CONTENTS - The historians' history of the world in twenty-five volumes, volume 08 - 4

VOLUME VIII
[PART XII. PARTHIANS, SASSANIDS, AND ARABS]
	PAGE
[Introductory Essay. The Scope and Influence of Arabic History.] By Dr.Theodor Nöldeke	[1]
[History in Outline of Parthians, Sassanids, and Arabs (250 B.C.-1375 A.D.)]	[25]
CHAPTER I
[The Parthian Empire (250 B.C.-228 A.D.)]	[47]
Justin’s account of the Parthians, [47]. Their customs, [48]. Seleucus and Arsaces,[49]. Wars with Rome, [51]. Modern accounts of Parthia, [53]. The Parthian empire,[53]. Arsaces and the Arsacids, [54]. Bactria and Parthia consolidate, [55]. Conquestsof Mithridates, [57]. Media and Babylonia conquered, [58]. Parthian “kingdoms,” [59].Scythian conquest of Bactria, [60]. The Scythians ravage Parthia, [61]. First conflictwith Rome, [62]. Orodes defeats the Romans, [63]. Plutarch’s account of the battle ofCarrhæ, [63]. Phraates IV repels Mark Antony, [68]. Anarchy in Parthia, [70]. TheRomans intervene, [72]. The decay of Parthian greatness, [74]. Persia conquersParthia, [75].
CHAPTER II
[The Empire of the Sassanids (228-750 A.D.)]	[76]
Sassanian power, [77]. Sapor fights Rome, [78]. The war with Palmyra, [79]. Anew war with Rome, [81]. Ardashir II to Bahram IV, [82]. The rule of Yezdegerd I,[83]. The Arabs aid in war with Rome, [84]. War with the Hephthalites, [85]. KavadhI, [86]. New conflict with Rome, [86]. Exploits of Mundhir, [87]. Chosroes the Just,[88]. Chosroes attacks Rome, [88]. Hormuzd IV, [91]. Civil war, [91]. Vices of ChosroesII, [93]. Conflict with Heraclius; fall of Chosroes II, [94]. Successors of ChosroesII, [95]. Anarchy and chaos, [96]. Arab incursions, [97]. Arab conquest, [98].
CHAPTER III
[Early History of the Arabs (ca. 2500 B.C.-622 A.D.)]	[100]
Arab history before Mohammed, [105].
CHAPTER IV
[Mohammed (570-632 A.D.)]	[111]
Mohammed ben Abdallah ben Abdul-Muttalib, [111]. Religious unrest, [111]. Mohammed’slife, [113]. His marriage with Khadija, [113]. Mohammed as a prophet, [115].Mohammed an outlaw, [116]. The Hegira, [117]. Battle of Bedr, [120]. Battle of Ohod,[121]. Expedition against the Jews, [123]. Siege of Medina, extermination of the Jews,[123]. Mohammed’s pilgrimage to Mecca, [125]. Subjection of Mecca, [126]. The victoryof Honain and Autas, [128]. The last years of Mohammed’s life, [130]. Gibbon’s estimateof Mohammed and Mohammedanism, [132].
CHAPTER V
[The Spread of Islam (632-661 A.D.)]	[145]
Abu Bekr, first caliph after Mohammed, [145]. The caliph Omar, [150]. The conquestof Persia, [151]. The Syrian conquest completed, [156]. Egypt captured, [160].The alleged burning of the library, [163]. Othman, the third caliph, [167]. Ali, [170].
CHAPTER VI
[The Omayyads (661-750 A.D.)]	[175]
Foundation of the Omayyads, [175]. Yazid made caliph, [176]. Siege of Mecca, [177].Abdul-Malik, caliph, [179]. Siege of Mecca, [180]. The eastern caliphate, [184]. Suleiman’sambitions, [185]. The last Omayyads, [186].
CHAPTER VII
[The Arabs in Europe (711-961 A.D.)]	[191]
The invasion of France, [198].
CHAPTER VIII
[The Abbasids (750-1258 A.D.)]	[209]
Founding of Baghdad, [209]. Harun Ar-Rashid, [210]. Al-Mamun and his successors,[211]. Baghdad under the caliphs, [213]. Gradual decline of Arabian dominionin the East, [215]. The various religious sects, [220]. The Seljuk Turks, [225]. Arabsand Turks unite against the Christians, [227]. Saladin and his successors against thecrusaders, [228]. The Mongols under Jenghiz Khan invade western Asia, [230].
CHAPTER IX
[The Decline of the Moslems in Spain (961-1609 A.D.)]	[233]
Almansor, [233]. Decay of power, [235]. End of the Omayyads, [238]. Independentkingdoms, [239]. The Almoravids, [240]. Dynasty of the Almohads, [246]. Battle ofLas Navas de Tolosa, [247]. The decline of Arab power, [248].
CHAPTER X
[Arab Civilisation]	[260]
The Koran, [260]. Doctrine of Islamism, [265]. The pilgrimage to Mecca, [267].The holy war, [270]. Arab culture, [271]. Commerce and industry, [273]. Paper, compass,and gunpowder, [274]. Influence of the Arabs on European civilisation, [276].Scholasticism, [277]. Mathematical science, [278]. Medicine, [279]. Architecture, [281].Music, [282].
CHAPTER XI
[Tribal Life of the Epic Period]	[284]
CHAPTER XII
[The Principles of Law in Islam]	[294]
[Brief Reference-List of Authorities by Chapters]	[305]
[PART XIII. THE CRUSADES AND THE PAPACY]
[BOOK I. THE CRUSADES]
[Introductory Essay. The Value of the Crusades in the Light of ModernHistory.] By the Reverend William Denton, M.A.	[311]
[History in Outline of the Crusades (1096-1291 A.D.)]	[314]
CHAPTER I
[Origin of the Crusades (306-1096 A.D.)]	[320]
Early Christian pilgrimages, [322]. Jerusalem under the Saracens, [324]. Characterof the pilgrims, [326]. The Turks in power, [328]. Peter the Hermit, [330]. Theappeal of the emperor Alexius, [331]. Councils of Placentia and Clermont, [332]. Thefrenzy of Europe, [334].
CHAPTER II
[The First Crusade (1096-1147 A.D.)]	[338]
Peter the Hermit and his rabble, [339]. The leaders of the First Crusade, [340].Alexius compels homage, [342]. Numbers of the crusaders, [343]. The siege of Nicæa,[344]. Battle of Dorylæum, [345]. Principality of Edessa founded, [346]. Siege ofAntioch, [347]. A typical miracle, [349]. Jerusalem besieged, [351]. The Arab account,[352]. Godfrey elected king, [353]. Results of the First Crusade, [356].
CHAPTER III
[The Second Crusade (1147-1189 A.D.)]	[358]
St. Bernard, [358]. Disasters of the Germans, [361]. The French failure, [362]. Therise of Saladin, [364]. Moslem accounts of the battle of Tiberias, [374]. The fall ofJerusalem, [376].
CHAPTER IV
[The Third Crusade (1189-1193 A.D.)]	[379]
The Saladin tithe, [381]. Barbarossa’s crusade and death, [382]. The siege of Acreor Ptolemais, [383]. Geoffrey de Vinsauf’s account of Acre, [383]. Richard’s voyage,[386]. The French sail to Acre, [387]. Dissension between the French and Englishkings, [388]. Review of the siege, [390]. The crusaders move on Jerusalem, [392]. Theenterprise abandoned, [396]. Vinsauf’s account of Richard at Joppa, [397]. Peacebetween the kings, [402]. End and review of the Third Crusade, [404]. Death ofSaladin; Arab eulogies, [407].
CHAPTER V
[The Fourth to the Sixth Crusades (1195-1229 A.D.)]	[410]
Pope Celestine III promotes a crusade, [410]. The Fourth (or German) Crusade,[411]. The Fifth Crusade, [413]. Results of the Fifth Crusade, [417]. The Children’sCrusade, [419]. The Sixth Crusade, [422].
CHAPTER VI
[The Last Crusades (1239-1314 A.D.)]	[431]
Richard of Cornwall’s Crusade (the Seventh), [432]. The Tatar Crevasse, [433].The crusade of St. Louis (the Eighth), [434]. Battle of Mansura, [436]. De Joinville’saccount of the battle of Mansura, [437]. Results of Mansura, [441]. St. Louis a prisoner,[442]. Moslem account of St. Louis’ capture, [443]. The Christians quarrel amongthemselves, [448]. History of Antioch, [449]. Ravages of Bibars, [450]. Second crusadeand death of Louis IX, [450]. Prince Edward leaves England, [451]. Vain efforts ofGregory X, [452]. Progress of the mamelukes, [453]. Total loss of the Holy Land, [454].Fate of the military orders, [456]. Knights of St. John, [456]. The Templars in France,[457]. In other countries, [458]. Council at Vienne, [458]. The order suppressed, [459].The Crusades in the West, [459]. The Teutonic Crusade, [460]. The attack on theAlbigenses, [461]. Western assaults on the Arabs, [463]. Comparison of the two crusades,[466].
CHAPTER VII
[Consequences of the Crusades (1096-1291 A.D.)]	[467]
Moral effects, [468]. Political effects, [469]. Influence upon commerce, [471]. Enrichmentof cities, [472]. Colonisation, [472]. Influence on industry, [474]. The masonsorganise, [475]. Gothic architecture, [476]. Sculpture and painting, [476]. Herder’sopinion of the Crusades, [477]. Gibbon on the results of the Crusades, [479].
APPENDIX
[Feudalism (800-1450 A.D.)]	[481]
Bryce and Hegel on feudalism, [482]. Commencement of the feudal régime, [483].Reciprocal obligations of vassal and lord, [484]. Feudal justice, [485]. Ecclesiasticalfeudalism, [487]. The Church and the feudal army, [488]. Serfs and villeins, [489].Anarchy and violence; frightful condition of the peasants and some happy resultstherefrom, [491]. Geographic outlines of the kingdom of Germany, [494]. The transitionfrom feudalism to monarchy, [494]. Progress in Germany, [495]. Influence of gunpowder,[497]. Monarchism in Italy, [497]. In France, [498]. In England, [499]. Thepapacy and feudalism, [500]. Hegel on the rise of mankind through feudalism, [500].
[Brief Reference-List of Authorities by Chapters]	[502]
[BOOK II. THE PAPACY]
[History in Outline of the Papacy (42-1878 A.D.)]	[503]
CHAPTER I
[Origin and Rise of the Papacy (42-842 A.D.)]	[519]
The papacy in connection with the Frankish Empire, [524]. Gregory the Great,[531]. Christian mythology, [534]. Worship of the Virgin, [535]. Angels and devils,[536]. Martyrs and relics, [536]. Sanctity of the clergy, [537]. State after death, [538].Gregory’s successors, [539]. Draper on the origin of iconoclasm, [544]. Milman oniconoclasm, [545]. The war of iconoclasm, [546]. Constantine Copronymus, [548].Third Council of Constantinople, [549]. The war on monasteries, [550]. Helena andIrene, [552]. Second Council of Nicæa, [552].
CHAPTER II
[“The Night of the Papacy”—Charlemagne to Otto the Great (740-985 A.D.)]	[555]
Independence of the Roman bishops, [556]. The appeal to the Franks, [556].Charlemagne and the pope, [558]. The donation from Constantine, [559]. Charlemagne’sthird and fourth entrances into Italy, [561]. The realm of the popes, [562].The trial of the pope and the crowning of Charlemagne, [563]. Papal ambition afterCharlemagne, [565]. The myth of the woman pope, [567]. Rivalry of Nicholas andPhotius, [569]. Synod at Constantinople, [570]. The false decretals, [571]. Adrian II,[574]. Pope Formosus, [577]. Theodora in power, [579]. The infamous Marozia, [581].Rebellion of Rome, [582]. Pope John XII, [583]. Trial of the pope, [583]. CharlesKingsley on temporal power, [587].
CHAPTER III
[The High Noon of the Papacy (985-1305 A.D.)]	[589]
The dream of Otto III, [590]. The German popes, [591]. The college of cardinals,[592]. Milman on the mission of the papacy, [593]. Simony, [596]. Celibacy of theclergy, [596]. Gregory’s synod at Rome, [597]. Bryce on the consequences of the Concordat,[602]. Rival claimants, [602]. Adrian IV versus Barbarossa, [603]. Adrian’sfirmness, [605]. Two rival popes, [606]. Innocent III, [607]. The influence of thecrusades on papal power, [608]. The autocracy of Innocent III, [610]. Universal swayof the pope, [611]. Milman’s estimate of Innocent III, [612]. Frederick II at war withthe papacy, [614]. Council at Lyons, [616]. Accession of Boniface VIII, [618]. Philip theFair overpowers the papacy, [618]. Hallam on the climax of papal power, [620].
CHAPTER IV
[From Exile to Supremacy (1305-1513 A.D.)]	[623]
Clement V, [624]. The fate of the Templars, [625]. John XXII to Urban V, [626].The Great Schism of the West, [630]. Relation of the national churches to the state, [632].Moral condition of the clergy, [633]. The great councils of Pisa and Constance; JohnHuss, [634]. Milman on Nicholas V and the fall of Constantinople, [640]. Popes to1503, [642]. Alexander VI, the Borgia, [644]. Estimates of Alexander VI, [645]. JuliusII, [647]. Prevalence of secularism in the Church, [648].
[Brief Reference-List of Authorities by Chapters]	[651]

PART XII

THE HISTORY OF PARTHIANS,
SASSANIDS, AND ARABS

BASED CHIEFLY UPON THE FOLLOWING AUTHORITIES

ABDUL-LATIF, ABUL-FARAJ, ABULFEDA, MAX DUNCKER, I. GOLDZIHER,
A. VON GUTSCHMID, WILLIAM MUIR, TH. NÖLDEKE, L. A.
SÉDILLOT, L. VIARDOT, JULIUS WELLHAUSEN,
GUSTAV WEIL

TOGETHER WITH

A CHARACTERISATION OF THE SCOPE AND INFLUENCE
OF ARABIC HISTORY

THEODOR NÖLDEKE

AN ESSAY ON
THE TRIBAL LIFE OF THE EPIC PERIOD

JULIUS WELLHAUSEN

AND A STUDY OF
THE PRINCIPLES OF LAW IN ISLAM

I. GOLDZIHER

WITH ADDITIONAL CITATIONS FROM

ARTEMIDORUS, BAILLY, BEN-HAZIL, THE HOLY BIBLE, DION CASSIUS, L. A.
SILVESTRE DE SACY, DIODORUS, R. DOZY, S. A. DUNHAM, EL-MAKIN,
ERATOSTHENES, EUSEBIUS OF CÆSAREA, EUTYCHIUS, E. GIBBON,
STANISLAS GUYARD, HAURÉAU, HERODOTUS, HUMBOLDT, JUSTIN,
HAJI KHALFA, IBN KHALDUN, KIESEWETTER, MAKRISI, AMMIANUS
MARCELLINUS, J. A. ST. MARTIN, H. H. MILMAN,
J. E. MONTUCLA, F. A. NEALE, S. OCKLEY, W.
G. PALGRAVE, PLINY, GIRAULT DE PRANGEY,
JOSEPH VON HAMMER-PURGSTALL,
IBN SAAD, SAMPIRO, W. C.
TAYLOR, GEORG WEBER,
JOSEPH WHITE