conquered by Cyrus of Persia.	570-526. Aahmes II. Encouraged Greek settlement. Magnificent buildings at Naucratis and Sais.	568. Crœsus, son of Alyattes, subdued all the Grecian cities of the coast.
				546. Sardis captured and Lydia absorbed into Persian Empire.
				538. Phœnicia became a Persian province.
	534-510. Tarquinius Superbus. End of the Kings. Rome a Republic with two Consuls.	The Rise of Athens.		530. CARTHAGE becomes independent.
			525. Psametik III. defeated by Cambyses at Pelusium. Egypt a Persian province.
			520. Capture of Thebes (Luxor) and transplantation of 6000 Egyptians to Susiana.
				Phœnicia: through its influence the whole country is allowed to carry on its trade as usual, under the authority and protection of the king of Persia.
	II. The Republic to the Beginning of the Punic Wars (510-264)		The Persian kings exact a large tribute. The fisheries of Lake Mœris, etc.
	Struggle between patricians and plebians and development of Roman consolidation.	510. Athenian democracy fully established.
	508. First commercial treaty with Carthage.			508. Carthage makes its first commercial treaty with Rome.
500		III. Persian Wars (500-449)		500. Carthage trades with the Greeks.
		See under Persia.
	498. First Dictator.			Carthage effects an alliance with the Persians against Sicily.
	First struggle, on account of the oppression of the debtors.
	493. Tribunes of the people.
	491. Comitia Tributa, in which the people have the preponderance.	490. Marathon. The Athenians under Miltiades defeated the Persians under Datis. Free government and Greek civilization saved.
	Second struggle, respecting the division of lands.	Athens mistress of the sea.
	486. First Agrarian law.	489. Miltiades attacks Poros and fails. His condemnation and death follow.	486. Revolts, but is again subdued by Xerxes.
	Continual wars against the neighboring states.	485. Gelo, master of Syracuse.	The tribute increased.

B. C.	Hebrews		Babylonia-Assyria		Persians	China, Japan, India
			VI. The Assyrian Empire.
1100			1100-930. History of Babylon of littleimportance until 600 B. C. Assyria the great power of Western Asia till the rise of the New Babylonian Empire after the destructionof Nineveh in 607 B. C.		1100. Formation of a powerful empire in Bactria. Deedsof kings celebrated in the Shahnameh of Firdusi.	China: 1123-255. Chow dynasty. Feudal system developed.
	1040. Samuel, last of the“Judges.”
	III. Period of Monarchy
	1020. Saul, king. Jerusalem, the capital of all Israel.
1000	1000. David, king.				1000. Period of ZOROASTER and Zoroastrianism, was chief of the Magi, a priestly tribe ofMedia.
	977-937. SOLOMON, king. Began building thetemple about 973. Married a daughter of King Pasebkhanu II. of Egypt.
			930-640. Brilliant epoch of Assyria. Aperiod of conquest, expansion, architecture, sculpture and literary activity.
	IV. Divided Monarchy (937)
900	Judah and Israel		886-858. Ashur-Nasir-Pal. One of the greatest Assyriankings. Extended the empire. Moved the government to Calah (Nimrod) from Ashur. Built a great palace there.
			858-823. Shalmaneser II. Ceaseless wars made him master of Western Asia. First contact withIsraelites. Jehu, King of Israel, among those who sent tribute. Built palace at Calah (Nimrod). Protectorate over Babylon.
			810-781. Ramari-nirrari IV. captured Damascus. Married Babylonian princess Semiramis.		I. Ancient Persian Period (836-640)
800						India: 800. Bramanic period of Vedic literature.
						China: 780-700. Constant struggles between central power and feudal states.
			745-727. Tiglath-Pileser II. (Identical with the king Pulof the Bible) made Babylonia subject to Assyria.
	735-715. Ahaz became tributary to Assyria. Isaiah denounced the alliance.		728. END OF OLD BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.		740. Western Iran (Media and Persia) subject to Assyria.
			727-722. Shalmaneser IV. suppressed the revolt of the Phœnician cities and the kingdom ofIsrael.
	715-686. Hezekiah. Began religious and socialreforms.	722-705. Sargon II. conquered Samaria and destroyed the Kingdom ofIsrael. He received tribute from Arabia, Egypt, and Cyprus; suppressed revolts in Armenia, Media and Babylonia, and united the latter withAssyria.
		705. Sennacherib.Invaded Judah. Palace at Nineveh and library. Assyrian art most flourishing from Ninth to end of SeventhCentury.
700					700-600. Scythians sweep over Media, Persia and Assyria.
	681. Esarhaddon. Wars withPhœnicia, Cilicia, Edom, Medes, and Arabs. Conquest of Lower Egypt.
		668. Ashur-Bani-Pal (Sardanapalus). Expelled Nubians from Egypt and established his supremacy for a time. Best period ofart. Creation tablets and Deluge tablets. Gyges, King of Lydia, killed during a revolt.			II. Period of the Median Empire.
					655-633. Phraortes united Media.
					640. Medes revolt from Assyria andestablish the Median Empire (640-558).	Japan: 660-585. Jimmu Tenno, first Mikado. Largely legendary.
		626. Assyrian power declining at death ofAshur-bani-pal. NABOPOLASSOR, Assyrian governor of Babylon, makes the latter independent, and wars against Assyria.			633-593. Cyaxeres, with Nabopolassor of Babylonia, capture Nineveh anddestroy the Assyrian Empire.
		610. Fall of Nineveh. END OF ASSYRIAN EMPIRE, dividedamong Medes and Babylonians.
	608-597. Jehoiakim. Jeremiah.	608. New Babylonian Empire.
		604-551. NEBUCHADNEZZAR II. makes Babylonia the leading nation of the East. ConqueredJerusalem (586) and subdued Tyre (585). Splendid architectural era at Babylon.
600
	586. Capture of Jerusalem byNebuchadnezzar, temple destroyed and Jews made captive.			593-558. Astyoges, last King of Medes. Cyrus revolted, deposed the king, became king of Persia andmaster of the East.
				II. Period of the Persian Empire (558-330)
		555. Nabonidus, father of theBiblical Belshazzar, great builder and restorer of temples.		558-529. CYRUS, emperor. Conquered Crœsus, King of Lydia.		China: 551. CONFUCIUS born. Greatestfigure in Chinese history.
	538-332. Palestine under Persian dominion.	539-538. War of Cyrus against the Babylonians. Babylon captured. The Babylonian Empire incorporatedwith the Persian.
		529-522. Cambysesconquered Egypt by his victory at Pelusium.
	520-516. Temple rebuilt at Jerusalem.	521-485. DARIUS son of Hystaspes was made king.
		Darius has special interest because he was first to extend Persian authority into Europe, and thuspaved the way for the subsequent invasion of Greece.				This great Chinese philosopher, introduces anew religion, opposed to that of Fohi, and boldly inveighs against the viceand immorality of the times.
		518. Revolt of Babylon, and destruction of that city after a twenty months? siege. Indian campaign,in which the countries north of the Indus become subject to Persia. Indus the boundary of the empire.
		513. (?). Unsuccessful expedition of Darius against theScythians with a land force of 700,000 men. Macedonia and Thrace tributary.
500		500-494. The Ionian colonies rebel, and are assisted by the Athenians, which gives riseto the Perso-Grecian wars and the national hatred between the two countries.
	According to Philo, the history of Judith and Holofernesfalls under the reign of Artaxerxes.	499. Sardis burnt by the Ionians. Grecian wars follow.
	Under the same king lived Esther and Haman.	494. The Greeks and their allies defeated in navalengagement at the island of Lade.
		493-490. War of Darius against the European Greeks. Revolt among the Egpyptians.
		492. First expedition, under Mardonius, unsuccessful.
		490. Second expedition, defeated at Marathon byMiltiades.
		486. Egypt revolts and is not reduced to subjection until484.
		485. Death of Darius. He was succeeded by his son XERXES.

IV. FROM THE ACCESSION OF XERXES THE GREAT TO THE PERIOD OF THE PUNIC WARS, 485-264, B. C.

Great Events of the Period. 500-400: Zenith of Persia; and glorious century of Greece. Struggles of Patricians and Plebeians at Rome. 400-300: Decline and fall of Persia before Alexander the Great; Greek language and Greek civilization extended all through the Levant. Roman wars with the Samnites. Internal quarrels of the Romans diminish. 300-200: Semi-Greek Kingdoms built on the ruins of the Persian Empire; in Egypt the Ptolemies; in Syria, the Antiochi. Many Jews at Alexandria.

B. C.	Carthage	Rome	The Greeks						Egypt	Hebrews	Persia		China-Japan-India	B. C.
	Carthage became independent of Phœnicia in 530.		ÆSCHYLUS (525-456).						485. Xerxes quelled a revolt.		485-465. XERXES I.
		481-475. Wars with Veii.	481-480. Third expedition of the Persians against Greece, under Xerxes.
	480. Carthaginians invaded Sicily; defeated at Himera by Gela.		480. Battle of the Greeks under Leonidas, at Thermopylæ. Naval battle of Salamis savedAthens.								480. Xerxes invaded Greece, Thermopylæ, Salamis. Elaborate great palace at Persepolis.Hypostyle Hall, fine bull-capitals, good bas-reliefs with invocations to Ahura Mazda. Propylæa, winged human-headed bulls. Hangingdraperies. Xerxes and his eldest son murdered.
			479. Fourth expedition of the Persians against Greece. Greek victories at Platæa and Mycale.Persian army destroyed.								479. Persians expelled from Greece.		478. China: Death of Confucius. China distracted byinternal wars.
475			SOPHOCLES (495-406).											475
		471. First Publilian Laws.	465. Battle of the Eurymedon.								465-424. Artaxerxes I. succeeded to the throne.
			464-456. THIRD MESSENIAN WAR.							458(?). Ezra.	462-455. Second revolt of the Egyptians.
			457-445. War of the Spartans and Bœotians against Athens.
		451-449. The Decemvirate.							455(?). Herodotus in Egypt.
450		450. The Twelve Tables.	449. Battle of Salamis in Cyprus.										450. India: Brick and stone buildings in existence.	450
		448. Valerian and Horatian Laws.	HERODOTUS (484-408).
			EURIPIDES (480-406).
		445. Canuleian Laws.	445. End of Persian war. Thirty years’ peace between Athens and Sparta.
			IV. Age of Pericles and Greek Luxury
			PERICLES (499-429).
		444. Consular Tribunes.	444-429. Athens under the administration of Pericles, reached the zenith of its greatness.							444. Nehemiah, governor of Jerusalem. Rebuilds the city walls.
			PHIDIAS (fl. 448-440).
			431-404. PELOPONNESIAN WAR—between Athens and Sparta.
425			SOCRATES (469-399).								424. Xerxes II. murdered by his brother Sogdianus sameyear.			425
			421. Alcibiades in power atAthens.								423. Darius II.
			THUCYDIDES (471-402).
	410. HANNIBAL and Hamilcar invade Sicily.		415-413. Expedition of the Athenians against Syracuse. Greek defeat. Decline of Athenianpower.							415. Death of Nehemiah. High priests rule under Persian authority.	412. Sparta recognized Persian rule in Asia minor.
	405. Treaty between Carthage and Syracuse. Landed aristocracy created at Carthage.		405. Lysander of Sparta destroyed Athenian fleet.								405. Egypt declared its independence.
			The Spartan Supremacy (405-371).
			404. Surrender of Athens and end of Peloponnesian War. Sparta supreme in Greece.						404. Egypt independent of Persia for short period.		404. Artaxerxes II. Revolt of his younger brother Cyrus, aided byGreeks.
											401. Cyrus defeated at Cunaxa and slain. “Retreat of the Ten Thousand.”
400			399-394. War between the Spartans and Persians. Fall ofSpartan power in Asia.								398. Artaxerxes II. War with Greece. Egyptand Cyprus assisted Greece.			400
		390. GAUL’S INVASION OF ITALY. Rome burned.	PLATO (429-347).								394. Persian fleet defeated the Spartans at Cnidus.
			379-362. War between Thebes and Sparta. Thebes freed.
		377-367. Licinian Laws.
375		366. First Plebeian Consul.							361. Treaty with Sparta vs. Persians.	370. Persian satrap suppressed civil war.	370-363. Renewed revolts in Asia Minor. Egypt joined therebels and invaded Syria.		372. China: Mencius born.	375
			359. Rise of the Macedonian power. Philip of Macedon.						359-342. Persian invasions of Egypt. Nectanebo II. last native king.
			DEMOSTHENES (382-347).								358. Artaxerxes III. seized the throne. Persians defeated in Egypt.
			357-355. The Social War.
	360. Carthaginians form settlements in Spain.		355-346. Second Sacred War against the Phocians, whoseized Delphi.
350		348. Treaty of commerce with Carthage.	ARISTOTLE (384-322).							350. Temple destroyed by Persians. Many Jews deported.				350
	343. Greek cities of Sicily freed from Carthage.	343-341. FIRST SAMNITE WAR.
		340-338. Great Latin War.	V. The Macedonian Period (338-146)								340. Conquest of Egypt.
			339-338. THIRD SACRED WAR. Macedonians against Athens and Greece.
			338. Macedonia supreme under Philip II.								337. Mithridates I. of Pontusbecame independent of Persia.
			336. Philip assassinated.
			336-323. ALEXANDER THE GREAT, King of Macedonia. Great extension of power.								335. Darius III. ascended the throne.
			334-328. WARS OF ALEXANDER IN ASIA.						334-323. Alexander the Great overthrows Persians, and is master of Egypt. Greek domination.Alexandria founded.		334-332. Alexander the Great defeated Darius at Granicus and Issus.
			334. Battle at Granicus.
			333. Founded Alexandria in Egypt. Occupied Babylon, subdued Persia and Darius III. InvadedIndia in 327.							333. Palestine under Alexander the Great. Remained under Greek domination to 198B. C.	331. Battle of Arbela. The Persians defeated bythe Macedonians and Greeks under Alexander the Great. END OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE.
									Euclid (Alexandria). (fl. 325).				326. India: Alexander’s invasion.
	Carthage	Rome	The Immense Greek Empire of Alexander The Great										China-Japan-India
		326-304. SECOND SAMNITE WAR.
325													325-315. India: Maurya Dynasty, most brilliant of old Hindu dynasties.	325
	Carthage rises in wealth and political importance.		323. Death of Alexander at Babylon. His empire split up among his generals after his death.Perdiccas became regent in Asia for Alexander’s half brother and his posthumous son. Antipater and Craterus shared the regency ofthe west. The other generals received lieutenancies: Ptolemæus, Egypt; Antigonus, Pamphylia, Phrygia and Lycia; Eumenes,Alexander’s secretary, Paphlygonia and Cappadocia; and Cassander, Caria; Leonnatus, Phrygia on the Hellespont.
			323-301. Wars of Alexander’s Successors for his Asiatic Dominions.The first partition of the empire was made 322, but twenty-two years elapsed before peace was concluded between the contendingclaimants.
			KINGDOMS AND STATES which arose upon the DIVISION OF THE MACEDONIANEMPIRE AT THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
			Macedonia		Greece		Thrace		Egypt	Palestine	Phrygia,Lycia, Pamphylia	Syria
			323. Perdiccas appointed regent; slain 321.		323-322. Lamian War; Phocian at head of affairs. Death of Demosthenes.		323. Lysimachus is appointed governor of Thrace.		323. Ptolemy I. Soter, the son of Lagus.	323. Annexed with Phœnicia to Syria.
		321. The Samnites defeat the Romans at the Caudine Forks and send them under the yoke.	319. Polysperchon succeedsAntipater, and proclaims liberty to the Grecian cities.		321. Antipater, regent of the empire.				320. Ptolemy makes himself master of Cyprus andSyria.		320. Phrygia, Lycia, Pamphylia fell to the share ofAntigonus, who defeats Eumenes and makes himself master of all Asia Minor.	321. The Kingdom of the Seleucidæ founded by Seleucus Nicator, whoreceived Babylon as his province.
	317. Carthage and Syracuse at war.				317. Phocion put to death by the Athenians. Demetrius Phalereusgoverns Athens.
					315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes.					312. Capture of Jerusalem by Ptolemy. Colony of Jews inAlexandria.	315. Formation of a league against Antigonus by Ptolemy, Cassander, Seleucus, and Lysimachus.	312. Syria ruled by Seleucus Nicator; he takes Babylon. Era of the Seleucidæ.	312-306. India: Seleucus attempts to recover provinces ofAlexander.
	310. Agathocles invades Carthaginian territory in Africa.	309. Fabius Maximus defeats the Etrurians at theVadimonian Lake.								311-301. Subject to Antigonus.
	306. Peace with Syracuse.	307. The Carthaginians defeat Agathocles and besiege Syracuse.			303. DemetriusPoliorcetes, general of the Grecian states, opposes Cassander.		307. Lysimachus seizes the throne.		305. Ptolemy assumes the regal title ofEgypt. Alexandria begins a great period.
			302. Cassander, king of Macedonia.				302. Invades Asia.			301. Again under Egypt.	301. Battle of Ipsus. Antigonus killed.	301. After the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus gains the provinces ofSyria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, and Armenia.
			301. AFTER THE BATTLE OF IPSUS ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE WAS AGAIN DIVIDED INTOFOUR CHIEF PARTS.
			Macedonia			Greek States			Egypt	Palestine	Seleucid Kingdom
300		298-290. THIRD SAMNITE WAR. Thesewars pave the way to the subjugation of Italy, and the future greatness of Rome.	296. Death of Cassander. Quarrelsof his two sons, Antipater and Alexander.						The empire of the Ptolemies extended over Egypt, Libya, Cyrene, Arabia Pettræa, Judæa,Phœnicia, Damascus, and Cyprus. Golden age of the Ptolemies.	300. Canon of Old Testament, under Simon the Just.	299. Seleucus built or improved a great number of citiesincluding Antioch, Seleucia, Apamea, and Laodicea.		300. India: Brahmanic system of caste instituted.	300
		286. Law of Hortensius, by which thedecrees of the Plebs are made absolute in the state. The end of the long struggle between Patricians and Plebeians.	287. Demetrius expelled by Pyrrhus. Lysimachus drives Pyrrhus out of Macedonia.			287. Athens revolts from Demetrius.					287. Seleucus defeats Demetrius Poliorcetes and keeps him prisoner.
		282-272. ROMAN WAR WITH TARENTUM. Tarentum seeks the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus.	283. Death of Demetrius. 281. Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus.			281. TheAchæan League created. Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus in thebattle of Korupedion.			283-247. Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, themost magnificent of the Egyptian kings, is associated by his father in the kingdom. Canal ofArsinoë. Obelisk.	284. The Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, begun at Alexandria, by order of PtolemyPhiladelphus.
		278. Pyrrhus lands in Sicily, and makes himself masterof all the Carthaginian towns.	280. Sosthenes ascends the throne and liberates his country; but falls, 278.								280. Antiochus I. succeeds Seleucus. 278-250. Nicomedes I.
			277. Antigonus Gonatas, King of Macedonia, descendant of oneof Alexander’s generals, master of all Greece except Sparta.								277. Gauls (Galatia) invaded Asia Minor.
275						274. Pyrrhus invades Macedonia, defeats Antigonas, andis proclaimed king.			273. Ambassadors sent to Rome.					275
						272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta and Argos—is slain, and Antigonus is restored.			272. Roman embassy sent to Egypt.				270. India: Asoka descendantof Chandragupta, reigns in Magadha; he is a friend of Buddhism.
		266. Roman subjugation of Italy is completed.				266. The Chremonidean War. Athens and Sparta allied in revolt against Macedonia.
	264-241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. Contest over Sicily.

B. C.	Carthage	Rome	China-Japan-India
	Carthage became independent of Phœnicia in 530.
		481-475. Wars with Veii.
	480. Carthaginians invaded Sicily; defeated at Himera by Gela.
			478. China: Death of Confucius. China distracted byinternal wars.
475
		471. First Publilian Laws.
		451-449. The Decemvirate.
450		450. The Twelve Tables.	450. India: Brick and stone buildings in existence.
		448. Valerian and Horatian Laws.
		445. Canuleian Laws.
		444. Consular Tribunes.
425
	410. HANNIBAL and Hamilcar invade Sicily.
	405. Treaty between Carthage and Syracuse. Landed aristocracy created at Carthage.
400
		390. GAUL’S INVASION OF ITALY. Rome burned.
		377-367. Licinian Laws.
375		366. First Plebeian Consul.	372. China: Mencius born.
	360. Carthaginians form settlements in Spain.
350		348. Treaty of commerce with Carthage.
	343. Greek cities of Sicily freed from Carthage.	343-341. FIRST SAMNITE WAR.
		340-338. Great Latin War.
			326. India: Alexander’s invasion.
		326-304. SECOND SAMNITE WAR.
325			325-315. India: Maurya Dynasty, most brilliant of old Hindu dynasties.
	Carthage rises in wealth and political importance.
	317. Carthage and Syracuse at war.
			312-306. India: Seleucus attempts to recover provinces ofAlexander.
	310. Agathocles invades Carthaginian territory in Africa.	309. Fabius Maximus defeats the Etrurians at theVadimonian Lake.
	306. Peace with Syracuse.	307. The Carthaginians defeat Agathocles and besiege Syracuse.
300		298-290. THIRD SAMNITE WAR. Thesewars pave the way to the subjugation of Italy, and the future greatness of Rome.	300. India: Brahmanic system of caste instituted.
		286. Law of Hortensius, by which thedecrees of the Plebs are made absolute in the state. The end of the long struggle between Patricians and Plebeians.
		282-272. ROMAN WAR WITH TARENTUM. Tarentum seeks the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus.
		278. Pyrrhus lands in Sicily, and makes himself masterof all the Carthaginian towns.
275
			270. India: Asoka descendantof Chandragupta, reigns in Magadha; he is a friend of Buddhism.
		266. Roman subjugation of Italy is completed.
	264-241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. Contest over Sicily.

B. C.	The Greeks						Egypt	Hebrews	Persia
	ÆSCHYLUS (525-456).						485. Xerxes quelled a revolt.		485-465. XERXES I.
	481-480. Third expedition of the Persians against Greece, under Xerxes.
	480. Battle of the Greeks under Leonidas, at Thermopylæ. Naval battle of Salamis savedAthens.								480. Xerxes invaded Greece, Thermopylæ, Salamis. Elaborate great palace at Persepolis.Hypostyle Hall, fine bull-capitals, good bas-reliefs with invocations to Ahura Mazda. Propylæa, winged human-headed bulls. Hangingdraperies. Xerxes and his eldest son murdered.
	479. Fourth expedition of the Persians against Greece. Greek victories at Platæa and Mycale.Persian army destroyed.								479. Persians expelled from Greece.
475	SOPHOCLES (495-406).
	465. Battle of the Eurymedon.								465-424. Artaxerxes I. succeeded to the throne.
	464-456. THIRD MESSENIAN WAR.							458(?). Ezra.	462-455. Second revolt of the Egyptians.
	457-445. War of the Spartans and Bœotians against Athens.
							455(?). Herodotus in Egypt.
450	449. Battle of Salamis in Cyprus.
	HERODOTUS (484-408).
	EURIPIDES (480-406).
	445. End of Persian war. Thirty years’ peace between Athens and Sparta.
	IV. Age of Pericles and Greek Luxury
	PERICLES (499-429).
	444-429. Athens under the administration of Pericles, reached the zenith of its greatness.							444. Nehemiah, governor of Jerusalem. Rebuilds the city walls.
	PHIDIAS (fl. 448-440).
	431-404. PELOPONNESIAN WAR—between Athens and Sparta.
425	SOCRATES (469-399).								424. Xerxes II. murdered by his brother Sogdianus sameyear.
	421. Alcibiades in power atAthens.								423. Darius II.
	THUCYDIDES (471-402).
	415-413. Expedition of the Athenians against Syracuse. Greek defeat. Decline of Athenianpower.							415. Death of Nehemiah. High priests rule under Persian authority.	412. Sparta recognized Persian rule in Asia minor.
	405. Lysander of Sparta destroyed Athenian fleet.								405. Egypt declared its independence.
	The Spartan Supremacy (405-371).
	404. Surrender of Athens and end of Peloponnesian War. Sparta supreme in Greece.						404. Egypt independent of Persia for short period.		404. Artaxerxes II. Revolt of his younger brother Cyrus, aided byGreeks.
									401. Cyrus defeated at Cunaxa and slain. “Retreat of the Ten Thousand.”
400	399-394. War between the Spartans and Persians. Fall ofSpartan power in Asia.								398. Artaxerxes II. War with Greece. Egyptand Cyprus assisted Greece.
	PLATO (429-347).								394. Persian fleet defeated the Spartans at Cnidus.
	379-362. War between Thebes and Sparta. Thebes freed.
375							361. Treaty with Sparta vs. Persians.	370. Persian satrap suppressed civil war.	370-363. Renewed revolts in Asia Minor. Egypt joined therebels and invaded Syria.
	359. Rise of the Macedonian power. Philip of Macedon.						359-342. Persian invasions of Egypt. Nectanebo II. last native king.
	DEMOSTHENES (382-347).								358. Artaxerxes III. seized the throne. Persians defeated in Egypt.
	357-355. The Social War.
	355-346. Second Sacred War against the Phocians, whoseized Delphi.
350	ARISTOTLE (384-322).							350. Temple destroyed by Persians. Many Jews deported.
	V. The Macedonian Period (338-146)								340. Conquest of Egypt.
	339-338. THIRD SACRED WAR. Macedonians against Athens and Greece.
	338. Macedonia supreme under Philip II.								337. Mithridates I. of Pontusbecame independent of Persia.
	336. Philip assassinated.
	336-323. ALEXANDER THE GREAT, King of Macedonia. Great extension of power.								335. Darius III. ascended the throne.
	334-328. WARS OF ALEXANDER IN ASIA.						334-323. Alexander the Great overthrows Persians, and is master of Egypt. Greek domination.Alexandria founded.		334-332. Alexander the Great defeated Darius at Granicus and Issus.
	334. Battle at Granicus.
	333. Founded Alexandria in Egypt. Occupied Babylon, subdued Persia and Darius III. Invaded Indiain 327.							333. Palestine under Alexander the Great. Remained under Greek domination to 198B. C.	331. Battle of Arbela. The Persians defeated by theMacedonians and Greeks under Alexander the Great. END OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE.
							Euclid (Alexandria). (fl. 325).
	The Immense Greek Empire of Alexander The Great
325
	323. Death of Alexander at Babylon. His empire split up among his generals after his death.Perdiccas became regent in Asia for Alexander’s half brother and his posthumous son. Antipater and Craterus shared the regency ofthe west. The other generals received lieutenancies: Ptolemæus, Egypt; Antigonus, Pamphylia, Phrygia and Lycia; Eumenes,Alexander’s secretary, Paphlygonia and Cappadocia; and Cassander, Caria; Leonnatus, Phrygia on the Hellespont.
	323-301. Wars of Alexander’s Successors for his Asiatic Dominions.The first partition of the empire was made 322, but twenty-two years elapsed before peace was concluded between the contendingclaimants.
	KINGDOMS AND STATES which arose upon the DIVISION OF THE MACEDONIANEMPIRE AT THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
	Macedonia		Greece		Thrace		Egypt	Palestine	Phrygia,Lycia, Pamphylia	Syria
	323. Perdiccas appointed regent; slain 321.		323-322. Lamian War; Phocian at head of affairs. Death of Demosthenes.		323. Lysimachus is appointed governor of Thrace.		323. Ptolemy I. Soter, the son of Lagus.	323. Annexed with Phœnicia to Syria.
	319. Polysperchon succeedsAntipater, and proclaims liberty to the Grecian cities.		321. Antipater, regent of the empire.				320. Ptolemy makes himself master of Cyprus andSyria.		320. Phrygia, Lycia, Pamphylia fell to the share ofAntigonus, who defeats Eumenes and makes himself master of all Asia Minor.	321. The Kingdom of the Seleucidæ founded by Seleucus Nicator, whoreceived Babylon as his province.
			317. Phocion put to death by the Athenians. Demetrius Phalereusgoverns Athens.
			315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes.					312. Capture of Jerusalem by Ptolemy. Colony of Jews inAlexandria.	315. Formation of a league against Antigonus by Ptolemy, Cassander, Seleucus, and Lysimachus	312. Syria ruled by Seleucus Nicator; he takes Babylon. Era of the Seleucidæ.
								311-301. Subject to Antigonus.
			303. DemetriusPoliorcetes, general of the Grecian states, opposes Cassander.		307. Lysimachus seizes the throne.		305. Ptolemy assumes the regal title ofEgypt. Alexandria begins a great period.
	302. Cassander, king of Macedonia.				302. Invades Asia.			301. Again under Egypt.	301. Battle of Ipsus. Antigonus killed.	301. After the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus gains the provinces ofSyria, Cappadocia, Mesopotamia, and Armenia.
	301. AFTER THE BATTLE OF IPSUS ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE WAS AGAIN DIVIDED INTOFOUR CHIEF PARTS.
	Macedonia			Greek States			Egypt	Palestine	Seleucid Kingdom
300	296. Death of Cassander. Quarrelsof his two sons, Antipater and Alexander.						The empire of the Ptolemies extended over Egypt, Libya, Cyrene, Arabia Pettræa, Judæa,Phœnicia, Damascus, and Cyprus. Golden age of the Ptolemies.	300. Canon of Old Testament, under Simon the Just.	299. Seleucus built or improved a great number of citiesincluding Antioch, Seleucia, Apamea, and Laodicea.
	287. Demetrius expelled by Pyrrhus. Lysimachus drives Pyrrhus out of Macedonia.			287. Athens revolts from Demetrius.					287. Seleucus defeats Demetrius Poliorcetes and keeps him prisoner.
	283. Death of Demetrius. 281. Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus.			281. TheAchæan League created. Lysimachus defeated and slain by Seleucus in thebattle of Korupedion.			283-247. Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, themost magnificent of the Egyptian kings, is associated by his father in the kingdom. Canal ofArsinoë. Obelisk.	284. The Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, begun at Alexandria, by order of PtolemyPhiladelphus.
	280. Sosthenes ascends the throne and liberates his country; but falls, 278.								280. Antiochus I. succeeds Seleucus. 278-250. Nicomedes I.
	277. Antigonus Gonatas, King of Macedonia, descendant of oneof Alexander’s generals, master of all Greece except Sparta.								277. Gauls (Galatia) invaded Asia Minor.
275				274. Pyrrhus invades Macedonia, defeats Antigonas, andis proclaimed king.			273. Ambassadors sent to Rome.
				272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta and Argos—is slain, and Antigonus is restored.			272. Roman embassy sent to Egypt.
				266. The Chremonidean War. Athens and Sparta allied in revolt against Macedonia.

V. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE PUNIC OR CARTHAGINIAN WARS TO THE FOUNDING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 264-30, B. C.

Great Events of Period. 300-200: Rome mistress of Italy; then, victorious over Carthage, extends her influence to Greece and Spain. Peasant proprietors replaced by slaves in Italy. 200-100: Greece, Macedonia, Carthage, and Spain under Roman rule; decline of the Roman Oligarchy; the Gracchi begin the democratic revolution which ends in the empire. Eastern luxury introduced among the Romans. 100-1: The Romans govern all the countries around the Mediterranean. Roman Oligarchy is followed by establishment of the empire.

B. C.	Carthage	Rome		Macedonia	Greek States	Seleucid Empire	Palestine	Egypt	Parthia	China, India, Japan	B. C.
		III. Epoch of the Punic Wars, and Beginning of the Universal Rule of Rome(264-146)
	264-241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. Carthaginians led by Hamilcar, father of Hannibal.			262. Antigonus took Athens. End of its independence andpolitical importance.		261. Revolt of Parthians from Seleucid rule.Parthian kingdom formed.	The Jews remained subject to Egypt down to B. C. 203, in comparative peace.
	256. Regulus invades Africa and is defeated byXanthippus, a Spartan general.	260. First Roman fleet built. Victory at sea.			255. Antigonus liberates Athens. Athens joins the Achæan League.
		Scipio Africanus.
		ARCHIMEDES (287-212).
250									250-248. Arsaces I. founds the kingdom of Parthia, having killed Agathocles, and expelled theMacedonians.		250
	241. Peace with Carthage. The ceded parts of Sicilyformed the first Roman province there.							247-30. Ptolemy III., Euergetes. Extended his empire by conquests in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persia,Susiana, and Media, and extends his influence as far as Thrace and Macedonia.
	238. Hamilcar begins establishment ofCarthaginian power in Spain.	241. The Roman fleet under Catulus defeats the Carthaginians off the Ægatian Islands.
	HANNIBAL (247-183).			227. War between Cleomenes, King of Sparta, and the Ætolian league.
				226. Athens freed from Macedonia allied with Rome.
225		224. The Romans first cross the Po.				223. AntiochusIII., the Great, ruled Syria, Phœnicia to Egypt.					225
	221. Hannibal succeeds Asdrubal in the command.	219. Hannibal takes Saguntum and crosses the Alps.								221-210. China: Chi-Huang-Ti, first universal emperor. Great wall built.
	218-201. SECOND PUNIC WAR. Hannibal crossed the Alps.
		217. Romans defeated at Lake Trasimeno.				217. Antiochus III. defeated by Ptolemy Philopater in the battle of Raphia.
		216. Romans at Cannæ totally defeated by Hannibal. Fabius Maximus, Dictator.							216. Arsaces III., King of Persia.
		215. Treaty between Hannibal and Philip V. of Macedonia.
		214-205. FIRST WAR WITH MACEDONIA.
		212. Syracuse taken by Marcellus. Archimedes killed.				212-206. Campaigns in Upper Asia against the Parthians and Bactrians.
		211. Capua taken by the Romans.		211. Alliance of Rome, the Ætolians, Spartans, Eleans and Illyria.	211. The Ætolians secure the alliance of Rome against the Achæans and theMacedonians.
		209. Publius Scipio takes New Carthage.
		207. Nero and Livy defeat Hasdrubal at the Metaurus—Hasdrubal killed. Here it wasdecided that the civilization of the world was to be Roman rather than Carthaginian.			207. Battle of Mantinea: Philopœmen, the general of the Achæan League, defeats theSpartans.
		206. The Carthaginians defeated in the battle of Ilipa and driven out of Spain.								206. China: The dynasty of Han founded; it lasts until 221 A. D. One of the most brilliantperiods in the history of China.
	204. Scipio carries the war into Africa.			204. General peace.				205. Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. Lost most of the cities of Palestine and Phœnicia to Antiochus andthe cities of the Hellespont to Philip V. of Macedon. Egypt assisted by Rome.
	202. Flight of Hannibal. Carthage conquered. Battle ofZama. End of Punic War.			203. Philip wages war against Attalus and the Rhodians.			203. Judæa submits to Antiochus the Great.		Roman influence prevails from this time
200				200-197. SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR.	198. The Achæans and Spartans join the Romans against Macedonia.	198. Antiochus defeats the Egyptiansunder Scopas in a great battle in Palestine.	198. The Jews assist Antiochus in expellingScopas and the Egyptian troops from Jerusalem; final establishment of the Syrian power in Palestine.			199-138. India: So-called “Greek Kings.”	200
				197. Philip V. defeated at Cynoscephalæ by the Romans under Flamininus.
	196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, whom he urges to carry on war against the Romans.	195. Cato in Spain.		196. Macedonian Greece declared free by the Romans.		195. Hannibal flees to Antiochus III.			196. Arsaces IV., King of Parthia.
	193. Masinissa, King of Numidia, harasses the Carthaginians, and injures their commerce.	192-190. War with Antiochus of Syria, who is totallydefeated at Magnesia by Scipio Asiaticus.				192. Syria at war with Rome. 190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats Antiochus III. at Magnesia and compels him to cede all of Asia Minor exceptingCilicia.		193. Ptolemy marries the daughter of Antiochus the Great.
		Rome the Arbitress of Nations, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates.			189. The Ætolian League crushed by the Romans.	189. Armenia revolts from the Seleucid rule and establishes its independence.
	The dangers which threaten Carthage are much increased by the rising jealousy of Rome, the daringhostilities of Masinissa, and the factious spirit of her own citizens.				188. Philopœmen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus in Sparta.	187. Antiochus III. killed; succeeded by Seleucus IV.Philopator.		187. Ptolemy renews his alliance with the Achæans.
				181. Demetrius is put to death by his father.	183. Philopœmen is taken prisoner and put to death by the Messenians. Decline of theAchæan League.			181-146. Ptolemy VI. (Philometor).	181-174. Arsaces V., conquers the Mardians on theCaspian.
		177. Istria subdued.		179. Death of Philip.
175					172. The Romans effect the dissolution of theBœotian confederacy.	175-164. Antiochus IV. Epiphanes. Universally hated and despised.	175. Deposition of the high priest Onias.		174-136. Mithridates I., raises Parthia to an exaltedrank.		175
		171-168. THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR.				171. Invades Egypt, and gains a victory at Pelusium.		171-168. War with Antiochus Epiphanes.
		168. Decisive battle of Pydna, and overthrow ofthe kingdom of Macedon.				170. Another victory. Subjugation of Egypt as far as Alexandria.	170. Tyranny of Antiochus.
							167. Revolt of Mattathias, which proves remarkably successful.
		The Romans aspire to universal empire. Increased patronage of literature and the arts.Grecian system of education adopted at Rome.				164. Dies on his way to Babylon. Loss of Babylonia, Persia, and allthe countries between the Euphrates and Indus.	166-161. Judas Maccabæus.	164. Partition of the kingdom. Physcon receives Cyreneand Libya.		166. China: Tartar invasion.
						161-150. Demetrius I. Soter.	161-142. Jonathan joins the party of Alexander Bala, and becomes the leading man inJudæa. Continued struggle of the Jews, in defence of their civil and religious rights to130.
	152. Masinissa’s party expelled from Carthage,which leads to a war. Masinissa defeats the Carthaginians. Carthage at this time contained 700,000inhabitants.	155-150. Spanish War. The Roman arms unsuccessful in Spain.			155. Embassy of Diogenes, Carniades, and Critolaus to Rome.	153-152. Alexander Bala. Occupies Ptolemais.
150	149-146. THIRD PUNIC WAR.			148. Macedon reduced to a Romanprovince.	150. Dissensions between the Spartans and Achæans.	150. Demetrius killed in battle. 150-125. Demetrius II. Nicator.regains his father’s kingdom by the aid of Ptolemy Philometor.					150
	146. P. Scipio Æmilianus takes and destroysCarthage. A Roman province.	149-8. FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR. Cato’s continual harangue“Delenda est Carthage.”			146. Fall of Corinth. Roman province ofAchæa.			146-117. Ptolemy VII. (Euergetes II.), a cruel and odious tyrant.
		IV. Epoch of the Civil Wars Down to the Absolute Rule of Octavian, After the Battle of Actium.
	Affairs in the West	Affairs and Civil Wars in Rome			Affairs in the East
	146-140. War with Viriathus, the gallant leader of the Lusitani, who maintains a six years’ war withRome.	A struggle arises between the aristocracy (the nobiles and optimates, or rich families ofsenators and magistrates) and the plebs, or common people.
	145. Æmilianus is sent against Viriathus.
	143-133. Numantine War of ten years.							143. Embassy of Scipio Africanus to Alexandria.
	140. Viriathus is treacherously murdered, and Lusitania becomes a Roman province.									140. China: Vouti, Emperor, Great Ruler. Invasion of Huns.
		133-121. CivilTroubles under the Gracchi.			133. Pergamus bequeathed to Rome by Attalus III.	137-128. Antiochus VI. Sidetes, marries Cleopatra.			138. The invasion of Demetrius II. of Syria.
	128. Flaccus reduces the Transalpine Ligurians. Increase of Roman power in Transalpine Gaul.	130. The Tribunes obtain a seat and the right of voting in the senate.				129. War with Parthia, in which Antiochus is slain,126. The succeeding history of the Seleucidæ is a horrid picture of civil wars, familyfeuds, and deeds of violence.	130. John Hyrcanus, aided by the Parthians, asserts his entire independence.	130. The Alexandrines rebel. The king flees to Cyprus.	128. Invasion of Antiochus. Parthian empire ishenceforward freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings.
125	122. Aix, the first Romancolony in Gaul. Gaul a Roman province.	123. Tribunate of Caius Gracchus. Renewal of the Agrarian Law.							124-87. Mithridates II., restores tranquillity to theEast after a long succession of bloody wars. He meets with a powerful rival in Tigranes I., King ofArmenia.		125
		121. General struggle in the city. C. Gracchus and 3000 citizens killed.Triumph of the aristocracy.			118. Death of Micipsa, King of Numidia, andassassination of Hiempsal by Jugurtha.	111. Conclusion of war by apartition of territory. Syria and Phœnicia are the only provinces that acknowledge the sway of the king of Syria.	110. Hyrcanus joins theSadducees.	117-81. Ptolemy VIII. (Soter II.)
							106. Alexander Jannæus.	Cleopatra and her younger son, Alexander, jointly reign in Egypt.
	Rome Affairs in the West	Affairs and Civil Wars in Rome			Rome Affairs in the East	Seleucid Empire	Palestine	Egypt	Parthia	China, India, Japan
	113-101. Cimbrian War. The Cimbrians and Teutones migrate along the Danube to theboundaries of Illyria.				111-106. JUGURTHINE WAR. Mummius and Metellus take part in it; andMarius ends it by the capture of Jugurtha, 106.	Syria
100					96. Cyrene bequeathed to the Romans byApion.		98-97. Jannæus besieges and takes Gaza.			97-30. Japan: Sujin, Mikado. Important reforms.	100
	91-88. Marsian or SocialWar which costs the lives of 300,000 men; and ends in the concession of the rights and privileges of Roman citizenship to theItalian states.				92. Sulla settles the affairs of Asia Minor.				92. First public transaction between Rome and Parthia.
	83-72. Sertorius, the opponent of Sulla, goes intoSpain, becomes general of the Lusitani.	88-82. FIRST ROMAN CIVIL WAR OF MARIUS AND SULLA. Sulla obtains the command against Mithridates.Marius by an alliance with Sulpicius and the people. Sulla is created perpetual dictator.			88-63. Wars with Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus.	83. Tigranes, King of Armenia, is invited by the Syriansto assume the crown.		82. Revolt and three years’ siege ofThebes, which is captured and destroyed.
		CICERO (106-43).
	78. War with Rome.	79-78. Abdication and death of Sulla. Rising splendor ofRome. Marble theater of Saurus for 80,000 spectators. Magnificent houses of the Roman nobles. Library of Lucullus.
	72. The Helvetii and other tribes, underAriovistus, advance into Gaul, but are defeated by JULIUS CÆSAR, 58.	73-71. WAR WITH SPARTACUS the gladiator, at the headof 70,000 slaves in Italy. Concluded by Crassus and Pompey.			74. Bithynia bequeathed to Rome by King Nicomedes III.	69. He is expelled by Lucullus.			68-60. Arsaces XII.contemporary with the third Mithridatic War.
		65-62. Catiline’s conspiracy suppressed by thevigilance of Cicero.			66. Pompey in Asia, about the Caucasus, 65, in Syria, 64. Settles the affairs of Asia, 63.	65-62. Antiochus Asiaticus is expelled by Pompey, whoreduces Syria to a Roman province.	63. Judæa dependent upon Romans.	This period of Egyptian history is very obscure.
		60. First Triumvirate: Cæsar, Pompey and Crassus.
	58-51. GALLIC WAR. Cæsar’s eight campaigns in Gaul—he arrests the invasion of the Helvetiiand expels the Germans.					By the absorption of Syria, Rome comes into touch with the Parthian power.
	55. First invasion of Britain, and expedition into Germany.
	54. Second invasion of Britain. 54-53. Cæsar crossesthe Rhine, but is unsuccessful in his attack upon the Germans.				54-53. Parthian War, in which Crassus is slain.		54. Crassus pillages the Temple.		54. First war with Rome caused by the invasion of Crassus.
						52. Parthians overrun Syria and threaten Antioch.			52-51. The Parthians invade Syria.
50	49-31. SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR between Cæsar andPompey: Cæsar crosses the Rubicon with 6,000 men, and in sixty days makes himself master of Italy. Cæsar marches into Spain,and forces Pompey’s troops to surrender.										50
		48. Cæsar gains the decisive victory of Pharsalla over Pompey, who flees into Egyptand is there slain.					48. Antipater, by the influence of Julius Cæsar, he is appointed procurator of Judæa.	48. Alexandrine War. Ptolemy perishes in the contest, and the crown fallsto CLEOPATRA, who reigns jointly with Ptolemy II.
		VIRGIL (70-19).
		47. Cæsar in Asia. War with Pharnaces, King of Bosporus, (“veni, vidi,vici.”)
		46. African War: defeat of Scipio and Juba at Thapsus. Cato killshimself at Utica. Cæsar returns to Rome. Dictator for ten years.
	45. War in Spain: defeat of Pompey’s two sons at Munda—Cæsar returns toRome—Perpetual dictator, and Consul for ten years.
		44. Plans an expedition against the Parthians, but is assassinated in the senate house by Brutus,Cassius, and other conspirators, on the ides of March. Antony and Octavianus (Cæsar’s heir) obtain the upper hand inRome. Second Triumvirate: Antony, Octavianus, and Lepidus.						44. Cleopatra removes her brother by poison.
		42. Civil war of the triumvirate against the republicans—Philippi—death of Brutus andCassius.
		41-30. Quarrels of the Oligarchy.
						40. Parthians invade Syria, take Antioch and Sidon, plunder Jerusalem and advance as far as theMediterranean.	38. Herod, his second son, rises to power by the friendship of Antonyand is appointed king.		38. Arsaces XV.	40. India: Trade with Greece, Rome, Egypt, China, and the East. Period of Hindu power.
							37. He takes possession of Jerusalem and Judæa.
		36. Defeat and death of Pompey.			36. Marcus Antonius invades Parthia but is compelled to retreat with loss.			36. Cleopatra obtains from Antony grant of Phœnicia, Cyrene and Cyprus.	36. Defeats Antony.
		33-30. Civil war between Octavianus and Antony.			34. Antony subdues Armenia.
		31. Defeat of Antony at Actium. Cæsar gains his fleet and army—death ofAntony. Octavianus Cæsar sole master of the republic.						30. Dies by her own hand. A Roman province.
	30. PERIOD OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE BEGINS. HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE IS NOW PRACTICALLY THAT OF THECIVILIZED WORLD, DIVIDED INTO LATIN, GREEK AND ORIENTAL PROVINCES.

B. C.	Carthage	Rome		Macedonia	Greek States	Seleucid Empire
		III. Epoch of the Punic Wars, and Beginning of the Universal Rule of Rome(264-146)
	264-241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. Carthaginians led by Hamilcar, father of Hannibal.			262. Antigonus took Athens. End of its independence andpolitical importance.		261. Revolt of Parthians from Seleucid rule.Parthian kingdom formed.
	256. Regulus invades Africa and is defeated byXanthippus, a Spartan general.	260. First Roman fleet built. Victory at sea.			255. Antigonus liberates Athens. Athens joins the Achæan League.
		Scipio Africanus.
		ARCHIMEDES (287-212).
250
	241. Peace with Carthage. The ceded parts of Sicilyformed the first Roman province there.
	238. Hamilcar begins establishment ofCarthaginian power in Spain.	241. The Roman fleet under Catulus defeats the Carthaginians off the Ægatian Islands.
	HANNIBAL (247-183).			227. War between Cleomenes, King of Sparta, and the Ætolian league.
				226. Athens freed from Macedonia allied with Rome.
225		224. The Romans first cross the Po.				223. Antiochus III., theGreat, ruled Syria, Phœnicia to Egypt.
	221. Hannibal succeeds Asdrubal in the command.	219. Hannibal takes Saguntum and crosses the Alps.
	218-201. SECOND PUNIC WAR. Hannibal crossed the Alps.
		217. Romans defeated at Lake Trasimeno.				217. Antiochus III. defeated by Ptolemy Philopater in the battle of Raphia.
		216. Romans at Cannæ totally defeated by Hannibal. Fabius Maximus, Dictator.
		215. Treaty between Hannibal and Philip V. of Macedonia.
		214-205. FIRST WAR WITH MACEDONIA.
		212. Syracuse taken by Marcellus. Archimedes killed.				212-206. Campaigns in Upper Asia against the Parthians and Bactrians.
		211. Capua taken by the Romans.		211. Alliance of Rome, the Ætolians, Spartans, Eleans and Illyria.	211. The Ætolians secure the alliance of Rome against the Achæans and theMacedonians.
		209. Publius Scipio takes New Carthage.
		207. Nero and Livy defeat Hasdrubal at the Metaurus—Hasdrubal killed. Here it wasdecided that the civilization of the world was to be Roman rather than Carthaginian.			207. Battle of Mantinea: Philopœmen, the general of the Achæan League, defeats theSpartans.
		206. The Carthaginians defeated in the battle of Ilipa and driven out of Spain.
	204. Scipio carries the war into Africa.			204. General peace.
	202. Flight of Hannibal. Carthage conquered. Battle ofZama. End of Punic War.			203. Philip wages war against Attalus and the Rhodians.
200				200-197. SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR.	198. The Achæans and Spartans join theRomans against Macedonia.	198. Antiochus defeats the Egyptiansunder Scopas in a great battle in Palestine.
				197. Philip V. defeated at Cynoscephalæ by the Romans under Flamininus.
	196. Hannibal joins Antiochus, whom he urges to carry on war against the Romans.	195. Cato in Spain.		196. Macedonian Greece declared free by the Romans.		195. Hannibal flees to Antiochus III.
	193. Masinissa, King of Numidia, harasses the Carthaginians, and injures their commerce.	192-190. War with Antiochus of Syria, who is totallydefeated at Magnesia by Scipio Asiaticus.				192. Syria at war with Rome. 190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats Antiochus III. at Magnesia and compels him to cede all of Asia Minor exceptingCilicia.
		Rome the Arbitress of Nations, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates.			189. The Ætolian League crushed by the Romans.	189. Armenia revolts from the Seleucid rule and establishes its independence.
	The dangers which threaten Carthage are much increased by the rising jealousy of Rome, the daringhostilities of Masinissa, and the factious spirit of her own citizens.				188. Philopœmen abrogates the laws of Lycurgus in Sparta.	187. Antiochus III. killed; succeeded by Seleucus IV.Philopator.
				181. Demetrius is put to death by his father.	183. Philopœmen is taken prisoner and put to death by the Messenians. Decline of theAchæan League.
		177. Istria subdued.		179. Death of Philip.
175					172. The Romans effect the dissolution of theBœotian confederacy.	175-164. Antiochus IV. Epiphanes. Universally hated and despised.
		171-168. THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR.				171. Invades Egypt, and gains a victory at Pelusium.
		168. Decisive battle of Pydna, and overthrow ofthe kingdom of Macedon.				170. Another victory. Subjugation of Egypt as far as Alexandria.
		The Romans aspire to universal empire. Increased patronage of literature and the arts.Grecian system of education adopted at Rome.				164. Dies on his way to Babylon. Loss of Babylonia, Persia, and allthe countries between the Euphrates and Indus.
						161-150. Demetrius I. Soter.
	152. Masinissa’s party expelled from Carthage,which leads to a war. Masinissa defeats the Carthaginians. Carthage at this time contained 700,000inhabitants.	155-150. Spanish War. The Roman arms unsuccessful in Spain.			155. Embassy of Diogenes, Carniades, and Critolaus to Rome.	153-152. Alexander Bala. Occupies Ptolemais.
150	149-146. THIRD PUNIC WAR.			148. Macedon reduced to a Romanprovince.	150. Dissensions between the Spartans and Achæans.	150. Demetrius killed in battle. 150-125. Demetrius II. Nicator.regains his father’s kingdom by the aid of Ptolemy Philometor.
	146. P. Scipio Æmilianus takes and destroysCarthage. A Roman province.	149-8. FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR. Cato’s continual harangue“Delenda est Carthage.”			146. Fall of Corinth. Roman province ofAchæa.
		IV. Epoch of the Civil Wars Down to the Absolute Rule of Octavian, After the Battle of Actium.
	Affairs in the West	Affairs and Civil Wars in Rome			Affairs in the East
	146-140. War with Viriathus, the gallant leader of the Lusitani, who maintains a six years’ war withRome.	A struggle arises between the aristocracy (the nobiles and optimates, or rich families ofsenators and magistrates) and the plebs, or common people.
	145. Æmilianus is sent against Viriathus.
	143-133. Numantine War of ten years.
	140. Viriathus is treacherously murdered, and Lusitania becomes a Roman province.
		133-121. CivilTroubles under the Gracchi.			133. Pergamus bequeathed to Rome by Attalus III.	137-128. Antiochus VI. Sidetes, marries Cleopatra.
	128. Flaccus reduces the Transalpine Ligurians. Increase of Roman power in Transalpine Gaul.	130. The Tribunes obtain a seat and the right of voting in the senate.				129. War with Parthia, in which Antiochus is slain,126. The succeeding history of the Seleucidæ is a horrid picture of civil wars, familyfeuds, and deeds of violence.
125	122. Aix, the first Romancolony in Gaul. Gaul a Roman province.	123. Tribunate of Caius Gracchus. Renewal of the Agrarian Law.
		121. General struggle in the city. C. Gracchus and 3000 citizens killed.Triumph of the aristocracy.			118. Death of Micipsa, King of Numidia, andassassination of Hiempsal by Jugurtha.	111. Conclusion of war by apartition of territory. Syria and Phœnicia are the only provinces that acknowledge the sway of the king of Syria.
	Rome Affairs in the West	Affairs and Civil Wars in Rome			Rome Affairs in the East	Seleucid Empire
	113-101. Cimbrian War. The Cimbrians and Teutones migrate along the Danube to theboundaries of Illyria.				111-106. JUGURTHINE WAR. Mummius and Metellus take part in it; andMarius ends it by the capture of Jugurtha, 106.	Syria
100					96. Cyrene bequeathed to the Romans by Apion.
	91-88. Marsian or SocialWar which costs the lives of 300,000 men; and ends in the concession of the rights and privileges of Roman citizenship to theItalian states.				92. Sulla settles the affairs of Asia Minor.
	83-72. Sertorius, the opponent of Sulla, goes intoSpain, becomes general of the Lusitani.	88-82. FIRST ROMAN CIVIL WAR OF MARIUS AND SULLA. Sulla obtains the command against Mithridates.Marius by an alliance with Sulpicius and the people. Sulla is created perpetual dictator.			88-63. Wars with Mithridates the Great, King of Pontus.	83. Tigranes, King of Armenia, is invited by the Syriansto assume the crown.
		CICERO (106-43).
	78. War with Rome.	79-78. Abdication and death of Sulla. Rising splendor ofRome. Marble theater of Saurus for 80,000 spectators. Magnificent houses of the Roman nobles. Library of Lucullus.
	72. The Helvetii and other tribes, underAriovistus, advance into Gaul, but are defeated by JULIUS CÆSAR, 58.	73-71. WAR WITH SPARTACUS the gladiator, at the headof 70,000 slaves in Italy. Concluded by Crassus and Pompey.			74. Bithynia bequeathed to Rome by King Nicomedes III.	69. He is expelled by Lucullus.
		65-62. Catiline’s conspiracy suppressed by thevigilance of Cicero.			66. Pompey in Asia, about the Caucasus, 65, in Syria, 64. Settles the affairs of Asia, 63.	65-62. Antiochus Asiaticus is expelled by Pompey, whoreduces Syria to a Roman province.
		60. First Triumvirate: Cæsar, Pompey and Crassus.
	58-51. GALLIC WAR. Cæsar’s eight campaigns in Gaul—he arrests the invasion of the Helvetiiand expels the Germans.					By the absorption of Syria, Rome comes into touch with the Parthian power.
	55. First invasion of Britain, and expedition into Germany.
	54. Second invasion of Britain. 54-53. Cæsar crossesthe Rhine, but is unsuccessful in his attack upon the Germans.				54-53. Parthian War, in which Crassus is slain.
						52. Parthians overrun Syria and threaten Antioch.
50	49-31. SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR between Cæsar andPompey: Cæsar crosses the Rubicon with 6,000 men, and in sixty days makes himself master of Italy. Cæsar marches into Spain,and forces Pompey’s troops to surrender.
		48. Cæsar gains the decisive victory of Pharsalla over Pompey, who flees into Egyptand is there slain.
		VIRGIL (70-19).
		47. Cæsar in Asia. War with Pharnaces, King of Bosporus, (“veni, vidi,vici.”)
		46. African War: defeat of Scipio and Juba at Thapsus. Cato killshimself at Utica. Cæsar returns to Rome. Dictator for ten years.
	45. War in Spain: defeat of Pompey’s two sons at Munda—Cæsar returns toRome—Perpetual dictator, and Consul for ten years.
		44. Plans an expedition against the Parthians, but is assassinated in the senate house by Brutus,Cassius, and other conspirators, on the ides of March. Antony and Octavianus (Cæsar’s heir) obtain the upper hand inRome. Second Triumvirate: Antony, Octavianus, and Lepidus.
		42. Civil war of the triumvirate against the republicans—Philippi—death of Brutus andCassius.
		41-30. Quarrels of the Oligarchy.
						40. Parthians invade Syria, take Antioch and Sidon, plunder Jerusalem and advance as far as theMediterranean.
		36. Defeat and death of Pompey.			36. Marcus Antonius invades Parthia but is compelled to retreat with loss.
		33-30. Civil war between Octavianus and Antony.			34. Antony subdues Armenia.
		31. Defeat of Antony at Actium. Cæsar gains his fleet and army—death ofAntony. Octavianus Cæsar sole master of the republic.
	30. PERIOD OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE BEGINS. HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE IS NOW PRACTICALLY THAT OF THECIVILIZED WORLD, DIVIDED INTO LATIN, GREEK AND ORIENTAL PROVINCES.

B. C.	Palestine	Egypt	Parthia	China, India, Japan
	The Jews remained subject to Egypt downto B. C. 203, in comparative peace.
250			250-248. Arsaces I. founds the kingdom of Parthia, having killed Agathocles, and expelled theMacedonians.
		247-30. Ptolemy III., Euergetes. Extended his empire by conquests in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Persia,Susiana, and Media, and extends his influence as far as Thrace and Macedonia.
225
				221-210. China: Chi-Huang-Ti, first universal emperor. Great wall built.
			216. Arsaces III., King of Persia.
				206. China: The dynasty of Han founded; it lasts until 221 A. D. One of the most brilliantperiods in the history of China.
		205. Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. Lost most of the cities of Palestine and Phœnicia to Antiochus andthe cities of the Hellespont to Philip V. of Macedon. Egypt assisted by Rome.
	203. Judæa submits to Antiochus the Great.		Roman influence prevails from this time
200	198. The Jews assist Antiochus in expellingScopas and the Egyptian troops from Jerusalem; final establishment of the Syrian power in Palestine.			199-138. India: So-called “Greek Kings.”
			196. Arsaces IV., King of Parthia.
		193. Ptolemy marries the daughter of Antiochus the Great.
		187. Ptolemy renews his alliance with the Achæans.
		181-146. Ptolemy VI. (Philometor).	181-174. Arsaces V., conquers the Mardians on theCaspian.
175	175. Deposition of the high priest Onias.		174-136. Mithridates I., raises Parthia to an exaltedrank.
		171-168. War with Antiochus Epiphanes.
	170. Tyranny of Antiochus.
	167. Revolt of Mattathias, which proves remarkably successful.
	166-161. Judas Maccabæus.	164. Partition of the kingdom. Physcon receives Cyreneand Libya.		166. China: Tartar invasion.
	161-142. Jonathan joins the party of Alexander Bala, and becomes the leading man inJudæa. Continued struggle of the Jews, in defence of their civil and religious rights to130.
150
		146-117. Ptolemy VII. (Euergetes II.), a cruel and odious tyrant.
		143. Embassy of Scipio Africanus to Alexandria.
				140. China: Vouti, Emperor, Great Ruler. Invasion of Huns.
			138. The invasion of Demetrius II. of Syria.
	130. John Hyrcanus, aided by the Parthians, asserts his entire independence.	130. The Alexandrines rebel. The king flees to Cyprus.	128. Invasion of Antiochus. Parthian empire ishenceforward freed from the attacks of the Syrian kings.
125			124-87. Mithridates II., restores tranquillity to theEast after a long succession of bloody wars. He meets with a powerful rival in Tigranes I., King ofArmenia.
	110. Hyrcanus joins theSadducees.	117-81. Ptolemy VIII. (Soter II.)
	106. Alexander Jannæus.	Cleopatra and her younger son, Alexander, jointly reign in Egypt.
100	98-97. Jannæus besieges and takes Gaza.			97-30. Japan: Sujin, Mikado. Important reforms.
			92. First public transaction between Rome and Parthia.
		82. Revolt and three years’ siege ofThebes, which is captured and destroyed.
			68-60. Arsaces XII.contemporary with the third Mithridatic War.
	63. Judæa dependent upon Romans.	This period of Egyptian history is very obscure.
	54. Crassus pillages the Temple.		54. First war with Rome caused by the invasion of Crassus.
			52-51. The Parthians invade Syria.
	48. Antipater, by the influence of Julius Cæsar, he is appointed procurator of Judæa.	48. Alexandrine War. Ptolemy perishes in the contest, and the crown fallsto CLEOPATRA, who reigns jointly with Ptolemy II.
		44. Cleopatra removes her brother by poison.
	38. Herod, his second son, rises to power by the friendship of Antonyand is appointed king.		38. Arsaces XV.	40. India: Trade with Greece, Rome, Egypt, China, and the East. Period of Hindu power.
	37. He takes possession of Jerusalem and Judæa.
		36. Cleopatra obtains from Antony grant of Phœnicia, Cyrene and Cyprus.	36. Defeats Antony.
		30. Dies by her own hand. A Roman province.
	30. PERIOD OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE BEGINS. HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE IS NOW PRACTICALLY THAT OF THECIVILIZED WORLD, DIVIDED INTO LATIN, GREEK AND ORIENTAL PROVINCES.

VI. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER AUGUSTUS TO ITS PERMANENT DIVISION, B. C. 30-395, A. D.

Great Events of the Period: Rome mistress of the world. The Augustan Age. Golden Age of Roman literature. 1-100, A. D.: Christianity founded amid persecutions. Parthia a powerful state but unequal rival of Rome. 100-200: Zenith of Roman Empire. The good emperors. Persecutions of the Christians continue. 200-300: Emperors chosen by the army. Germanic tribes on Roman borders. Persecutions continue. 300-400: Constantine moves the capital of the empire to Constantinople, and professes Christianity. Rise of Christian Monasticism. Great church disputes. Germanic incursions and settlements. The Roman Empire reaches its greatest territorial extent.

B. C.	The Roman Empire—In Europe, Asia and Africa—Under AugustusCæsar, Emperor				Roman Empire	Parthia	China, Japan, India	B. C.
	31-14. Cæsar Octavianus Augustus. The surname Augustus (the Illustrious, theSublime), which was given Octavianus by the Senate in 27 B. C., is the name by which he was known as sole ruler of the Romanworld.				Palestine
					30. Augustus bestows increase of territory on Herod.		30. Japan: Suinin, a great civilizer.
					29. Herod kills his wife, Mariamne.
	Countries Subject to Roman Dominion		Age of Augustus
	In Europe:—Spain, Gaul, Britain,Italy, Rhætia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyria, Greece, Macedonia,Thrace, Mœsia, Dacia.		27-25. Expedition of Augustus against the Cantabri and Astures.				27. India: Andhra kingdom very powerful.
25	In Asia:—Asia Minor, Syria,Phœnicia, Palestine, the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, Armenia, Mesopotamia,Assyria.		25. Expedition to Arabia, without results, conducted by C. Ælius Gallus, prefect ofEgypt.		25. Herod begins extensive building operations in Judea: rebuilds Samaria, reconstructs temple atJerusalem, 20-19.	25. Tiridates aspires to the sovereignty but is defeated and takes refuge at the court ofAugustus.		25
			22-21. Successful war against the Ethiopians, by Petronius, the successor of Gallus in Egypt.
	In Africa:—Egypt, and the whole of thenorthern coast.		20. Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians. Tigranes was reinstated in the kingdom ofArmenia.			20. Phraates restores the standards taken from Crassus.
			19. Subjugation of Spain completed.			18. Sends his sons as hostages to Rome.
	Its distant territories were Scandia, Sarmatia, India,Æthiopia, and Galatia; Rome itself being the common center of the whole.		15. Rhætia made a Roman province, along with Vindelicia (now Augsburg) and Noricum.
			12-9. Drusus undertook four campaigns in Germany proper.		4. Birth of Jesus Christ. Date now generally accepted thoughnot actually certain.	Gradual decline of the Parthian Kingdom.
1 A. D.	German Nations				The Christian Church	Series of struggles for succession to the throne for over one hundred years.		1 A. D.
	6-9. Varus, in his camp on the Weser, governs LowerGermany as a Roman province.		4-6. Campaigns of Tiberius in Germany.		6. Judea made a Roman province under a procurator.
	9. Hermann, or Arminius defeats Varus atWinfield-Lippe. Teutonic independence established by the defeat of the Roman legions. The line drawn between the Germanic and Latinraces.		7. Germanicus is sent into Germany.
	14-17. Expedition of Germanicus.		14-37. Tiberius (Claudius Nero), step-son of Augustus.				21. India: Gondophares, King of Kabul and Punjab.
25	The Romans from this time maintain military power on the right bank of the Rhine andfrom the Maine to the Danube.				26. Pontius Pilate becomes procurator of Judea.			25
					28-29. Baptism of Jesus Christ and beginning of His public work.
					30. Crucifixion of Jesus Christ.
			37-41. Caligula (properly, Gaius CæsarGermanicus), youngest son of Germanicus.		35-36. ST. PAUL converted to Christianity.
			41-54. Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Nero), son of Drusus, influenced largely by 1, the shamelessMessalina; 2, the ambitious Agrippina.		42. St. Peter, the Apostle, after fillingthe see of Antioch seven years, goes to Rome.
			43. Commencement of the conquest of Britain.		49. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem.
50	50. Colony of Claudius. Agrippa (Cologne) founded.					50. Vologeses I.		50
			54-68. Nero (Nero Claudius Cæsar AugustusGermanicus). Destroys Britannicus and all the Julian family.		56. Paul arrested in Jerusalem.	52. War against Rome for the possession of Armenia Minor.
			59-62. Murders his wife and mother.		59. Paul arrives in Rome.		58. China: Ming-Ti introduces Buddhism.
			64. Fire at Rome, followed,		64. First traditional persecution of Christians, by Nero.
			65. by the persecution of the Christians.		66. Outbreak of Jewish war.	65. Terminated at the death of Tigranes, when Tiridates accepts the crown of Armenia from Nero.
			68. Death of Nero, and extinction of the house ofCæsar.		67. Pope Linus. Vespasian despatched against the Jews.
	69-70. Revolt of the Batavians in Belgian Gaul.		69-79. Vespasianus, (Titus Flavius Vespasianus), one bestof Roman princes. Eruption of Vesuvius and destruction of Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabiæ.		70. The destruction of Jerusalem by Titus.
					72. Conquest of Judea completed.		71-130. Japan: Keiko and Yamato-Dake make large conquests.
75			86-107. DACIAN WARS.		95. Second traditionalpersecution of the Christians, by Domitian.	90. Death of Vologeses. Arsaces XXIV. inalliance with the Romans, embellishes Ctesiphon.		75
			PLUTARCH (50?-120?)
			98-117. TRAJAN (Marcus Ulpius Traianus). Excellentruler and general. Magnificent buildings in Rome (Forum Traianum) and throughout the empire.
100			101-103. Victorious over the Dacians.					100
	106. Dacia a Roman province. The country is filled with Roman colonists. Origin of theLatin language in Hungary.		107. Reduction of part of Arabia.			107. Chosroes (Arsaces XXV.), implicated in a war withTrajan on account of Armenia.	109. China: Conquest of Korea.
			114-116. War with the Parthians, in whichRome is victorious. Armenia and Mesopotamia Roman provinces.		112-113. Third traditional persecution, by Trajan.
			PERIOD OF GREATEST EXTENT OF THE EMPIRE.
			117-138. Hadrian (Publius Ælius Hadrianus) a lover of peace, an excellent administrator,learned and vain.			117. Chosroes restored.
			117. Gives up the provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia and Assyria.
	121. Roman wall from the Rhine to the Danube by Hadrian.		121. Builds a wall across the north of England.			121. Vologeses II., (Arsaces XXVI.)
125							125. India: Nagar-Juna, great apostle of Buddhism.	125
	German Nations		The Roman Empire—In Europe, Asia and Africa		The Christian Church	Parthia	China, Japan, India
			131. Improves Roman jurisprudence.
	140. The Goths migrate southwards.		138-161. ANTONINUS PIUS, whose reign was the happiest period of the Roman empire.		145. Rise of the Marcionites.	149. Vologeses III., (Arsaces XXVII). Renewalof the war with Rome.
150					154. Canon of Scripture fixed about this time. Justin Martyr publishes his apology for the Christians.			150
					155. Martyrdom of Polycarp; appearance of Montanus.
			161-180. MARCUS AURELIUS, (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), a wise and active sovereign, highlyeducated, a stoic philosopher.
			162-165. Verus successful against the Parthians.
					165. Death of Justin Martyr.	165. Casius destroys Seleucia.
	167-180. War of the league against Rome.		166. The Marcomanni, with their allies, penetrate as far as Aquileia.
	170. Invasion of Illyria as far as Aquileia.
175			178. The Marcomanni andtheir allies renew the war with Rome, and before the close of it M. Aurelius dies, 180, at Sirmium.		177. Fourth traditional persecution, by MarcusAurelius—Irenæus becomes bishop of Lyons.			175
					180. Age of Theophilus and Tatian.
	Franks	Goths	193-284. CIVIL WARS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.			191. Vologeses IV., (Arsaces XXVIII.)
			Period of Military Despotism
			193-211. Septimius Severus. Improvements in the administration of justice through the juristPapinianus.
200	The name of Franks, (or free men), was given to a military confederacy of the lower Rhine and theWeser.	200. The Goths enter Dacia, and after crossing the Danube attack the Roman provinces.					201-269. Japan: Jingu-Kogo,most famous of Japanese female sovereigns.	200
			208. Expedition to Britain against the Scots.			207. Defeated by Septimius Severus, who sacks the chief towns of Parthia.
			211-217. Caracalla, (Antoninus Bassianus). By the ConstitutioAntoniana Roman citizenship was conferred upon all the inhabitants of the provinces. Systematic plundering of the provinces, unsuccessfulwars against the Goths in Dacia, cruel treatment of the inhabitants of Alexandria. Plundering expedition against the Parthians.			216. Artabanus IV., (Arsaces XXX), the last of theArsacidæ.
			222-235. SeverusAlexander. Excellent ruler, advised by the jurists Domitius Ulpianus and Julius Paullus.				221-265. China: Epoch of the “Three Kingdoms.”
225						Persia		225
						226-651. Dynasty of the Sassanides.
	238. They invade Gaul.	236-237. They invade lower Mœsia, andexact tribute of the Romans.			235. Origen. Sixth persecution of the Christians, underMaximinus.	226-240. Artaxerxes becomes the founder of the new Persian monarchy.
			248. Celebration of the thousandth anniversary of thefoundation of Rome.		248. Cyprian becomes bishop of Carthage. Monastic life originatesabout this time. Dispute between the churches of Rome and Africa about baptism.
250		250. The Goths, under their king, Ostrogotha, for the first time force their way into the Roman Empire bycrossing the Danube.			251. Seventh persecution of the Christians, under Decius.			250
		258-69. Four great expeditions of the Goths into AsiaMinor and Greece.			257. Eighth persecution, under Valerian.	257. War against the Romans: Sapor advances as far as Cappadocia. The Emperor Valerian takenprisoner.
			268-270. Claudius II. raised to thethrone by the soldiers.		260. Paul, of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, denies the divinity ofJesus Christ.
		272. They are driven from Illyricum and Thrace, and defeated also onthe Danube.	270-275. AURELIANUS. He concluded peace with the Goths by the sacrifice of theprovince of Dacia. He defeated Zenobia in two battles, at Antiochia and at Edessa, subdued Syria, besieged and destroyed Palmyra, capturedZenobia, and reconquered Egypt, 273. Aurelian called “Restorer of the universal Empire.”		270. Manes advocates his doctrines in Persia.	The Sassanidæ, claiming to be descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, form pretensionsto all the Asiatic provinces of the Roman Empire.	270-310. Japan: Ojin, a great warrior.
		274. They obtain Dacia from the Romans.			274. Ninth persecution, under Aurelian.
275			275. Tacitus, Imperator. He defeated the Alani, who had invaded Asia Minor.					275
	277. Extraordinary naval expedition of the ThracianFranks, in the Mediterranean and northern seas.	The Goths, in their progress southward, are joined by countless swarms of barbarians and thusoverwhelm the countries they invade.	276-282. Probus. Drove back the Franks, Burgundians, Alamanni and Vandals, entered Germany, andstrengthened the wall between the Rhine and Danube.
			282-283. Carus succeeded. Conquered the Sarmatians.
			284-305. Diocletianus proclaimed imperator by the soldiers.
	288. Maximian transplants a part of them into Gaul.	Gothic monarchy on the banks of the lower Danube and the northern coast of the Black Sea.	Period of Absolute Imperialism.
	294. Repeated migrations.	290. They conquer the Burgundiones.				292-301. Narses.
300					303. Tenth persecution of the Christians, byDiocletian.	301-309. Hormisdas II., builds Ormus.		300
	306. Constantine defeats the Franks, who had invadedGaul.		308. Rebellion in Rome. Six emperors.		305. Persecution of the Christians stopped by Constantius Chlorus.
			310-323. WARS OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.		311. Pope Miltiades. Constantine issues Edict ofToleration.	309-380. Sapor II carries on a series of wars with Rome.	313. Japan: Nintoku, the Sage Emperor.
			323-337. CONSTANTINE, THE GREAT, sole ruler.Christianity recognized by the State and favored at the expense of paganism.		320. Strife of the Donatists in Africa.		320. India: Chandragupta, first supreme emperor of India. Brilliant Gupta Period from 320 to 480.
325			330. Seat of empire moved toConstantinople.		325. The Council of Nice, consisting of three hundred and eighteen bishops, who condemn Arianism. Athanasius, Arius, flourish in the reign of Constantine.	326. Persecution of the Christians.		325
			337. On the death of Constantine the Great, the empire was divided between his threesons: Constantine, Constans and Constantius.		337. Pope Julius I.	337-363. War with Rome. Sapor demands the restitution of all the provinces Persia had formerlypossessed in Asia Minor.
					340. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by Frumentius.—Gothic version of Bible by Wulfila (Ulfilas).
350	356-7. Franks and Alemanni pour intoGaul.	350. Hermanric, King of the Ostrogoths, founds an extensive empire.			352. Pope Liberius. Hilary of Poitiers.—Cyril, Bishop ofJerusalem.			350
			361. Julian, called the Apostate. Disliked Christianity, and tried torestore paganism.		363. Jovian. Restored Christianity.	362-3. War with Julian, who is slain in repulsing thePersians, on the Tigris.
	365-371. Valentinian drives the Alemanniout of Gaul.	366. The Goths invade Thrace, butare defeated by the generals of Valens. Upon the invasion of the Huns, the Ostrogoths separate from the Visigoths.	364. Empire divided into East and West with anemperor ruling in each.
			West	East
			364. Valentinian I.	364. Valens, killed by Goths.		372-420. Peace with Rome.
375			375-493. INVASION OF ROMAN EMPIRE BY NORTHERN BARBARIANS.					375
		375. Death of Hermanric and fall of his empire.	375. Gratian and Valentinian II.		375. Ambrose of Milan; Martin of Tours.		375. India: Chandragupta II. extended the empire.
		376. The Visigoths pressed by the Huns, implore the protection of Valens, and cross the Danube intoMœsia, which he cedes to them.	383. Valentinian II.	379. Theodosius I. Became a Christian; kept back the Goths;divided Armenia between Rome and Persia.	381. The second general councilof Constantinople. Gregory of Nazianzus made patriarch of Constantinople.	380-383. Artaxerxes II.
			394. The whole empire was, for the last time,reunited under			383-388. Sapor III. Division of Armenia between Persia and Rome.
			394-395. Theodosius. After his death the division of administrationinto an eastern and western section, which had existed for a hundred years, became a permanent division of the empire.
			395. DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE BETWEEN THE SONS OF THEODOSIUS, HONORIUS ANDARCADIUS.

B. C.	The Roman Empire—In Europe, Asia and Africa—Under AugustusCæsar, Emperor
	31-14. Cæsar Octavianus Augustus. The surname Augustus (the Illustrious, theSublime), which was given Octavianus by the Senate in 27 B. C., is the name by which he was known as sole ruler of the Romanworld.
	Countries Subject to Roman Dominion		Age of Augustus
	In Europe:—Spain, Gaul, Britain,Italy, Rhætia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pannonia, Illyria, Greece, Macedonia,Thrace, Mœsia, Dacia.		27-25. Expedition of Augustus against the Cantabri and Astures.
25	In Asia:—Asia Minor, Syria,Phœnicia, Palestine, the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, Armenia, Mesopotamia,Assyria.		25. Expedition to Arabia, without results, conducted by C. Ælius Gallus, prefect ofEgypt.
			22-21. Successful war against the Ethiopians, by Petronius, the successor of Gallus in Egypt.
	In Africa:—Egypt, and the whole of thenorthern coast.		20. Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians. Tigranes was reinstated in the kingdom ofArmenia.
			19. Subjugation of Spain completed.
	Its distant territories were Scandia, Sarmatia, India,Æthiopia, and Galatia; Rome itself being the common center of the whole.		15. Rhætia made a Roman province, along with Vindelicia (now Augsburg) and Noricum.
			12-9. Drusus undertook four campaigns in Germany proper.
1 A. D.	German Nations
	6-9. Varus, in his camp on the Weser, governs LowerGermany as a Roman province.		4-6. Campaigns of Tiberius in Germany.
	9. Hermann, or Arminius defeats Varus atWinfield-Lippe. Teutonic independence established by the defeat of the Roman legions. The line drawn between the Germanic and Latinraces.		7. Germanicus is sent into Germany.
	14-17. Expedition of Germanicus.		14-37. Tiberius (Claudius Nero), step-son of Augustus.
25	The Romans from this time maintain military power on the right bank of the Rhine andfrom the Maine to the Danube.
			37-41. Caligula (properly, Gaius CæsarGermanicus), youngest son of Germanicus.
			41-54. Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Nero), son of Drusus, influenced largely by 1, the shamelessMessalina; 2, the ambitious Agrippina.
			43. Commencement of the conquest of Britain.
50	50. Colony of Claudius. Agrippa (Cologne) founded.
			54-68. Nero (Nero Claudius Cæsar AugustusGermanicus). Destroys Britannicus and all the Julian family.
			59-62. Murders his wife and mother.
			64. Fire at Rome, followed,
			65. by the persecution of the Christians.
			68. Death of Nero, and extinction of the house ofCæsar.
	69-70. Revolt of the Batavians in Belgian Gaul.		69-79. Vespasianus, (Titus Flavius Vespasianus), one bestof Roman princes. Eruption of Vesuvius and destruction of Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabiæ.
75			86-107. DACIAN WARS.
			PLUTARCH (50?-120?)
			98-117. TRAJAN (Marcus Ulpius Traianus). Excellentruler and general. Magnificent buildings in Rome (Forum Traianum) and throughout the empire.
100			101-103. Victorious over the Dacians.
	106. Dacia a Roman province. The country is filled with Roman colonists. Origin of theLatin language in Hungary.		107. Reduction of part of Arabia.
			114-116. War with the Parthians, in whichRome is victorious. Armenia and Mesopotamia Roman provinces.
			PERIOD OF GREATEST EXTENT OF THE EMPIRE.
			117-138. Hadrian (Publius Ælius Hadrianus) a lover of peace, an excellent administrator,learned and vain.
			117. Gives up the provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia and Assyria.
	121. Roman wall from the Rhine to the Danube by Hadrian.		121. Builds a wall across the north of England.
125
	German Nations		The Roman Empire—In Europe, Asia and Africa
			131. Improves Roman jurisprudence.
	140. The Goths migrate southwards.		138-161. ANTONINUS PIUS, whose reign was the happiest period of the Roman empire.
150
			161-180. MARCUS AURELIUS, (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), a wise and active sovereign, highlyeducated, a stoic philosopher.
			162-165. Verus successful against the Parthians.
	167-180. War of the league against Rome.		166. The Marcomanni, with their allies, penetrate as far as Aquileia.
	170. Invasion of Illyria as far as Aquileia.
175			178. The Marcomanni andtheir allies renew the war with Rome, and before the close of it M. Aurelius dies, 180, at Sirmium.
	Franks	Goths	193-284. CIVIL WARS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
			Period of Military Despotism
			193-211. Septimius Severus. Improvements in the administration of justice through the juristPapinianus.
200	The name of Franks, (or free men), was given to a military confederacy of the lower Rhine and theWeser.	200. The Goths enter Dacia, and after crossing the Danube attack the Roman provinces.
			208. Expedition to Britain against the Scots.
			211-217. Caracalla, (Antoninus Bassianus). By the ConstitutioAntoniana Roman citizenship was conferred upon all the inhabitants of the provinces. Systematic plundering of the provinces, unsuccessfulwars against the Goths in Dacia, cruel treatment of the inhabitants of Alexandria. Plundering expedition against the Parthians.
			222-235. SeverusAlexander. Excellent ruler, advised by the jurists Domitius Ulpianus and Julius Paullus.
225
	238. They invade Gaul.	236-237. They invade lower Mœsia, andexact tribute of the Romans.
			248. Celebration of the thousandth anniversary of thefoundation of Rome.
250		250. The Goths, under their king, Ostrogotha, for the first time force their way into the Roman Empire bycrossing the Danube.
		258-69. Four great expeditions of the Goths into AsiaMinor and Greece.
			268-270. Claudius II. raised to thethrone by the soldiers.
		272. They are driven from Illyricum and Thrace, and defeated also onthe Danube.	270-275. AURELIANUS. He concluded peace with the Goths by the sacrifice of theprovince of Dacia. He defeated Zenobia in two battles, at Antiochia and at Edessa, subdued Syria, besieged and destroyed Palmyra, capturedZenobia, and reconquered Egypt, 273. Aurelian called “Restorer of the universal Empire.”
		274. They obtain Dacia from the Romans.
275			275. Tacitus, Imperator. He defeated the Alani, who had invaded Asia Minor.
	277. Extraordinary naval expedition of the ThracianFranks, in the Mediterranean and northern seas.	The Goths, in their progress southward, are joined by countless swarms of barbarians and thusoverwhelm the countries they invade.	276-282. Probus. Drove back the Franks, Burgundians, Alamanni and Vandals, entered Germany, andstrengthened the wall between the Rhine and Danube.
			282-283. Carus succeeded. Conquered the Sarmatians.
			284-305. Diocletianus proclaimed imperator by the soldiers.
	288. Maximian transplants a part of them into Gaul.	Gothic monarchy on the banks of the lower Danube and the northern coast of the Black Sea.	Period of Absolute Imperialism.
	294. Repeated migrations.	290. They conquer the Burgundiones.
300
	306. Constantine defeats the Franks, who had invadedGaul.		308. Rebellion in Rome. Six emperors.
			310-323. WARS OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.
			323-337. CONSTANTINE, THE GREAT, sole ruler.Christianity recognized by the State and favored at the expense of paganism.
325			330. Seat of empire moved toConstantinople.
			337. On the death of Constantine the Great, the empire was divided between his threesons: Constantine, Constans and Constantius.
350	356-7. Franks and Alemanni pour intoGaul.	350. Hermanric, King of the Ostrogoths, founds an extensive empire.
			361. Julian, called the Apostate. Disliked Christianity, and tried torestore paganism.
	365-371. Valentinian drives the Alemanniout of Gaul.	366. The Goths invade Thrace, butare defeated by the generals of Valens. Upon the invasion of the Huns, the Ostrogoths separate from the Visigoths.	364. Empire divided into East and West with anemperor ruling in each.
			West	East
			364. Valentinian I.	364. Valens, killed by Goths.
375			375-493. INVASION OF ROMAN EMPIRE BY NORTHERN BARBARIANS.
		375. Death of Hermanric and fall of his empire.	375. Gratian and Valentinian II.
		376. The Visigoths pressed by the Huns, implore the protection of Valens, and cross the Danube intoMœsia, which he cedes to them.	383. Valentinian II.	379. Theodosius I. Became a Christian; kept back the Goths;divided Armenia between Rome and Persia.
			394. The whole empire was, for the last time,reunited under
			394-395. Theodosius. After his death the division of administrationinto an eastern and western section, which had existed for a hundred years, became a permanent division of the empire.
			395. DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE BETWEEN THE SONS OF THEODOSIUS, HONORIUS ANDARCADIUS.

B. C.	Roman Empire	Parthia	China, Japan, India
	Palestine
	30. Augustus bestows increase of territory on Herod.		30. Japan: Suinin, a great civilizer.
	29. Herod kills his wife, Mariamne.
			27. India: Andhra kingdom very powerful.
25	25. Herod begins extensive building operations in Judea: rebuilds Samaria, reconstructs temple atJerusalem, 20-19.	25. Tiridates aspires to the sovereignty but is defeated and takes refuge at the court ofAugustus.
		20. Phraates restores the standards taken from Crassus.
		18. Sends his sons as hostages to Rome.
	4. Birth of Jesus Christ. Date now generally accepted thoughnot actually certain.	Gradual decline of the Parthian Kingdom.
1 A. D.	The Christian Church	Series of struggles for succession to the throne for over one hundred years.
	6. Judea made a Roman province under a procurator.
			21. India: Gondophares, King of Kabul and Punjab.
25	26. Pontius Pilate becomes procurator of Judea.
	28-29. Baptism of Jesus Christ and beginning of His public work.
	30. Crucifixion of Jesus Christ.
	35-36. ST. PAUL converted to Christianity.
	42. St. Peter, the Apostle, after fillingthe see of Antioch seven years, goes to Rome.
	49. Council of the Apostles at Jerusalem.
50		50. Vologeses I.
	56. Paul arrested in Jerusalem.	52. War against Rome for the possession of Armenia Minor.
	59. Paul arrives in Rome.		58. China: Ming-Ti introduces Buddhism.
	64. First traditional persecution of Christians, by Nero.
	66. Outbreak of Jewish war.	65. Terminated at the death of Tigranes, when Tiridates accepts the crown of Armenia from Nero.
	67. Pope Linus. Vespasian despatched against the Jews.
	70. The destruction of Jerusalem by Titus.
	72. Conquest of Judea completed.		71-130. Japan: Keiko and Yamato-Dake make large conquests.
75	95. Second traditionalpersecution of the Christians, by Domitian.	90. Death of Vologeses. Arsaces XXIV inalliance with the Romans, embellishes Ctesiphon.
100
		107. Chosroes (Arsaces XXV.), implicated in a war withTrajan on account of Armenia.	109. China: Conquest of Korea.
	112-113. Third traditional persecution, by Trajan.
	PERIOD OF GREATEST EXTENT OF THE EMPIRE.
		117. Chosroes restored.
		121. Vologeses II., (Arsaces XXVI.)
125			125. India: Nagar-Juna, great apostle of Buddhism.
	The Christian Church	Parthia	China, Japan, India
	145. Rise of the Marcionites.	149. Vologeses III., (Arsaces XXVII). Renewalof the war with Rome.
150	154. Canon of Scripture fixed about this time. Justin Martyr publishes his apology for the Christians.
	155. Martyrdom of Polycarp; appearance of Montanus.
	165. Death of Justin Martyr.	165. Casius destroys Seleucia.
175	177. Fourth traditional persecution, by MarcusAurelius—Irenæus becomes bishop of Lyons.
	180. Age of Theophilus and Tatian.
		191. Vologeses IV., (Arsaces XXVIII.)
200			201-269. Japan: Jingu-Kogo,most famous of Japanese female sovereigns.
		207. Defeated by Septimius Severus, who sacks the chief towns of Parthia.
		216. Artabanus IV., (Arsaces XXX), the last of theArsacidæ.
			221-265. China: Epoch of the “Three Kingdoms.”
225		Persia
		226-651. Dynasty of the Sassanides.
	235. Origen. Sixth persecution of the Christians, underMaximinus.	226-240. Artaxerxes becomes the founder of the new Persian monarchy.
	248. Cyprian becomes bishop of Carthage. Monastic life originatesabout this time. Dispute between the churches of Rome and Africa about baptism.
250	251. Seventh persecution of the Christians, under Decius.
	257. Eighth persecution, under Valerian.	257. War against the Romans: Sapor advances as far as Cappadocia. The Emperor Valerian takenprisoner.
	260. Paul, of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, denies the divinity ofJesus Christ.
	270. Manes advocates his doctrines in Persia.	The Sassanidæ, claiming to be descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, form pretensionsto all the Asiatic provinces of the Roman Empire.	270-310. Japan: Ojin, a great warrior.
	274. Ninth persecution, under Aurelian.
275
		292-301. Narses.
300	303. Tenth persecution of the Christians, byDiocletian.	301-309. Hormisdas II., builds Ormus.
	305. Persecution of the Christians stopped by Constantius Chlorus.
	311. Pope Miltiades. Constantine issues Edict ofToleration.	309-380. Sapor II carries on a series of wars with Rome.	313. Japan: Nintoku, the Sage Emperor.
	320. Strife of the Donatists in Africa.		320. India: Chandragupta, first supreme emperor of India. Brilliant Gupta Period from 320 to 480.
325	325. The Council of Nice, consisting of three hundred and eighteen bishops, who condemn Arianism. Athanasius, Arius, flourish in the reign of Constantine.	326. Persecution of the Christians.
	337. Pope Julius I.	337-363. War with Rome. Sapor demands the restitution of all the provinces Persia had formerlypossessed in Asia Minor.
	340. Christianity propagated in Ethiopia by Frumentius.—Gothic version of Bible by Wulfila (Ulfilas).
350	352. Pope Liberius. Hilary of Poitiers.—Cyril, Bishop ofJerusalem.
	363. Jovian. Restored Christianity.	362-3. War with Julian, who is slain in repulsing thePersians, on the Tigris.
	372-420. Peace with Rome.
375
	375. Ambrose of Milan; Martin of Tours.		375. India: Chandragupta II. extended the empire.
	381. The second general councilof Constantinople. Gregory of Nazianzus made patriarch of Constantinople.	380-383. Artaxerxes II.
		383-388. Sapor III. Division of Armenia between Persia and Rome.
	395. DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE BETWEEN THE SONS OF THEODOSIUS, HONORIUS ANDARCADIUS.

VII. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE FORMATION OF THE MOHAMMEDAN EMPIRE, 395-622 A. D.

Great Events of Period. Invasion of the Germanic Tribes. Middle Ages begin. Anglo-Invasion of Britain. 400-500: Fall of the Roman Empire. Beginning of new states. 500-600: Great disorders in the West. Beginnings of Feudalism; power of the clergy increases. In the East the great reign of Justinian. 600-700: Rise and wonderful spread of Mohammedanism from Arabia to Siude on the east, and Carthage on the west. Christianizing of Germany.

A. D.	Britain	Western Part of the Roman Empire					Eastern Empire		Persia	China, India, Japan	A. D.
		Spain	Gaul (Franks)	Germans	Italy	Church
	I. Roman Period (B.C. 55-410 A.D.)				395-423. Honorius, Emperor. Capital Rome, Ravenna imperial residence after 402.		395. Arcadius received the Eastern Empire, also called the Byzantine or Grecian Empire.Capital Byzantium or Constantinople.		399-420. Isdegerdes favors the Christians.
400						400. Chrysostom, patriarch ofConstantinople; ST. AUGUSTINE.					400
					402. Alaric invades Italy. Stilicho collects an army from Gaul, Britain, etc., anddefeats him at Pollentia and Verona.	402. Pope Innocent I.
		409. Gerontius, the Roman governor, invites the Vandals,Alani and Suevi into Spain.			408. Stilicho slain. Alaric’s third invasion.
	410. The Roman troops being gradually withdrawn, the natives become independent.		412. Ataulphus, with the Visigoths, leaves Italy,conquers Narbonne and Toulouse.	413. Kingdom of the Burgundiansfounded by Gondicar.	410. Alaric captures and sacks Rome.	412. Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria.	414-53. Regency ofPulcheria.		412. Conquers Armenia.
		415. The empire of the Visigoths.				416. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the African bishops.
					423-455. The greater part of Gaul and Spainlost.	422. Pope Celestine I.	420-22. Persian War on account of persecution of the Christians.		420-440. Varanes V.	420. China: Close of Isin dynasty.
425	The Scots and Picts continually harass the island, and the Franks and Saxons infest itscoast.	429. Empire of the Vandals.				432. St. Patrick preaches theGospel in Ireland.	431-440. Armenia divided between the Persiansand Romans.				425
					437. Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum, lost to the Greek Empire.		438. Theodosian Code.
						440. Pope LEO I. the Great, greatly extends the power of the bishop of Rome.	441. Invasion of the Huns; who ravage Europeto the walls of Constantinople.		440-457. Varanes VI., Legislator.
	II. Anglo-Saxon Period (449-1066)		448-456. Merovius powerfully assists in the defeat ofAttila, and thus gives his name to the first race of French kings.	449. The Saxon invasion of England.
450		451. Invasion of Attila, withhalf a million Huns. The Huns under Attila, called the “Scourge of God,” defeated by the confederate armies of Romans andVisigoths at Chalons.	450. Dynasty of the Merovingians.		452. Attila returns from Gaul into Italy. Pope Leo savesRome.	451. The fourth general council at Chalcedon, at whichEutychianism and Nestorianism are solemnly condemned.					450
	455-556. Saxon Octarchy.		455. The Britons settle in Bretagne.		455-476. From the assassination of Valentinian, ten emperors rapidlysucceed.		454. The Ostrogoths, after Attila’s death, settle in Pannonia and Mœsia.
	455. Hengist founds the kingdom of Kent.		457. Childeric conquers to the Loire,including Paris.	456. The Alemanni follow the Burgundians into Alsace. Theriver Aar in Switzerland becomes the boundary between them.	455. Genseric and the Vandals plunder Rome.		457-474. Leothe Great. The first emperor crowned by a patriarch of the Greek Church.		457. Firoz, one of the most celebratedprinces of Persia.
					461. Ricimer, leader of the Goths, reigns under the name of Severus III.
		466-483. Gothic Monarchy of Spain.			474. Ricimer sacks Rome.		474-491. Zeno.
475					476. Odoacer, King of the Heruli,overthrows the Western Empire, and founds the Kingdom of Italy.		475. The Ostrogoths. Theodoric brought up as a hostage atConstantinople, becomes chief of the whole nation. He invades the empire, ravages Thrace with great cruelty.			480. India: End of Gupta dynasty.	475
		NEW NATIONS FORMED OUT OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
		Spain	Franks	Germans	Italy
		Kingdom of the Visigoths.	Kingdom of the Franks.
			481-511. Clovis the true founder of the French monarchy: capital Paris.			482. The Emperor Zeno publishes the Henoticon.
			486. Defeats Syagrius at Soissons. End of the Roman Dominion.	491-516. Gondebald, King of Burgundy.		492. Pope Gelasius I. He advancesbold claims to authority.	489-493. Theodoric’s expedition from Thrace, etc.,into Italy.
					493. Italy conquered by Theodoric, King ofthe Ostrogoths. Odoacer put to death.		493. The Kingdom of the Ostrogoths.
			496. Conversion of Clovis. He defeats the Alamanni.		493-555. Kingdom of the East Goths (Ostrogoths) in Italy.	496. Christianity introduced among the Franks, whoseking, Clovis, accepts baptism.
500					500. Edict of Theodoric.		502-505. War with Persia.				500
		508-522. Theodoric the Great, King of theOstrogoths, rules the affairs of Spain—he preserves Narbonne, wrested from the Visigoths by Clovis, to this empire, but joins Arlesand Provence to his own.		506. Burgundy tributary to the Franks.	508. Conquest of Arles and Provence.		507. Long walls built to protect Constantinople from theBulgarians.
	519. Kingdom of Wessex (West Saxons) whichultimately unites to itself the whole English monarchy.			516. Sigismond.		518. The accession of Justin marks the downfall of theMonophysites.	518-527. Justin. Proclus hisminister. 518-565. Brilliant period of the Byzantine Empire.
		522-531. Amalaric, the first Gothic king who establishes his court in Spain: capital, Seville.		523. Godomar.
525						527. Separation of the Armenian from the Greek Church.	527. JUSTINIAN I. becomes emperor; celebrated for hiscode of laws and the victories of his generals, Belisarius and Narses.				525
						529. The Order of Benedictine Monks instituted at Monte Cassino, near Naples.	530. Belisarius defeats the Persians at Daras.		531-579. Chosroës I., “TheJust,” greatest of the Sassanid kings. War with Justinian. Invasion of Syria and capture of Antioch. Belisarius in Syria.
							532. Suppresses the Nika riot in the Hippodrome of Constantinople.
					533-555. WARS OF JUSTINIAN AGAINST THE VANDALS AND OSTROGOTHS.
							533-534. Overthrows the Vandals in Africa.
					535-553. Unsuccessful war with Justinian, the troops revolt and elect Vitiges, 536-541.		535. Subdues Sicily.
			536. Witiges, King of the Ostrogoths, surrenders his possessions in Gaul to the Franks.		536. Belisarius takes Rome.		536. Belisarius and Narses recover Italy.
			537. Witiges besieges Belisarius in Rome.		537. It endures a long and disastrous siege from Vitiges.
			540. Byzantine power established in Italy.		541-552. Totila re-establishes the powers of the Ostrogoths.	544. In the Edict of the Three Chapters,Justinian largely repudiates the work of the Council of Chalcedon.		Turks settled in Asia ab. 545-550	549-551.Siege of Petra.
550											550
					552. Narses, the general of Justinian, invades Italy, overthrows the Gothic monarchy.		553. Narses defeats and kills Totila and overthrowsGothic kingdom in Italy.			552. Japan: Buddhism introduced.
			558-561. Clotaire sole monarch.		554. Italy under Greek Exarchs.
			561. Chilperic I. (the French Nero), King of Neustria, married thebeautiful Fredegonda.	Many Germanic tribes, particularly the Bavarians and Saxons join the Lombards and Avars in their invasionof Italy.	Kingdom of the Lombards	560. Pope John III. The Tritheists maintain the separate existence of the persons of the Trinity.	565. Death of Belisarius and Justinian. Justin II becomesemperor.
			561-575. Sigebert, King of Austrasia, wife Brunehilda.		568. Italy conquered by the Lombards under Alboin. He later fixes hiscapital at Pavia.		570-600. The Avars invade the Eastern Empire,and spread over Hungary, Poland and Prussia.	569-582. The Turks send embassies to theGreek emperor—treaty between them.
					568-752. The Exarchate of Ravenna established.		571-591. Wars with Persia.
575	575. East-Anglia, is formed into a kingdom. The name of Angle-land was given to a small part ofthe eastern coast, East-Engla-land.						578-582. Tiberius II.		579-590. Hormisdas III.		575
					580. The Latin language ceases to be spoken in Italy, while it supersedes Gothic in Spain.		582-602. Maurice.
	586. The kingdom of Mercia was the last founded by the Angles.	586-601. Recared good and prosperous reign establishes the Catholic faith throughout Spain—theclergy obtain great authority.					The empire extended to the Araxes, and almost to the Caspian.
	588-828. WARS OF THE HEPTARCHY.
	590-616. Supremacy of Ethelbert, King of Kent.	The Latin language supersedes the Gothic.				590-604. GREGORY I. the Great. Canon of the massestablished.	592. War with the Avars.		591-628. Chosroes II.	590-618. China: Dynasty of Suy.
										593-600. Japan: strong Chinese influences.
600	Ethelbert publishes the first Code of Laws inBritain.					607-614. Boniface IV.	603-628. War with Persia.	600. Arabia became the theater of important events which greatly influenced the history of the East.	603. Invades the Greek Empire—conquers Syria,611; Palestine and Jerusalem, 614; Egypt, 616 and Asia Minor except the coasts—overrun Africa. Splendid court of Persia.		600
			613-628. Clotaire II., sole monarch, grandson of Clovis, his powerextends over all the Gauls to the Pyrenees—the Saxons and Lombards tributary: capital, Paris.			The Anglo-Saxons embrace Christianity—as do also, during this century, the Frieslanders,Westphalians, Thuringians, Danes, Swedes, Germans, and Franks.		609. MOHAMMED proclaims his religion.

A. D.	Britain	Eastern Empire		Persia	China, India, Japan
	I. Roman Period (B.C. 55-410 A.D.)	395. Arcadius received the Eastern Empire, also called the Byzantine or Grecian Empire.Capital Byzantium or Constantinople.		399-420. Isdegerdes favors the Christians.
400	400. Chrysostom, patriarch ofConstantinople; ST. AUGUSTINE.
	410. The Roman troops being gradually withdrawn, the natives become independent.	414-53. Regency ofPulcheria.		412. Conquers Armenia.
		420-22. Persian War on account of persecution of the Christians.		420-440. Varanes V.	420. China: Close of Isin dynasty.
425	The Scots and Picts continually harass the island, and the Franks and Saxons infest itscoast.	431-440. Armenia divided between the Persiansand Romans.
		438. Theodosian Code.
		441. Invasion of the Huns; who ravage Europeto the walls of Constantinople.		440-457. Varanes VI., Legislator.
	II. Anglo-Saxon Period (449-1066)
450
		454. The Ostrogoths, after Attila’s death, settle in Pannonia and Mœsia.
		457-474. Leothe Great. The first emperor crowned by a patriarch of the Greek Church.		457. Firoz, one of the most celebratedprinces of Persia.
	466-483. Gothic Monarchy of Spain.	474-491. Zeno.
475		475. The Ostrogoths. Theodoric brought up as a hostage atConstantinople, becomes chief of the whole nation. He invades the empire, ravages Thrace with great cruelty.			480. India: End of Gupta dynasty.
		489-493. Theodoric’s expedition from Thrace, etc.,into Italy.
		493. The Kingdom of the Ostrogoths.
500		502-505. War with Persia.
		507. Long walls built to protect Constantinople from theBulgarians.
	519. Kingdom of Wessex (West Saxons) whichultimately unites to itself the whole English monarchy.	518-527. Justin. Proclus hisminister. 518-565. Brilliant period of the Byzantine Empire.
525		527. JUSTINIAN I. becomes emperor; celebrated for hiscode of laws and the victories of his generals, Belisarius and Narses.
		530. Belisarius defeats the Persians at Daras.		531-579. Chosroës I., “TheJust,” greatest of the Sassanid kings. War with Justinian. Invasion of Syria and capture of Antioch. Belisarius in Syria.
		532. Suppresses the Nika riot in the Hippodrome of Constantinople.
		533-555. WARS OF JUSTINIAN AGAINST THE VANDALS AND OSTROGOTHS.
		533-534. Overthrows the Vandals in Africa.
		535. Subdues Sicily.
		536. Belisarius and Narses recover Italy.
			Turks settled in Asia ab. 545-550	549-551. Siege of Petra.
550
		553. Narses defeats and kills Totila and overthrowsGothic kingdom in Italy.			552. Japan: Buddhism introduced.
		565. Death of Belisarius and Justinian. Justin II becomesemperor.
		570-600. The Avars invade the Eastern Empire,and spread over Hungary, Poland and Prussia.	569-582. The Turks send embassies to theGreek emperor—treaty between them.
		571-591. Wars with Persia.
575	575. East-Anglia, is formed into a kingdom. The name of Angle-land was given to a small part ofthe eastern coast, East-Engla-land	578-582. Tiberius II.		579-590. Hormisdas III.
		582-602. Maurice.
	586. The kingdom of Mercia was the last founded by the Angles.	The empire extended to the Araxes, and almost to the Caspian.
	588-828. WARS OF THE HEPTARCHY.
	590-616. Supremacy of Ethelbert, King of Kent.	592. War with the Avars.		591-628. Chosroes II.	590-618. China: Dynasty of Suy.
					593-600. Japan: strong Chinese influences.
600	Ethelbert publishes the first Code of Laws inBritain.	603-628. War with Persia.	600. Arabia became the theater of important events which greatly influenced the history of the East.	603. Invades the Greek Empire—conquers Syria,611; Palestine and Jerusalem, 614; Egypt, 616 and Asia Minor except the coasts—overrun Africa. Splendid court of Persia.
			609. MOHAMMED proclaims his religion.

A. D.	Western Part of the Roman Empire
	Spain	Gaul (Franks)	Germans	Italy	Church
				395-423. Honorius, Emperor. Capital Rome, Ravenna imperial residence after 402.
400					400. Chrysostom, patriarch ofConstantinople; ST. AUGUSTINE.
				402. Alaric invades Italy. Stilicho collects an army from Gaul, Britain, etc., anddefeats him at Pollentia and Verona.	402. Pope Innocent I.
	409. Gerontius, the Roman governor, invites the Vandals,Alani and Suevi into Spain.			408. Stilicho slain. Alaric’s third invasion.
		412. Ataulphus, with the Visigoths, leaves Italy,conquers Narbonne and Toulouse.	413. Kingdom of the Burgundiansfounded by Gondicar.	410. Alaric captures and sacks Rome.	412. Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria.
	415. The empire of the Visigoths.				416. The Pelagian heresy condemned by the African bishops.
				423-455. The greater part of Gaul and Spainlost.	422. Pope Celestine I.
425	429. Empire of the Vandals.				432. St. Patrick preaches theGospel in Ireland.
				437. Pannonia, Dalmatia and Noricum, lost to the Greek Empire.
					440. Pope LEO I. the Great, greatly extends the power of the bishop of Rome.
		448-456. Merovius powerfully assists in the defeat ofAttila, and thus gives his name to the first race of French kings.		449. The Saxon invasion of England.
450	451. Invasion of Attila, withhalf a million Huns. The Huns under Attila, called the “Scourge of God,” defeated by the confederate armies of Romans andVisigoths at Chalons.	450. Dynasty of the Merovingians.		452. Attila returns from Gaul into Italy. Pope Leo savesRome.	451. The fourth general council at Chalcedon, at whichEutychianism and Nestorianism are solemnly condemned.
	455-556. Saxon Octarchy.	455. The Britons settle in Bretagne.		455-476. From the assassination of Valentinian, ten emperors rapidlysucceed.
	455. Hengist founds the kingdom of Kent.	457. Childeric conquers to the Loire,including Paris.	456. The Alemanni follow the Burgundians into Alsace. Theriver Aar in Switzerland becomes the boundary between them.	455. Genseric and the Vandals plunder Rome.
				461. Ricimer, leader of the Goths, reigns under the name of Severus III.
				474. Ricimer sacks Rome.
475				476. Odoacer, King of the Heruli,overthrows the Western Empire, and founds the Kingdom of Italy.
	NEW NATIONS FORMED OUT OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
	Spain	Franks	Germans	Italy
	Kingdom of the Visigoths.	Kingdom of the Franks.
		481-511. Clovis the true founder of the French monarchy: capital Paris.			482. The Emperor Zeno publishes the Henoticon.
		486. Defeats Syagrius at Soissons. End of the Roman Dominion.	491-516. Gondebald, King of Burgundy.		492. Pope Gelasius I. He advancesbold claims to authority.
				493. Italy conquered by Theodoric, King ofthe Ostrogoths. Odoacer put to death.
			496. Conversion of Clovis. He defeats the Alamanni.	493-555. Kingdom of the East Goths (Ostrogoths) in Italy.	496. Christianity introduced among the Franks, whoseking, Clovis, accepts baptism.
500				500. Edict of Theodoric.
	508-522. Theodoric the Great, King of theOstrogoths, rules the affairs of Spain—he preserves Narbonne, wrested from the Visigoths by Clovis, to this empire, but joins Arlesand Provence to his own.	506. Burgundy tributary to the Franks.		508. Conquest of Arles and Provence.
		516. Sigismond.			518. The accession of Justin marks the downfall of theMonophysites.
	522-531. Amalaric, the first Gothic king who establishes his court in Spain: capital, Seville.	523. Godomar.
525					527. Separation of the Armenian from the Greek Church.
					529. The Order of Benedictine Monks instituted at Monte Cassino, near Naples.
				533-555. WARS OF JUSTINIAN AGAINST THE VANDALS AND OSTROGOTHS.
				535-553. Unsuccessful war with Justinian, the troops revolt and elect Vitiges, 536-541.
		536. Witiges, King of the Ostrogoths, surrenders his possessions in Gaul to the Franks.		536. Belisarius takes Rome.
		537. Witiges besieges Belisarius in Rome.		537. It endures a long and disastrous siege from Vitiges.
		540. Byzantine power established in Italy.		541-552. Totila re-establishes the powers of the Ostrogoths.	544. In the Edict of the Three Chapters,Justinian largely repudiates the work of the Council of Chalcedon.
550
				552. Narses, the general of Justinian, invades Italy, overthrows the Gothic monarchy.
		558-561. Clotaire sole monarch.		554. Italy under Greek Exarchs.
		561. Chilperic I. (the French Nero), King of Neustria, married thebeautiful Fredegonda.	Many Germanic tribes, particularly the Bavarians and Saxons join the Lombards and Avars in their invasionof Italy.	Kingdom of the Lombards	560. Pope John III. The Tritheists maintain the separate existence of the persons of the Trinity.
		561-575. Sigebert, King of Austrasia, wife Brunehilda.		568. Italy conquered by the Lombards under Alboin. He later fixes hiscapital at Pavia.
				568-752. The Exarchate of Ravenna established.
575
				580. The Latin language ceases to be spoken in Italy, while it supersedes Gothic in Spain.
	586-601. Recared good and prosperous reign establishes the Catholic faith throughout Spain—theclergy obtain great authority.
	The Latin language supersedes the Gothic.				590-604. GREGORY I. the Great. Canon of the massestablished.
600					607-614. Boniface IV.
		613-628. Clotaire II., sole monarch, grandson of Clovis, his powerextends over all the Gauls to the Pyrenees—the Saxons and Lombards tributary: capital, Paris.			The Anglo-Saxons embrace Christianity—as do also, during this century, the Frieslanders,Westphalians, Thuringians, Danes, Swedes, Germans, and Franks.

VIII. FROM THE BEGINNING OF MOHAMMEDAN POWER TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN, 622-843 A. D.

Great Events of Period. 700-800: Christianizing of Germany continues. Hostile caliphates of Bagdad and Cordova. Mohammedan advance in the West checked by Charlemagne, who nominally restores the Western Roman Empire. Norman ravages begin. 800-900: Norman ravages continue. Private wars. Charlemagne’s Empire falls to pieces.

A. D.	Britain	Spain	Franks and Germans		Italy and Church	Eastern Empire	Saracen Empire		Persia	China, Japan, India	A. D.
	617-685. The Northumbrian Supremacy: Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex. 617. Edwin embraces Christianity and becomes powerful. Began a basilica at York.		The power of the mayors of the palaces increases by their being appointed regents over thecountries conquered by Clotaire.							618-907. China: Dynasty of Tang.
						622-625. Successful expeditions of Heraclius against the Persians.	622. The Hegira, or Flight, of MOHAMMED. He enters Medina, and is acknowledged as prophet andmilitary sovereign.		622. Invasion of Heraclius.
		623. The Greeks expelled from Spain.					623-632. Conquers all Arabia.
625					625-638. Honorius I. Much money spent in building churches.				627. Victory of Nineveh.		625
			628-633. Dagobert I., King of all the Frankish realms.		Africa and Asia, with the churches of Jerusalem,Alexandria, and Antioch, lost to the Christian world by the progress of Mohammedanism.	628. Peace with Persia.			628. Conquest of Madain; Chosroes flees; revolution; he is deposed and murdered by his son.
						632-1492. SARACEN OR MOHAMMEDAN WARS.
									Peace with Constantinople.
							632-634. Abu Bekr, Mohammed’s father-in-law, succeeds as Caliph, and reigns from theEuphrates and Tigris to the Mediterranean.		632-651. Yezdejird, the last king.
	633-655. Feuds among the Saxon Kings.		633. Death of Dagobert I., and long minority rule of his sons.				633. The Greeks defeated in Syria by the Arabs, under Khaled, who captures Damascus.		The Arabs attack Persia and under Othman, completely subdue it.
							634-644. Omar. Egypt and part of Syria subdued.
		638. Council of Toledo; decree against theJews.	636-687. Continued decline and final decay of the Merovingians.		636-652. Rotharis. Legislation of Rotharis and gradualformation of the Italian language. Invasion of the Slavs, who are repulsed.		637. Captures Jerusalem. The Christians allowed theexercise of their religion—paying tribute. Omar founds a mosque at Jerusalem, which Moslems consider nearly as sacred as Mecca.		637. Ctesiphon taken and sacked by the Arabs.
						640. The Slavs found the kingdom of Servia and Croatia.	640. Alexandria captured by Amru, and its library burned.
						641-668. Constans II.
							644-655. Othman builds a fleet.			645. Japan: Rise of the famous Fuji Wasa family,influential for 400 years.
							647. Amru captures Mauritania and nearly all northern Africa.
					649. Pope Martin I.		648. Cyprus captured, and
650	656-675. Mercia, shakes off the yoke ofNorthumbria.						653. Rhodes—complete destruction of thecelebrated colossus.		652. Persia passes under the Saracens.		650
					662. Grimoald, Duke of Benevento, comes to aid Gondebert, but killshim and seizes the crown.		661-680. Moawiah makes Damascus his capital, forms a navy; invades Sicily; besiegesConstantinople.
	Northumbria declines, but Wessex and Mercia increase in power.				664. Roman Christianity triumphs in England at the Council at Whitby.	668-685. Constantine IV. (Pogonatus.) 668-675. First siege of Constantinople by the Arabs—the Greek fire saves the city.
675					680-681. The sixth general council at Constantinoplecondemns the Monothelites.	680. Kingdom of the Bulgarians founded between the Danube and theBalkan, lasts till 1018, when it is again a Greek province.					675
			687-714. Pipin, Mayor of the Palace.			685. Justinian II. breaks the truce with the Saracens, is defeated, and compelled to relinquishArmenia.
			The Alemani, Bavarians, Frisons, Thuringians and Saxons, while France is occupied withthe dissensions of the mayors of the palace, shake off the Frankish yoke.		697. Venice begins to have its Doges.		696. Armenia subdued, and 697-725. The provinces between theBlack and Caspian Sea. 698. Carthage razed, and the north coast of Africa completely subjugated.
700		711. Tarik lands at Gibraltar, gains adecisive victory at Xeres, 712, in which Rhoderic, the last of the Goths is killed. End of Gothic Monarchy ofSpain.			710. Emperor Justinian II. confirms the Roman See in itsprivileges.		711. Battle of Xeres destroyedthe kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain.				700
					712. Constantine opposes the emperor Philippicus Bardanes in the question of the Monotheliteheresy. 712-744. Luitbrand, a great and virtuous prince. Luitbrand takes advantage of the civilbroils in Italy, captures Ravenna and several cities from the pope.					712. India: Abab conquest begins.
		713-714. Tarik and Musa complete the conquest of Spain. The Christians maintain themselves in theAsturias and Navarre.
			715. Death of Pipin, succeeded after a long struggle by his son.		715. Pope Gregory II. engages in controversy with the Emperor Leo theIsaurian over image-worship.
			715-741. Charles Martel. Complete master of the French monarchy.			718-741. Leo III., the Isaurian.
			720-729. The Arabs invade France, but are several times defeated and driven back byEudes, Duke of Aquitaine.		722. Boniface consecrated bishop of Germany.					720. India: Parsees settle at Bombay.
725					730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor.	726. Edict forbidding image worship.					725
			732. Charles Martel gains the decisive victory ofTours which saves the liberties and religion of Europe.		731. Pope Gregory III.		732. Saracens defeated by Charles Martel atTours.
		739. Alfonso founds the kingdom of Leon which maintains its independence till 1230.	Carlovingian Dynasty		749-756. Aistulf.
750			751. With Pipin the Short (741-768), CharlesMartel’s son, the Carolingians became kings of the Franks.		752. He defeats the Greek exarchs, and demands a tributefrom Rome.		750. Savage civil wars among Saracens. Caliphate of Bagdad under the Abbasides(750-1258).				750
			End of the Greek Exarchate
	755-794. Offa, King of Mercia, overthrows the armies ofSussex, Kent, Wessex and founds the Abbey of Bath and of St. Albans.	755-1031. Caliphate at Cordova.	754-756. Pipin makes two expeditions into Italy and bestows the exarchate upon the pope, thus layingthe foundation of the temporal power of the Papacy.				755. Saracen Empire divided. Abderrahman, escaped toSpain, and founded there the
		755-787. Abderrahman having escaped from Bagdad, wrests Spain from the caliphate of theAbbassides—establishes a military government.			756. Commencement of the pope’s temporal powerunder the auspices of Pipin, who bestows on Stephen the exarchate of Ravenna. Didier, the last king, quarrels with Pope Adrian, 772, atwhose request Charlemagne crosses the Great St. Bernard from Geneva, takes Pavia, dethrones Didier, and thus, 774, endsthe Kingdom of the Lombards which had lasted 206 years.	756. The exarchate of Ravenna lost.	756. Caliphate of Cordova.
							762. Bagdad becomes the seat of Caliphs the center of commerce, and rises to greatopulence and splendor.			763-80. China: Incessant Tartar invasion.
			768-814. CHARLEMAGNE, and Carloman, the former one of the greatest monarchs, becomes soleruler upon the death of Carloman, 771.		768. Pope Stephen III.
					772. Pope Hadrian I., whom Charlemagne confirms in possession of Pipin’sdonation.
775	789. First landing of Northmen inBritain.				787. The seventh general council at Nice, in which thedoctrine of the Iconoclasts was condemned.	787. Irene restores the worship of images.	786. Haroun-al-Raschid, Caliph at Bagdad. TheEmpire broke into a number of separate States at his death. Arab art flourishing, and Arabcivilization at its zenith.				775
		791-842. Alphonso II., the Chaste, defeats and expels the Arabs, who invade his dominions, and fromthis time may be dated the real independence of the Christians.			795. Pope Leo III.Image-worship condemned by Synod of Frankfort.	797-802. Irene reigns alone, after killingher own son.				794. Japan: Kioto becomes the capital.
800			800. Charlemagne or Charles the Great crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III. The Holy RomanEmpire founded. It included all France, Germany, Spain to the Ebro, Italy to Benevento, several isles of the Mediterranean, and thegreater portion of Pannonia.			801. Negotiations with Charlemagne respecting a marriage with him anda union of the two empires.				800-855. India: Rise of the Rajput states.	800
	802. Egbert, King of Wessex.					802. Irene is deposed by Nicephorus, and banished to Lesbos—died 803.
						802-811. Nicephorus.
						803-806. The Saracens defeat the Greeks, ravage Asia Minor, capture Cyprus, and compelNicephorus to pay a tribute.
			806. Charlemagne divides the empire between his threesons, two of whom die, 810, 811.
			808. Descent of the Normans or Northmen upon France. Many bishoprics founded—Greatincrease of monastic institutions.			811. Nicephorus is defeated and killed by Crunnus, King of theBulgarians.
			813. National assembly at Aix. Louis co-ruler. Charlemagne dies there 814.			813-820. Leo, the Armenian.	813-833. Mamun. The reign of this prince may be regarded as the Augustan period ofArabian literature.
			814-840. Louis, the Pious, crowned emperor at Rheims, 816, by Pope Stephen IV.
			817. Louis divides the empire between his three sons, and, 823, a fourth, Lothaire, is associated inthe empire.				Immediately after the reigns of Haroun-al-Raschid and Mamun the power of the caliphsbegan to decline.
			820. Second invasion of the Normans.			820-829. Michael II., the Stammerer.
						823. Crete lost to the Arabs, and Sicily to the African Aglabites.
825	827. Egbert becomes king of all England.		830. Rebellion ofLouis’s three sons, and succession of quarrels between them till Louis’s death—Field of lies at Alsace, 833—Louisis deposed, but soon restored.			829-842. Theophilus.	827. Saracens landed in Sicily and gradually conqueredit.				825
							833. El Motassem, Caliph. Struggle with ByzantineEmpire continued throughout the century. Mohammedan rule firmly established in Egypt.
	837. Ethelwolf succeeds to the throne.		841. Battle of Frontenai between Lothaire,Charles and Louis; Louis is defeated.			837. Wars with the Saracens.	840. Arabs sailed up the Tiber to Rome. Sacked St.Peter’s and St. Paul’s.			840. Bhoga master of the country from Gwalior to the Himalayas.
		842. Ramiro I., King of Orildo.	843. Partition of the CarlovingianEmpire at Verdun, when properly begins the history of France, Germany and Italy as separate states.			842. Empress Theodora restores image worship.	Though the political power of the Bagdad Caliphate continued todecline, during the whole of the ninth century the eastern capital continued to be the chief center of learning, literature and culture instriking contrast with the west.			Great Stone Temple at Ellora about this period.
			The Treaty of Verdun was originally merely a family contract, made without regard to nationaldifferences. In Louis’ kingdom, however, the German element was in the majority; in that of Charles the Romance element prevailed.Thus there developed, in the course of the following centuries, from the East Frankish element the German, from the West Frankish theFrench nationality. The East Franks called their language, in contrast to the Latin used by the educated clergy, the deutsche, i. e. thelanguage of the people, and gradually those who spoke Deutsche came to be called Deutsche, or German.
			France	Germany	Italy
			843-987. Carolingian Kings of France.	843-911. Carolingians in Germany.	843-875. Carolingians in Italy.
		844. Irruption of the sea kings.	843-877. Charles the Bald obtains France; boundaries: the Meuse, Saone, Rhone, Scheldt and Ebro.	843-876. Louis the German obtains Germany to the Rhine, with Mayence, Spires and Worms.	843-855. Lothaire, Emperor, obtains Italy and Lotharingia, or Lorraine.
						The empire, hard pressed by Arabs, Bulgarians, and Magyars. The Emperors Nicephorus Phocas andJohn Zimisces, whom Theophano, widow of Romanus II. (died 962), placed on the throne, partially reconquered the provinces which the Arabsand Bulgarians had torn from the empire.
			The power of the monarchs declines, and the nobles become independent. The empire by the almostuniversal system of division and subdivision, is broken up into an immense number of feudal states.

A. D.	Britain	Eastern Empire	Saracen Empire		Persia	China, Japan, India
	617-685. The Northumbrian Supremacy: Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex. 617. Edwin embraces Christianity and becomes powerful. Began a basilica at York.					618-907. China: Dynasty of Tang.
		622-625. Successful expeditions of Heraclius against the Persians.	622. The Hegira, or Flight, of MOHAMMED. He enters Medina, and is acknowledged as prophet andmilitary sovereign.		622. Invasion of Heraclius.
			623-632. Conquers all Arabia.
625					627. Victory of Nineveh.
		628. Peace with Persia.			628. Conquest of Madain; Chosroes flees; revolution; he is deposed and murdered by his son.
		632-1492. SARACEN OR MOHAMMEDAN WARS.
					Peace with Constantinople.
			632-634. Abu Bekr, Mohammed’s father-in-law, succeeds as Caliph, and reigns from theEuphrates and Tigris to the Mediterranean.		632-651. Yezdejird, the last king.
	633-655. Feuds among the Saxon Kings.		633. The Greeks defeated in Syria by the Arabs, under Khaled, who captures Damascus.		The Arabs attack Persia and under Othman, completely subdue it.
			634-644. Omar. Egypt and part of Syria subdued.
			637. Captures Jerusalem. The Christians allowed theexercise of their religion—paying tribute. Omar founds a mosque at Jerusalem, which Moslems consider nearly as sacred as Mecca.		637. Ctesiphon taken and sacked by the Arabs.
		640. The Slavs found the kingdom of Servia and Croatia.	640. Alexandria captured by Amru, and its library burned.
		641-668. Constans II.
			644-655. Othman builds a fleet.			645. Japan: Rise of the famous Fuji Wasa family,influential for 400 years.
			647. Amru captures Mauritania and nearly all northern Africa.
			648. Cyprus captured, and
650	656-675. Mercia, shakes off the yoke ofNorthumbria.		653. Rhodes—complete destruction of thecelebrated colossus.		652. Persia passes under the Saracens.
			661-680. Moawiah makes Damascus his capital, forms a navy; invades Sicily; besiegesConstantinople.
	Northumbria declines, but Wessex and Mercia increase in power.	668-685. Constantine IV. (Pogonatus.) 668-675. First siege of Constantinople by the Arabs—the Greek fire saves the city.
675		680. Kingdom of the Bulgarians founded between the Danube and theBalkan, lasts till 1018, when it is again a Greek province.
		685. Justinian II. breaks the truce with the Saracens, is defeated, and compelled to relinquishArmenia.
			696. Armenia subdued, and 697-725. The provinces between theBlack and Caspian Sea. 698. Carthage razed, and the north coast of Africa completely subjugated.
700			711. Battle of Xeres destroyedthe kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain.
						712. India: Abab conquest begins.
		718-741. Leo III., the Isaurian.
						720. India: Parsees settle at Bombay.
725		726. Edict forbidding image worship.
			732. Saracens defeated by Charles Martel atTours.
750			750. Savage civil wars among Saracens. Caliphate of Bagdad under the Abbasides(750-1258).
	755-794. Offa, King of Mercia, overthrows the armies ofSussex, Kent, Wessex and founds the Abbey of Bath and of St. Albans.		755. Saracen Empire divided. Abderrahman, escaped toSpain, and founded there the
		756. The exarchate of Ravenna lost.	756. Caliphate of Cordova.
			762. Bagdad becomes the seat of Caliphs the center of commerce, and rises to greatopulence and splendor.			763-80. China: Incessant Tartar invasion.
775	789. First landing of Northmen inBritain.	787. Irene restores the worship of images.	786. Haroun-al-Raschid, Caliph at Bagdad. TheEmpire broke into a number of separate States at his death. Arab art flourishing, and Arabcivilization at its zenith.
		797-802. Irene reigns alone, after killingher own son.				794. Japan: Kioto becomes the capital.
800		801. Negotiations with Charlemagne respecting a marriage with him anda union of the two empires.				800-855. India: Rise of the Rajput states.
	802. Egbert, King of Wessex.	802. Irene is deposed by Nicephorus, and banished to Lesbos—died 803.
		802-811. Nicephorus.
		803-806. The Saracens defeat the Greeks, ravage Asia Minor, capture Cyprus, and compelNicephorus to pay a tribute.
		811. Nicephorus is defeated and killed by Crunnus, King of theBulgarians.
		813-820. Leo, the Armenian.	813-833. Mamun. The reign of this prince may be regarded as the Augustan period ofArabian literature.
			Immediately after the reigns of Haroun-al-Raschid and Mamun the power of the caliphsbegan to decline.
		820-829. Michael II., the Stammerer.
		823. Crete lost to the Arabs, and Sicily to the African Aglabites.
825		827. Egbert becomes king of all England.	827. Saracens landed in Sicily and gradually conqueredit.
			833. El Motassem, Caliph. Struggle with ByzantineEmpire continued throughout the century. Mohammedan rule firmly established in Egypt.
	837. Ethelwolf succeeds to the throne.	837. Wars with the Saracens.	840. Arabs sailed up the Tiber to Rome. Sacked St.Peter’s and St. Paul’s.			840. Bhoga master of the country from Gwalior to the Himalayas.
		842. Empress Theodora restores image worship.	Though the political power of the Bagdad Caliphate continued todecline, during the whole of the ninth century the eastern capital continued to be the chief center of learning, literature and culture instriking contrast with the west.			Great Stone Temple at Ellora about this period.
		The empire, hard pressed by Arabs, Bulgarians, and Magyars. The Emperors Nicephorus Phocas andJohn Zimisces, whom Theophano, widow of Romanus II. (died 962), placed on the throne, partially reconquered the provinces which the Arabsand Bulgarians had torn from the empire.

A. D.	Spain	Franks and Germans		Italy and Church
		The power of the mayors of the palaces increases by their being appointed regents over thecountries conquered by Clotaire.
	623. The Greeks expelled from Spain.
625				625-638. Honorius I. Much money spent in building churches.
		628-633. Dagobert I., King of all the Frankish realms.		Africa and Asia, with the churches of Jerusalem,Alexandria, and Antioch, lost to the Christian world by the progress of Mohammedanism.
		633. Death of Dagobert I., and long minority rule of his sons.
	638. Council of Toledo; decree against theJews.	636-687. Continued decline and final decay of the Merovingians.		636-652. Rotharis. Legislation of Rotharis and gradualformation of the Italian language. Invasion of the Slavs, who are repulsed.
				649. Pope Martin I.
650
				662. Grimoald, Duke of Benevento, comes to aid Gondebert, but killshim and seizes the crown.
				664. Roman Christianity triumphs in England at the Council at Whitby.
675				680-681. The sixth general council at Constantinoplecondemns the Monothelites.
		687-714. Pipin, Mayor of the Palace.
		The Alemani, Bavarians, Frisons, Thuringians and Saxons, while France is occupied withthe dissensions of the mayors of the palace, shake off the Frankish yoke.		697. Venice begins to have its Doges.
700	711. Tarik lands at Gibraltar, gains adecisive victory at Xeres, 712, in which Rhoderic, the last of the Goths is killed. End of Gothic Monarchy ofSpain.			710. Emperor Justinian II. confirms the Roman See in itsprivileges.
				712. Constantine opposes the emperor Philippicus Bardanes in the question of the Monotheliteheresy. 712-744. Luitbrand, a great and virtuous prince. Luitbrand takes advantage of the civilbroils in Italy, captures Ravenna and several cities from the pope.
	713-714. Tarik and Musa complete the conquest of Spain. The Christians maintain themselves in theAsturias and Navarre.
		715. Death of Pipin, succeeded after a long struggle by his son.		715. Pope Gregory II. engages in controversy with the Emperor Leo theIsaurian over image-worship.
		715-741. Charles Martel. Complete master of the French monarchy.
		720-729. The Arabs invade France, but are several times defeated and driven back byEudes, Duke of Aquitaine.		722. Boniface consecrated bishop of Germany.
725				730. Gregory excommunicates the emperor.
		732. Charles Martel gains the decisive victory ofTours which saves the liberties and religion of Europe.		731. Pope Gregory III.
	739. Alfonso founds the kingdom of Leon which maintains its independence till 1230.	Carlovingian Dynasty		749-756. Aistulf.
750		751. With Pipin the Short (741-768), CharlesMartel’s son, the Carolingians became kings of the Franks.		752. He defeats the Greek exarchs, and demands a tributefrom Rome.
		End of the Greek Exarchate
	755-1031. Caliphate at Cordova.	754-756. Pipin makes two expeditions into Italy and bestows the exarchate upon the pope, thus layingthe foundation of the temporal power of the Papacy.
	755-787. Abderrahman having escaped from Bagdad, wrests Spain from the caliphate of theAbbassides—establishes a military government.			756. Commencement of the pope’s temporal powerunder the auspices of Pipin, who bestows on Stephen the exarchate of Ravenna. Didier, the last king, quarrels with Pope Adrian, 772, atwhose request Charlemagne crosses the Great St. Bernard from Geneva, takes Pavia, dethrones Didier, and thus, 774, endsthe Kingdom of the Lombards which had lasted 206 years.
		768-814. CHARLEMAGNE, and Carloman, the former one of the greatest monarchs, becomes soleruler upon the death of Carloman, 771.		768. Pope Stephen III.
				772. Pope Hadrian I., whom Charlemagne confirms in possession of Pipin’sdonation.
775				787. The seventh general council at Nice, in which thedoctrine of the Iconoclasts was condemned.
	791-842. Alphonso II., the Chaste, defeats and expels the Arabs, who invade his dominions, and fromthis time may be dated the real independence of the Christians.			795. Pope Leo III.Image-worship condemned by Synod of Frankfort.
800		800. Charlemagne or Charles the Great crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III. The Holy RomanEmpire founded. It included all France, Germany, Spain to the Ebro, Italy to Benevento, several isles of the Mediterranean, and thegreater portion of Pannonia.
		806. Charlemagne divides the empire between his threesons, two of whom die, 810, 811.
		808. Descent of the Normans or Northmen upon France. Many bishoprics founded—Greatincrease of monastic institutions.
		813. National assembly at Aix. Louis co-ruler. Charlemagne dies there 814.
		814-840. Louis, the Pious, crowned emperor at Rheims, 816, by Pope Stephen IV.
		817. Louis divides the empire between his three sons, and, 823, a fourth, Lothaire, is associated inthe empire.
		820. Second invasion of the Normans.
825		830. Rebellion ofLouis’s three sons, and succession of quarrels between them till Louis’s death—Field of lies at Alsace, 833—Louisis deposed, but soon restored.
		841. Battle of Frontenai between Lothaire,Charles and Louis; Louis is defeated.
	842. Ramiro I., King of Orildo.	843. Partition of the CarlovingianEmpire at Verdun, when properly begins the history of France, Germany and Italy as separate states.
		The Treaty of Verdun was originally merely a family contract, made without regard to nationaldifferences. In Louis’ kingdom, however, the German element was in the majority; in that of Charles the Romance element prevailed.Thus there developed, in the course of the following centuries, from the East Frankish element the German, from the West Frankish theFrench nationality. The East Franks called their language, in contrast to the Latin used by the educated clergy, the deutsche, i. e. thelanguage of the people, and gradually those who spoke Deutsche came to be called Deutsche, or German.
		France	Germany	Italy
		843-987. Carolingian Kings of France.	843-911. Carolingians in Germany.	843-875. Carolingians in Italy.
	844. Irruption of the sea kings.	843-877. Charles the Bald obtains France; boundaries: the Meuse, Saone, Rhone Scheldt and Ebro.	843-876. Louis the German obtains Germany to the Rhine, with Mayence, Spires and Worms.	843-855. Lothaire, Emperor, obtains Italy and Lotharingia, or Lorraine.
		The power of the monarchs declines, and the nobles become independent. The empire by the almostuniversal system of division and subdivision, is broken up into an immense number of feudal states.

NOTE: The comparative outline of the History of Nations is continued by [Table IX].

EGYPT’S STORY SCULPTURED IN ETERNAL ROCKS

THE SPHINX AND PYRAMIDS AT GIZEH

This most mysterious of all Egyptian sculptures stands near the Second Pyramid. The body of the Sphinx is one hundred and fifty feet long, its paws are fifty feet and its height is seventy feet (See [page 351]).

This wonderful temple at Abu-Simbel in Nubia is the most northerly of a group of three, but is separated from the others by a deep ravine. It was dedicated to the goddess Hathor, and built by Rameses the Great in the side of a deep cliff. The portrait statues are thirty-three feet in height and represent Aahmes and his queen Nefertari.

ISRAEL IN EGYPT—From a Painting by Sir Edward J. Poynter

This picture portrays the hardships of the enslaved peoples in Pharaoh’s time. Not only the Israelites but the Egyptians as well were forced into service to build the great Pyramids to immortalize Egypt’s rulers.