TABLE OF CONTENTS
PERSIAN HISTORY IN OUTLINE
A PRELIMINARY SURVEY COMPRISING A CURSORY VIEW OF THE SWEEP OF EVENTS, AND A TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY
THE MEDIAN OR SCYTHIAN EMPIRE
The Scythians or Manda, a people whom the Greeks confused with the Mada or Medes, were a part of the nomadic Indo-Europeans that migrated into Western Asia from southern Russia. They descended upon and quite obliterated the ancient kingdom of Ellipi, east of Assyria and stretching to the Caspian Sea. In the Ellipian capital of Ecbatana they seem to have effected quickly the organisation of a state recognised as a danger to Assyria as far back as the reign of Esarhaddon.
Of the early rulers at Ecbatana we have no accounts except those of Herodotus and Ctesias. From these we must assume:
700 B.C. Deioces, the first leader or prince mentioned by the Greeks. He lives at a time of great Assyrian power and seems to have been a vassal of the kingdom, but he was probably the founder of his empire. Apparently he did not rule at Ecbatana, for the kingdom of Ellipi was still in existence.
647 Phraortes (Frawarti) succeeds. He extends the power of the Manda, and in his reign the kings of Persia and Elam are made his vassals.
625 Cyaxares succeeds. About this time the Scythians first invade Assyria. They burn Calah, but are unable to take Nineveh. They sweep over the land as far as the border of Egypt, where Psamthek pays them to turn back.
610 Sin-shar-ishkun, king of Assyria, attacks Nabopolassar of Babylon. The latter calls upon the Manda to help repel the invaders. The Manda immediately respond and attack Nineveh.
607 Fall of Nineveh before the Manda. They take possession of the old kingdom of Assyria as far as the Babylonian frontier, and begin conquest of the countries of the north. Cyaxares makes war on the Lydians, the people of Urartu, Media, Minni, and others.
585 Ishtuvegu (Astyages) succeeds. His empire extends in the north and west as far as the river Halys.
553 For some reason, not yet clear, Ishtuvegu proceeds against his vassal Cyrus, king of the Elamite province of Anshan.
550 Ishtuvegu is betrayed by his soldiers to Cyrus and made prisoner. The Elamite king takes Ecbatana, and becomes king of the Manda.
End of the Median or Scythian empire.
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE
The country of Parsua or Persia was first settled by Iranian tribes of Indo-European origin. The leading ones were the Pasagadæ, Maraphians, and Maspians. These lived by agriculture, cattle raising, and horse breeding, but in the mountains and desert steppes there were many nomadic tribes such as the Mardans, Kossæans, and Sagartians. Our earliest knowledge of Persian history is obtained from the Assyrian monuments, and the country seems to have been in vassalage to the mightier conquerors and to have recovered, in a measure at least, its independence whenever a weaker monarch ascended the Ninevite throne. The first historical dynasty, according to Greek historians, is the Achæmenian, and of its origin we know nothing; the founder, Achæmenes, is probably a mythical character.
FIRST PERIOD—THE EARLY ACHÆMENIANS AND THE ELAMITE DYNASTY (730-521 B.C.)
730 The first historic king, Teispes, rules about this time. His attainment to power is probably connected with some relaxation of the Assyrian grip. His successors, according to Herodotus, are Cambyses, Cyrus, and Teispes II. The last seems to have conquered the Elamite province of Anshan, which on his death went to his son Cyrus, and the throne of Persia to Ariaramnes. From the latter half of the seventh century B.C. reign, independent of each other, the two lines of the Achæmenians of which Darius speaks—one in Anshan, where by conquest the entire ancient kingdom of Elam was absorbed, the other in Persia. Both houses become vassals of the emperor of Ecbatana. Ariaramnes is succeeded by Arsaces, and then by Hystaspes, and in Elam, Cyrus I, according to the accounts of his grandson, by Cambyses, the father of Cyrus the Great.
559 Cyrus the Great succeeds Cambyses on the throne of Elam.
553 He is attacked by his suzerain, Ishtuvegu (Astyages).
550 Ishtuvegu is betrayed to Cyrus and made prisoner. The Elamite takes Ecbatana and obtains possession of the Median or Scythian empire.
His career of conquest begins.
549 Cyrus enters Assyria and takes a district belonging to Babylonia.
547 King Crœsus of Lydia, fearful of Cyrus’ power, determines to attack him, and forms a coalition with Aahmes II of Egypt, Nabonidus of Babylon, and the Spartans.
546 Cyrus meets Crœsus in Cappadocia. The latter, defeated in two battles, retreats to Sardis and sends for his allies, who do not appear. Sardis falls in the autumn. Cyrus now calls himself king of Persia. Hystaspes probably remains his vassal, as he had been that of Ishtuvegu.
545 The whole of Asia Minor is in Cyrus’ hands. It is divided into satrapies with strongly organised governments. Greek cities in Asia Minor gradually subjected.
549-539 Cyrus annexes Bactriana, and makes numerous successful expeditions in the East.
539 Cyrus starts for Babylon. He is opposed at Upi, but is victorious and moves southward.
538 Babylon opens her gates to Cyrus. Nabonidus flees. The Syrio-Phœnician provinces submit. Cyrus gives permission to the Hebrew exiles to return. The new territory is reorganised.
529 Death of Cyrus in battle. Cambyses, the heir apparent, has his brother Smerdis put to death.
526 Warlike preparations for conquest of Egypt begin. Phœnicia furnishes a fleet.
525 Battle of Pelusium. Defeat of Psamthek III. Egypt becomes a Persian province. Polycrates, of Samos, also submits. Cambyses plans attack on Carthage, but his army is lost in the Libyan desert.
524-523 Expedition against Ethiopia, which seems to have overthrown the kingdom of Napata. The army suffers great loss in the return march. Cambyses, enraged by this, outrages the Egyptian gods and the Apis bull.
522 He starts for home, but in Syria is informed that Gaumata, a Magian, has impersonated the murdered Smerdis and seized the throne. Cambyses commits suicide.
521 The Achæmenian, Darius Hystaspes, of Persia, and six other princes form a conspiracy against Gaumata, who is murdered.
SECOND PERIOD—THE PERSIAN DYNASTY (521-331 B.C.)
521 Darius made king. The throne now passes to the “second line” of Teispes II’s descendants. Darius marries Atossa, wife of Cambyses, and daughter of Cyrus. The end of the Elamite Dynasty is the signal for revolt in all the provinces. Babylon rebels, and a son of Nabonidus is proclaimed king as Nebuchadrezzar III. Susiana rises. Darius has to begin the reconquest of Cyrus’ empire.
519-518 Babylon besieged, captured, and the usurper put to death. Another usurper is also put to death. The Scythian provinces, Parthia, Hyrcania, Urartu, and Margiana are quieted. Another false Smerdis in Persia is overthrown. Orœtes, in Sardis, becomes too independent, and is put to death. In Egypt, the governor, Aryandes, proves disloyal, and is executed. Darius shows favour to the Egyptian priests.
515 By this date the empire is thoroughly reorganised, divided into satrapies, and taxes regulated. The Asiatic Greeks intrigue with those of Europe. Expedition of Darius into Scythia. He crosses the Bosporus with 800,000 troops, and his generals reduce towns in Thrace and make the king of Macedonia pay tribute.
512 Darius marches to the Indus, subjugating the tribes on the right bank north of the Kabul. The region is formed into a satrapy.
506 The overthrown Athenian tyrant, Hippias, appeals to Artaphernes, satrap of Sardis, for restoration. The Athenians refuse to comply with a request for restoration.
499 Aristagoras, satrap of Miletus, revolts, and is supported by the Greeks on the Ægean Sea. The Persians attack Naxos. The Ionians revolt.
498 Sardis burned by Aristagoras. The Ionian war begins.
494 Ionians defeated off Lade. Fall of Miletus and end of the war.
492 Mardonius sets out to reconquer Greece. He captures some towns in the archipelago, but his fleet is wrecked off Athos.
491 Persian forces concentrated in Cilicia for the second attack on Greece.
490 Invasion of Greece under Datis and Artaphernes. Naxos and Eretria taken. Defeat at Marathon. Darius begins collection of another army, but his plans are suddenly 486 stopped for Egypt revolts, the Persians are expelled, and Khabbash placed on the throne.
485 Death of Darius and is succeeded by his son Xerxes I.
484 Defeat of Khabbash in a naval battle. Achæmenes, brother of Xerxes, made satrap of Egypt.
481 Revolt in Babylon crushed; her temples pillaged.
480 Invasion of Greece. The Persians victorious at Thermopylæ and Artemisia.
Athens occupied. Battle of Salamis. Defeat of Persians. Athens evacuated.
479 Invasion of Attica under Mardonius. Defeat of Platæa. Persian fleet also defeated at Mycale.
479-478 Ionia and the islands lost to Persia.
476 Persians expelled from Thrace.
470 Fall of Eion.
465 Cimon’s victory over the Persians at the mouth of the Eurymedon. Xerxes is assassinated by Artabanus in league with Artaxerxes, who also puts his elder brother Darius to death.
464 Artaxerxes I takes the throne.
462 A rising in Bactria is quelled after two battles.
460 Rebellion in Egypt under Inarus, king of Libya, assisted by the Athenians.
459 Victory of Inarus at Papremis. He besieges the Persians in Memphis.
455-454 Megabyzus with a large army finally subdues Egypt at Prosphitis. Thannyras is made king of Libya in his father’s place. Some Egyptians proclaim Amyrtæus king in the Saïd.
449 Persians attempt to recover Cyprus. Cimon of Athens opposes them. Death of Cimon. Persian fleet and army defeated at Salamis in Cyprus. Callias concludes a treaty of peace between Persia and Athens.
448 Megabyzus, governor of Syria, rebels. He is subdued and pardoned.
424 Death of Artaxerxes. His eldest son Xerxes II reigns forty-five days, and is murdered by Artaxerxes’ illegitimate son Sogdianus, who after six months’ rule is in turn 423 killed by another bastard son Ochus, who assumes the name of Darius II (Nothus) and marries his aunt Parysatis.
The king’s brother Arsites, and Artyphius, son of Megabyzus, rebel. They are overcome, and Arsites put to death.
418 Revolt of Pissuthenes, satrap of Lydia. It is put down by Tissaphernes.
412 Amorges, son of Pissuthenes, who has continued the revolt in Caria, is finally overcome. Treaty with Sparta recognising Darius’ suzerainty over Greek cities in Asia Minor. Cities in Ionia and Caria recovered. The Spartans intrigue with Tissaphernes.
408 Cyrus, the king’s son, made satrap of Lydia, Phrygia, and Cappadocia. Tissaphernes retains the coast cities only. Cyrus burns for revenge on the Athenians.
405 Cyrus allies himself with the Spartans and is accused of treason. He aims to procure the throne for himself.
Amyrtæus (Amen-Rut) proclaims the independence of Egypt.
404 Death of Darius. Cyrus attempts to kill Arsaces, the eldest son and heir, but fails. Arsaces ascends the throne as Artaxerxes II.
401 Cyrus sets out for Persia with an army, but is met and defeated at Cunaxa by the imperial forces. Cyrus dies in the battle. Retreat of the ten thousand Greeks, his mercenaries.
Alliance of Persia and Athens against Sparta.
399 Amyrtæus (Amen-Rut) in Egypt succeeded by Niafaarut I. Egypt recovers her old-time activity; she intrigues with Syria and Cyprus against Persia.
Artaxerxes is compelled to send an army raised for the suppression of Egypt into Asia Minor.
394 Conon at the head of the Persian fleet defeats the Spartans at Cnidus.
391 Artaxerxes and Evagoras of Cyprus at open war.
387 Peace of Antalcidas. The Asiatic Greeks are given back to the Persian power.
386-385 War between Cyprus and Persia. Defeat of Evagoras. Haker of Egypt allies himself with the Pisidians. Artaxerxes’ campaign against the Cadusians.
383 Surrender of Evagoras to Persia.
378 Nectanebo I ascends throne of Egypt. Chabrias, the Athenian, reorganises the Egyptian army.
374 Failure through mutiny of the mercenaries of the Persian expedition against Nectanebo.
370-365 The satraps of Asia Minor break out in revolt. This weakens the empire greatly.
364 Tachus succeeds Nectanebo I in Egypt.
361 Tachus invades Syria.
359 His nephew Nectanebo II seizes the Egyptian throne and Tachus is obliged to take refuge with the Persians.
358 Death of Artaxerxes II. His son Ochus murders all possible claimants, and takes the throne with the name of Artaxerxes III. Defeat of the Persians in Egypt.
352 Revolt of Tennes of Sidon against Persia. Cyprus joins him.
347 Isocrates exhorts Philip of Macedon to attack Persia.
345 Tennes betrays Sidon to Artaxerxes III. The city is cruelly punished. Cyprus subdued.
340 Conquest of Egypt by Artaxerxes.
338 Murder of Artaxerxes by the prime minister, the eunuch Bagoas. Arses, the king’s youngest son, placed on the throne.
336 The Macedonian army crosses into Asia. Death of Philip.
335 Bagoas puts Arses and his children to death. Codomannus, great-grandson of Darius II, placed on the throne as Darius III. He has Bagoas put to death.
334 Alexander crosses the Hellespont. Battle of the Granicus. Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Lycia submit to the Greeks.
333 Battles of Issus and Amanus. Phrygia, Cappadocia, and Cilicia submit to the Greeks; also the whole of northern Syria.
332 Alexander captures Tyre,—Phœnicia, Judea, and Samaria submit. Egypt goes over to the Greeks. Darius’ attempt to recover Asia Minor is frustrated.
331 Alexander invades Assyria. Battle of Arbela which overthrows the Achæmenian Dynasty. Darius flees into Media. Fall of Babylon and Susa. Pasagarda and Persepolis captured.
330 Bessus, satrap of Bactria, seizes Darius and murders him. He calls himself Artaxerxes IV, but finally falls into Alexander’s hands and is put to death.
From the Capital at Susa
(Now in the Louvre)
