The historians' history of the world in twenty-five volumes, volume 08

by Unknown

HISTORY IN OUTLINE OF PARTHIANS, SASSANIDS, AND ARABS

We turn back now to the scene of the earlier history, turning back in time also. The events of three great empires will pass quickly before the view, the period of time involved being more than seventeen hundred years. The territories occupied by the peoples under consideration were wide, and the peoples themselves successively dominated the eastern world, and contested supremacy there with Rome. Of the Parthians and Sassanids it must be said that, while important in holding Rome back, they had otherwise an inconsiderable influence in the West; moreover, Rome could not have retained the Orient even had she conquered it. As regards the culture influence of the Parthians and Sassanids in Europe, this was virtually nil. The case is quite different when we come to the Arabs. Here was a race which not only became dominant in the East, but seriously threatened to overthrow and supplant the entire civilisation of Europe; and which, foiled in this, retained supremacy in the East and developed an indigenous culture that powerfully influenced all Christendom.

It must be understood that the relations between the Parthians, Sassanids, and Arabs is geographical and chronological rather than ethnological. The Parthians were overthrown by the Sassanids, and the Sassanids by the Arabs. The three peoples successively ruled over similar territories, and their histories may advantageously be considered in sequence; but it will be understood that they represented different races and bore to one another merely the relation of the conquered to the conqueror. An outline of the history of Armenia is appended, to give completeness to the subject, much as we gave chronologies of various other minor nations of Western Asia in a previous volume.

THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE (250 B.C.-228 A.D.)

B.C. During the reign of the Seleucid king Antiochus II, Diodotus, viceroy of Bactria, seizes the northeastern provinces and assumes the title of king. The formation of this kingdom is not agreeable to the chiefs of the desert tribes who, under the Seleucid rule, have never felt direct control, and some of them migrate into Parthia. Among them are two brothers, Arsaces and Tiridates, of the Parnians. In a quarrel which arises between them and Pherecles, presumably satrap of Astauene, the latter is slain and Arsaces is proclaimed king in Asaak, northwest of Parthia.

250 Foundation of an independent monarchy by Arsaces I. Antiochus, on account of civil and foreign wars, is unable to proceed against Arsaces.

248 Death of Arsaces. His brother, Tiridates, succeeds, taking the name of Arsaces, which is also borne by all his successors as a throne name. They take the title of “king of kings.”

242 After defeat of Seleucus Callinicus at Ancyra, Tiridates invades Parthia, slays the eparch Andragores, and takes possession of the province. He next seizes Hyrcania, and causes a large army to oppose Seleucus.

238 Decisive victory of Tiridates over Seleucus. The latter is obliged to return to Antioch on account of civil war, and Tiridates is enabled to consolidate his kingdom.

211 Death of Tiridates. His son, Arsaces II, sometimes, but incorrectly, called Artabanus, succeeds.

209 Antiochus the Great wins a victory over Arsaces on the summit of Mount Labus. The Parthians retire to Sirynca and are besieged by Antiochus. Surrender of Sirynca, and treaty of peace. Arsaces retains Parthia, but is reduced to a vassal of Antiochus. Parthia remains undisturbed for some years.

191 Phriapatius or Arsaces (III) Philadelphus succeeds his father. Owing to the decay of Seleucid power, he acts as protector of the Greeks in his kingdom.

176 Phraates I or Arsaces (IV) Theopator succeeds his father. He conquers the Mardians.

171 Phraates dies, leaving the throne to his brother, Mithridates I or Arsaces (V) Epiphanes, who at once annexes several satrapies of Bactria to his kingdom. He holds court in Hyrcania.

155 At death of King Eucratides of Bactria, Mithridates continues the conquest of that country. The Hindu Kush becomes the eastern boundary of Parthia. Mithridates turns to the west.

147 The province of Babylonia is wrested from the Seleucids. The East is finally lost to the Macedonians.

139 Capture of Demetrius II of Syria, who has attempted to establish himself in Mesopotamia.

138 Successful campaign in Elymais. Death of Mithridates. He has made Parthia a great power. His son, Phraates II or Arsaces (VI) Euergetes, succeeds. He adds Margiana to the kingdom. The seat of the kingdom is transferred to Media.

130 Antiochus Sidetes begins a vigorous campaign against the Parthians, whom he defeats in a great battle on the Upper Zab. Babylon and Ecbatana are recovered.

129 The Parthians make secret terms with the Medes and attack Antiochus, whose host is annihilated and he himself slain. Phraates compelled to attack the Scythians, whom he had invited to assist him against Antiochus. They have arrived too late, and, as Phraates refuses to pay them, they begin to ravage the country.

128 Death of Phraates in a disastrous battle with the Scythians. His uncle, Artabanus I or Arsaces (VII) Nicator, son of Phriapatius, succeeds. The Scythians withdraw, content with their victory; Artabanus pays them tribute. There appear to have been rival kings in this and the following reign. Perhaps they are Scythians. The usurpers are suppressed. Artabanus dies (date unknown), after a short reign, in battle with the Tochari, and is succeeded by his son, Mithridates (II) the Great or Arsaces (VIII) Theos Euergetes. He wages many wars, and wins victories from the Scythians. Lost territory is recovered. The Euphrates is fixed as the western boundary of the kingdom.

94 Mithridates puts Tigranes II on the disputed throne of Greater Armenia.

92 Sulla, proprætor of Cilicia, meets the ambassador of Mithridates on the Euphrates, seeking the Roman alliance in some connection with the Parthian schemes against Syria. First contact of Parthia with Rome. Mithridates at war with Laodice, queen of Commagene.

88 About this date Mithridates captures Demetrius III and his army, dies shortly afterwards, and is succeeded by Artabanus II or Arsaces IX. He is the last to bear title “king of kings,” which passes to Tigranes II of Armenia.

77 Sinatruces or Arsaces (X) Autocrator, an exile living with the Scythian tribe of the Sacarances, is placed on the throne at the age of eighty. Continual wars with Tigranes, who conquers Media, ravages Arbela and Nineveh, and compels the cession of Adiabene and Nisibis.

73 Mithridates of Pontus appeals in vain to both Sinatruces and Tigranes for help against Rome.

70 Phraates III succeeds his father.

69 Phraates declines to help Mithridates of Pontus, whom Tigranes has joined. Tigranes offers to restore his Median conquests to Phraates if he will assist. Phraates hesitates, but

66 accepts overtures of Pompey, and, with the younger Tigranes, who has quarrelled with his father, prepares to invade Armenia. Phraates besieges Artaxarta, but leaves the younger Tigranes to continue. Defeat of Tigranes by his father. The former flees to Pompey. The elder Tigranes surrenders to Pompey, and the younger is put in chains. Phraates demands Tigranes’ deliverance, but it is refused. Phraates recovers Media and resumes title “king of kings.”

64 While Pompey is in Syria, Phraates attacks and defeats the elder Tigranes. Pompey refuses to interfere, but sends umpires to settle the dispute.

57 Murder of Phraates by his two sons, who divide the kingdom. Orodes or Hyrodes I takes Parthia, and Mithridates III takes Media. The latter is soon expelled for his cruelty, and Orodes reigns alone. Mithridates expects the Romans to restore him, but they are compelled to go to Egypt to restore Ptolemy XI.

55 He attacks Orodes alone, who flees, but with the help of Surenas,

54 captures Mithridates in Babylon and puts him to death. Crassus takes advantage of this civil strife to invade Parthia.

53 Great defeat of the Romans at Carrhæ by Surenas. Orodes makes peace with Armenia. He puts Surenas to death through jealousy.

52 Unsuccessful Parthian invasion of Syria.

51 Cassius defeats the Parthians at Antigonia.

50 The satrap of Mesopotamia raises a revolt in favour of Pacorus, son of Orodes. Pacorus is recalled by Orodes and Syria is evacuated. Orodes associates Pacorus with him on the throne.

After the battle of Philippi, Labienus, who has been sent from Rome to obtain help from Orodes, advises him to seize Syria.

40 Pacorus, Labienus, and a large army attack Syria, which falls into Parthian hands. All the Phœnician cities except Tyre submit. The Parthians appear in Palestine and the country rises against Herod and Phasael. Hyrcanus deposed and Antigonus substituted. The cities of Asia Minor except Stratonicea open their gates to Labienus.

39 Ventidius, Antony’s general, drives Labienus from Asia Minor. Capture and execution of Labienus.

38 Complete rout of the Parthians and death of Pacorus at battle of Cyrrhestica. The Parthians evacuate Syria.

37 Orodes, in grief at Pacorus’ loss, resigns crown to his son Phraates IV. He at once murders his brothers and then his father, his own son, and all possible claimants of the throne. He removes the capital to Ctesiphon. Many of the nobles flee to Antony, who plans a war against Parthia.

36 Antony appears in Atropatene and besieges the capital. The expedition proves a failure.

33 Rebellion against Phraates, culminating

32 in an unknown usurper taking the throne. He is succeeded in a few months by Tiridates II.

30 After battle of Actium, which draws the Roman troops from Media, and Parthia, the Parthians seize Media and Armenia and put Artaxes II on the Armenian throne. Phraates regains his kingdom for a short time. Tiridates flees to Syria, where he is protected by Octavian.

27 Tiridates, with the help of the Arabs, surprises Phraates and compels him to flee. Phraates finally persuades the Scythians to help him and

26 Phraates is reinstated. Tiridates flees to Augustus, carrying Phraates’ younger son with him.

23 Augustus restores Phraates’ son to him. Civil war rages in Parthia.

20 Augustus visits the East. Phraates, in fear, returns Roman captives and the ensigns taken from Crassus and Antony, to Augustus.

10 Phraates sends his family to Rome in order to remove causes of civil strife, keeping only his favourite wife Urania, an Italian slave girl presented by Augustus, and her child Phraates or Phraataces.

2 About this date Urania and Phraates V (or Phraataces) murder Phraates IV. Phraataces expels Artavasdes III from Armenia and puts Tigranes IV on the throne. He also deposes Ariobarzanes II of Atropatene (Media), who was established on that throne by Augustus about 10 B.C. A line of Parthian princes succeed in Atropatene.

A.D.

1 Augustus makes terms with Phraates, who resigns all claims on Armenia and sends his sons to Rome as hostages.

2 Phraataces marries his mother, in consequence of which

4 he is deposed and takes refuge in Rome. The Parthians bring back an exiled prince, Orodes II, and make him king. He proves a cruel ruler, and for this reason about

9 is murdered. The Parthians apply to Rome and receive Vonones I, eldest son of Phraates IV, as their king. His long residence in Rome and foreign sympathies make him unpopular in Parthia, and

11 Artabanus III, an Arsacid on his mother’s side and who had been king of Media (Atropatene), is set up as a pretender. He is unsuccessful at first, but finally defeats Vonones at Ctesiphon. The latter flees and is chosen king of Armenia in 16. Tiberius persuades him to give up this throne.

19 After death of Germanicus, Artabanus begins to treat the Romans with contempt, and places his son Arsaces on the throne of Armenia. He makes so severe a ruler that

35 the Parthians apply to Tiberius, who finds himself compelled to interfere. He induces Pharasmanes, king of Iberia, to put forward his brother Mithridates as a claimant to the Armenian throne. War results.

36 A widespread revolt instigated by Tiberius puts Tiridates, grandson of Phraates IV, on the throne and Artabanus flees.

37 Artabanus comes to terms with Rome and is restored.

40 Death of Artabanus. His son Vardanes succeeds, but is deposed

41 by Gotarzes, chief official of Artabanus.

42 Vardanes recovers throne, owing to Gotarzes’ cruelties. Civil war results.

43 Vardanes captures Seleucia, and Gotarzes retires to Hyrcania.

45 Gotarzes makes unsuccessful attempt to regain throne.

46 Vardanes murdered while hunting. Gotarzes again takes throne.

47 On account of Gotarzes’ misrule, the Parthians ask Claudius to give them Meherdates (Mithridates V) son of Vonones as king.

50 Gotarzes captures Meherdates on his way to Parthia.

51 Death of Gotarzes succeeded by Vonones II, formerly king of Media and probably brother of Artabanus III.

54 Death of Vonones succeeded by his eldest son, Vologases I, who is the son of a concubine; but to compensate his brothers, Vologases puts Pacorus on the throne of Media and Tiridates on that of Armenia—having deposed Radamistus the usurper from the latter country. A son of Vardanes contests the throne with Vologases and apparently has the upper hand for a while.

55 The Romans compel the Parthians to evacuate Armenia.

58 Vologases again attacks Armenia and brings on war with Rome. Revolt of Hyrcania. Corbulo destroys Artaxarta and occupies Tigranocerta (59).

61 Peace restored in Hyrcania.

62 War with Rome resumed. The Romans are repulsed.

63 Corbulo crosses the Euphrates, and the Parthians sue for peace.

72 The Alani drive Pacorus of Media from his throne.

75 The Alani enter Parthia. Vologases appeals in vain to Vespasian.

78 About this date Vologases dies. He seems to have been succeeded by two kings, Vologases II and Pacorus II, probably brothers, and reigning together.

81 Artabanus IV appears to be the king in this year. He protects Terentius Maximus, who pretends to be Nero. Parthia is torn with civil wars.

93 Pacorus II is sole king.

110 Pacorus sells the crown of Edessa to Abgar VII. Death of Pacorus. His brother (or perhaps son) Chosroes or Osroes succeeds. Vologases II reappears as a rival king, also a Mithridates or Meherdates VI. Parthia is completely upset with civil war which goes on until

113 Chosroes wrests Armenia from King Exedares and gives it to Parthamariris, both sons of Pacorus.

114 The emperor Trajan, indignant at Chosroes’ act, seizes Armenia and makes it a Roman province.

115 Trajan takes Ctesiphon and Seleucia.

116 Revolt in Parthia with Mithridates VI at its head. Death of Mithridates, and his son Sinatruces takes his place. Chosroes regains Nisibis, Seleucia, and Edessa.

117 Trajan crowns Parthamaspates king of Parthia, deposing Chosroes. Death of Trajan. Hadrian withdraws Roman soldiers and Chosroes recovers throne. Parthamaspates expelled.

130 About this date Chosroes dies and Vologases II rules as sole king. The influence of Rome preserves peace in the kingdom.

148 Death of Vologases, aged ninety-six, having reigned seventy-one years. Vologases III succeeds. He continues the peace with Rome until,

162 when, after death of Antoninus Pius, Vologases enters Armenia and expels the king. The greatest war between Rome and Parthia ensues.

164 Aridius Cassius drives Vologases from Syria, enters Babylonia, and burns Seleucia, the most important city of the East.

165 Great plague, originating in Parthia, spreads over the whole world.

166 Peace with Rome. Mesopotamia becomes a Roman province. Parthia begins steadily to decline.

191 Death of Vologases III. Vologases IV succeeds.

194 Vologases permits the Medes to assist Orrhœne in revolt against the Romans.

196 The Parthians ravage Mesopotamia.

199 Severus surprises the Parthians and takes Seleucia, Coche, and Ctesiphon.

201 Siege of Atra by Severus, who is compelled to raise it.

209 Vologases succeeded by his son, Vologases V.

213 His brother, Artabanus (IV), appears as a claimant of the throne. Civil war.

215 Caracalla demands the surrender of Tiridates, brother of Vologases IV, who has taken refuge with Vologases V. The latter refuses to give him up. Caracalla declares war, and the exile is delivered up. Artabanus gains the upper hand and holds Ctesiphon. Caracalla declares war on Artabanus on the latter’s refusal to give his daughter to the Roman emperor.

216 The Romans penetrate to Arbela.

217 On death of Caracalla an immense Parthian force invades Mesopotamia. Macrinus defeated and purchases peace.

222 Artabanus replaces his brother over the whole of Parthia.

224 Ardashir, the Sassanian king of Persis (or Persia), invades Parthia, taking several cities.

227 Battle of Hormizdjan. Victory of Ardashir and death of Artabanus.

228 Ardashir completes his conquest. End of the Parthian empire.

THE EMPIRE OF THE SASSANIDS (228-651 A.D.)

While the Arsacids were ruling their kingdom and lording it over the minor kings of the neighbouring country, the rulers of Persis (or Persia proper) seem to have occupied an isolated position and not been included in the Parthian empire. At the beginning of the third century A.D. the kings of Persia have lost all power of keeping the empire together; all the land is ruled by a number of local potentates. One of these is Pabak, son and descendant of a certain Sasan of Khir. Pabak conquers considerable territory beyond his own dominions. On his death the succession of Shapur or Sapor, the eldest son, is disputed by Ardashir, a younger son. Sapor dies suddenly and Ardashir puts his other brother to death, and settles himself on his throne in 211 or 212 A.D. About 224 he invades the land of the “great king” Artabanus IV of Parthia, and by 228 the conquest is complete and the title of “great king” devolves upon Ardashir. He makes his capital at Ctesiphon.

228 Foundation of the Sassanian empire by Ardashir or Artaxerxes. He passes his reign in extending and consolidating his empire.

236-238 War with Rome. Nisibis and Carrhæ taken.

241 Death of Ardashir. His son Shapur or Sapor I succeeds.

242 Sapor penetrates to Antioch but is driven back by the Romans.

244 Philippus concludes a humiliating peace with Sapor. Peace reigns until

251 when Sapor invades Armenia and puts the king to flight. The Persians now make repeated invasions of Syria.

258 The Roman emperor Valerian takes the field against the Persians.

260 Capture of Valerian by Sapor. He proceeds towards Asia Minor but is repulsed by Odenathus, king of Palmyra, who lays siege to Ctesiphon. Sapor acquires no permanent gain of territory. In his reign Mani preaches his doctrines tending to the amalgamation of Christianity and Zoroastrianism, and leading to the formation of the Manichæan sect.

272 or 273 Sapor succeeded by his son Hormuz (Hormizd) or Hormisdas I.

274 Death of Hormuz and accession of his brother (?) Bahram or Varanes I—a weak prince, given to pleasure. Mani executed in his reign. Persecution of the Manichæans and Christians.

277 Bahram or Varanes II succeeds his father. He wars with Rome, ending

282 with a peace with Probus.

283 After murder of Probus, Carus invades Persia, takes Ctesiphon and Coche, and dies suddenly. There are civil wars, probably led by a brother of the king, assisted by the barbarous tribes in the northwest.

294 Death of Bahram. The throne seems to be contested by Bahram or Varanes III, probably a son of Hormuz, who reigns a short time, and Narses or Narseh, who soon gains the upper hand.

297 Narseh occupies Armenia and defeats the Roman general Galerius.

298 Peace with Rome after a great defeat of Narseh by Galerius. Armenia and Mesopotamia ceded to Rome. Peace lasts forty years.

303 Abdication of Narseh in favour of his son Hormuz II.

310 Death of Hormuz. His son Adharnarseh succeeds, but is soon deposed for cruelty. His brothers are killed or imprisoned and the new born (or unborn) son of Hormuz, Shapur or Sapor (II) Postumus is chosen king. He proves to be the greatest of the Sassanians.

337 Sapor begins a long war with Rome, owing to the latter becoming Christianised.

339-340 Terrible persecution of the Christians in Persia. The war with Rome continues. Sapor aims to seize Nisibis and reduce Armenia.

348 Great defeat of the emperor Constantius at the battle of Singara.

350 Sapor almost succeeds in capturing Nisibis when troubles with the barbarians in the East compel him to raise the siege.

350-358 War in the East causes almost complete suspension in the conflict with Rome.

358 Peace made in the East and Romans sue for peace. Sapor declines and war is continued.

359 Sapor captures Amida, but the Romans regain it the following year. Hostilities are suspended until

363 when the emperor Julian attempts to strike a death-blow at Sapor. He takes Seleucia but fails to capture Ctesiphon. Death of Julian in battle. His successor Jovian makes a shameful peace with Sapor, granting him the lands east of the Tigris, and part of Mesopotamia with Nisibis and Singara. The Romans also agree not to help Arsaces of Armenia, and Sapor proceeds against him.

365-366 Reduction of Armenia and Iberia by Sapor.

371 The Romans attempt to recover Armenia, but fail through breaking out of the Gothic war.

379 Death of Sapor, succeeded by his brother Ardashir II.

383 or 384 Ardashir deposed by the nobles towards whom he has been very severe. Shapur or Sapor III, probably a son of Sapor II, raised to the throne. He makes a definite treaty of peace with Rome.

388 or 389 Murder of Sapor by the nobles. His brother (or perhaps son) Bahram or Varanes III succeeds.

390 Division of Armenia between Persia and Rome by treaty. The division practically lasts until Arab times.

399 Assassination of Bahram. Yezdegerd or Jezdegird (I) the Sinner, son of Sapor I or Sapor II, succeeds. He is friendly to Rome, and Arcadius appoints him the guardian of his son Thedorius. He sets his son Sapor on the throne of Pers-Armenia.

420 Death of Yezdegerd, probably slain by the nobles. Sapor hurries from Armenia to take throne, but is slain. A certain Khosrau or Chosroes is made king, but another son of Yezdegerd, Bahram or Varanes (V) the Wild Ass, succeeds in getting the throne, with the help of the Arabs, among whom he has been living in exile. This is the first intervention of the Arabs in the affairs of Persia.

421 War breaks out with Rome, probably instigated by the nobles hostile to the king. Persians defeated, and

422 peace is made, giving religious freedom to Christians in Persia, and to Zoroastrians in the Roman Empire. There is constant warfare with Hephthalites or White Huns during this reign.

429 Bahram reduces Pers-Armenia to a province.

438 or 439 Bahram succeeded by his son, Yezdegerd II, who is cruel to the Jews and Christians. He suffers severe defeats from the White Huns.

451 A severe rebellion, due to religious persecutions, breaks out in Pers-Armenia, and is quelled with difficulty.

457 Death of Yezdegerd, and contest for the throne, between his two sons, Hormuz III and Peroz or Peroses. The latter is finally successful, owing to assistance from the White Huns. Peroz persecutes Jews and Christians, but favours the Nestorians, when they are driven from Rome.

484 Defeat and death of Peroz in a great battle with the White Huns, with whom he has been at war for some years. Revolt in Armenia put down by Zarmihr. Balash, Peroz’s brother, made king. He puts his brother, Zareh, a claimant of the throne, to death.

488 or 489 Balash deposed by the nobles, and blinded. Kavadh I or Kobad, son of Peroz, succeeds him. Kobad favours Mazdak and his new communistic religion, and in consequence

496 is deposed and imprisoned. His brother, Jamasp or Zames, is placed on the throne. Kobad escapes to the White Huns, and with their help

498 or 499 recovers his kingdom.

502 Kobad begins an exhausting war with Rome, which opens the way for the Arabian conquests. He seizes Theodosiopolis, capital of Roman Armenia.

503 Fall of Amida, and terrible massacre of the inhabitants. The Romans recover it the following year.

506 Peace concluded with Rome. The Romans build the great fortress at Dara.

521 War renewed with Rome. Belisarius first comes to the front as a general. Narses and his brother desert Kobad, and join the army of Justin.

529 Mundhir of Hira invades Syria. Kobad massacres the Mazdukites, who have become too powerful.

531 Kobad makes campaign in Syria. Belisarius compels him to turn back. Defeat of Belisarius at Rakka. Persian successes in Mesopotamia. Death of Kobad and truce with Rome. Khosrau or Chosroes (I) the Just, his son, succeeds. His wise internal government benefits the kingdom greatly.

532 “A Perpetual Peace” made with Rome.

540 Chosroes, jealous of Belisarius’ conquests in Africa and Italy, goes to war with the empire. He invades Syria, Antioch taken, Dara laid under tribute. Ctesiphon is captured.

541 Chosroes takes Petra in Lazistan.

546 Rome buys a truce for a large sum.

551 The son of Chosroes rebels in Susiana. He is taken and partially blinded.

560 The Turks take the right bank of the Oxus from the White Huns. Bactria becomes a part of Chosroes’ kingdom.

562 Fifty years’ peace made with the Romans.

570 Chosroes sends an expedition against the Christian Abyssinians in Yemen. He puts them under tribute.

571 War breaks out with Rome, over the threatened loss of Pers-Armenia.

573 Chosroes takes Dara. The war continues.

579 Death of Chosroes, succeeded by his son, Hormuz or Hormisdas IV. He makes a severe but just ruler. The war with Rome and a severe one with the Turks fill his reign.

589 The general Bahram, defeated by the Romans in the Caucasus. He is removed by Hormuz, and revolts. The king’s son, Chosroes, joins the rebels.

590 Hormuz is deposed, and shortly afterwards put to death. His son, Khosrau or Chosroes (II) Parvez, succeeds. Bahram contests the crown, and seizes it. Bahram or Varanes VI puts down an insurrection in Ctesiphon.

591 Chosroes recovers the throne, with help of the emperor Maurice. Bahram flees to the Turks, and is murdered. Chosroes strengthens his position, and puts his brother, Bindoe to death. Another brother, Bistam, escapes to Media and makes himself king.

595 or 596 Death of Bistam.

604 War breaks out with Rome, over usurpation of Phocas. Dara captured by Chosroes.

606-608 The Persians invade Asia Minor. They advance as far as Chalcedon.

610 Chosroes abolishes the kingdom of Hira.

614 The Persians capture Damascus.

615 The Persians capture Jerusalem and the holy cross.

616 Persian invasion of Egypt.

617 The Persians occupy Chalcedon.

622 Heraclius proceeds in person against the Persians, and gradually wins back the Persian conquests.

628 Heraclius reaches Ctesiphon but is unable to take it. Rebellion in Ctesiphon. Chosroes and most of his family are slain. His eldest son Kavadh (Kobad) II, or Siroes, is made king. He murders most of his brothers, and sues for peace from the Roman Empire. A terrible pestilence breaks out and Kobad dies. His infant son, Ardashir III, succeeds. He is the last male Sassanid. The throne is disputed by many claimants. Chosroes, a son of Kobad II, makes himself king in Khorasan, but is soon slain.

629 The holy cross is returned to Heraclius. The general Shahrbaraz is supported in a claim to the throne by Heraclius. He takes Ctesiphon.

630 Murder of Ardashir, followed by that of Shahrbaraz. Boran or Puran, a daughter of Chosroes II, takes the throne. She makes a treaty with Heraclius.

631 Boran succeeded by Peroz (Peroses) II, who rules but a short time; then Azarmidokht, sister of Boran, takes the throne. Hormuz V, grandson of Chosroes II, maintains a rule over a portion of the country for a short time.

632 Azarmidokht dethroned by Rustem, hereditary marshal of Khorasan. Ferrukhzadh reigns a short time in Ctesiphon.

632 or 633 Yezdegerd III, grandson of Chosroes II, is put forward by some of the nobles and crowned. Ferrukhzadh is slain and Yezdegerd acknowledged as sole king. He declines to accept the Mohammedan religion at invitation of Abu Bekr, and the Moslems invade Persia.

636 Persian defeat by the Moslems at Cadesia, or Kadisiya.

640 or 642 The “Victory of Victories” by the Arabs over the Persians at Nehavend. The last great Persian army is shattered. The nobles gradually yield to the Arab chiefs. Yezdegerd is driven from place to place, continually shorn of more and more power until he is murdered in 651, and Persia becomes part of the Mohammedan dominions.

THE ARABS

THE PRE-MOHAMMEDAN ERA

Before the Mohammedan conquests, Arabia is divided into a number of local monarchies. In these we recognise two distinct origins.

(1) Those ruled by a race of southern origin—the genuine or Kahtanee Arabs. Their monarchies form a rim around the wild and desert centre of the peninsula.

(2) The centre of Arabia is occupied by nomadic races—the Mustareb Arabs, of northern origin, descendants of a mythical Adnan.

THE KAHTANEE KINGDOMS (ca. 380 B.C.-634 A.D.)

The kingdom of Yemen is the most important and powerful of these. It occupies a portion of the ancient Arabia Felix. Descendants of Kahtan and Himyar—names of African origin—its monarchs rule over the whole of southern Arabia from about 380 B.C., with but few interruptions. The capital is first at Mareb and then at Sana. The northern kingdoms are more or less tributary. The Persians, Greeks, and Macedonians make no attempts upon Arabia, if we except the frontier skirmishes of Antigonus and Ptolemy. Rome had an eye to its conquest. Pompey, the first to attempt it, is foiled, and it was not until

B.C.

25 when Ælius Gallus, the prefect of Egypt, undertakes an expedition at the command of Augustus. His army is unable to support the hardships of the desert, and the following year the Arabs drive the remnant out. Later attempts under Trajan and Severus do not succeed beyond the frontier, and Bosrah and Petra mark the extreme limits of Roman dominion.

A.D.

100 Probable date of the great flood of Arem or Mareb, which leads to the foundation of other Arab kingdoms.

529 The Abyssinians, under Aryat, invade Yemen, to avenge the Christians persecuted by Dhu-Nowas the king. Dhu-Nowas is killed, and the Abyssinians rule the kingdom until

605 when Saif, with the assistance of Chosroes the Great, restores the Kahtanee dynasty, but it becomes dependent on Persia.

634 Mohammedan conquest of Yemen.

THE KINGDOM OF HIRA (195-610 A.D.)

Next in importance to Yemen. It is situated in Irak. Founded about 195 A.D. by Malik, it is more or less under allegiance to the Persians, but exercises considerable control over the Mustareb Arabs.

529 Mundhir III, king of Hira, who has been driven from the throne by Kavadh I of Persia, because he is too powerful, invades Syria, cruelly ravaging the country as far as Antioch. He kills Harith, whom Kavadh has set over his kingdom, and is finally himself killed, in 554, by a Roman vassal.

610 Chosroes II puts an end to the kingdom of Hira.

THE KINGDOM OF GHASSAN (300-636 A.D.)

Founded about 300 by Thalaba, the first to take the name of king. His successors rule until 636, when Djabala VI surrenders to the Mohammedans.

THE KINGDOM OF KINDEH

A small kingdom, of Yemenite origin, which detaches itself from Irak in the fifth century A.D. and maintains its existence for about 160 years, when it is absorbed by the Mustarebs.

THE MUSTAREB KINGDOMS

The northern tribes inhabiting central Arabia, or Arabia Petræa, become consolidated into five kingdoms:

Rabiah, in the east centre of the peninsula.

Kais, or Kais-Ailan, in the north.

Hawazin, in the north.

Tamin, in the middle.

They are, from the time of their foundation, more or less tributary to Yemen until

500 They make themselves independent, under the leadership of Kolaib, who now tries to unite his people in a single confederacy, but the plan is frustrated by his assassination. The tribes now lead a warlike, disorganised existence, encroaching slowly upon the Kahtanee kingdoms. During this period the tribe of Koreish becomes prominent. Tradition assigns their origin to Ishmael, and they have become the guardians of the sacred Kaaba. This gives them pre-eminence over all other Arabian clans, and at the beginning of the seventh century A.D. the tribe of Koreish and its Mustareb allies is the most powerful confederacy in Arabia, the Kahtanee kingdoms having become more or less vassals of the Persian and Byzantine empires.

THE KINGDOM OF NABATÆA

The Nabatæans are a famous people of ancient Arabia. Secure knowledge of their history goes back only to 312 B.C., when Antigonus failed to take their fortress of Petra. They are described by Diodorus as a pastoral and trading people, preserving their liberty in the arid country of Arabia Petræa. At the fall of the Seleucids they extend their territory over the fertile country east of the Jordan. They occupy the Hauran. Pompey reduces them to vassalage, and in 105 A.D. Trajan takes Petra and breaks up the Nabatæan nation.

MOHAMMED AND HIS SUCCESSORS (570-661 A.D.)

ca. 570 Birth of Mohammed, of a noble Koreish family, at Mecca.

605-610 Years of meditation, during which the principles of Mohammedanism are developed.

610 Year of the “call,” Mohammed begins to make converts. Opposition to his doctrines increases among the Meccans until

622 he flees with a body of followers to Medina. The Hegira. Beginning of the Mohammedan era.

623 The first mosque built. Mohammed becomes a warrior.

624 First battle for the faith with the Meccans at Bedr. Victory of Mohammed.

625 Battle of Ohod, and victory of the Meccans.

627 War of the Fosse. The Koreish make terms with Mohammed.

628 War against the Jews of Khaibar.

629 War against the Greek subjects in Arabia.

630 Mohammed moves against Mecca. He conquers it. War with the Hawazin. Rapid spread of Islam.

632 Death of Mohammed. He leaves the entire peninsula, with the exception of a few tribes, under one sceptre and one creed. His father-in-law, Abu Bekr, is chosen caliph, or representative. An army under Khalid sets out against the Byzantine Empire. Abu Bekr reduces a revolt in Nejd and Yemen, and defends Medina.

633 Khalid, on the lower Euphrates, is called to Syria.

634 Khalid captures Bosrah and overruns the Hauran. Death of Abu Bekr. Omar succeeds.

635 Capture of Damascus.

636 Emesa, Heliopolis, Chalcis, Berœa, and Edessa added to the Mohammedan empire. Battle of the Hieromax (Yermuk). Heraclius abandons Syria to the Moslems.

637 Battle of Cadesia, or Kadisiya, and victory over the Persians. Omar captures Jerusalem, and follows it up by taking Aleppo and Antioch.

638 Mesopotamia is conquered by the Mohammedans, also Tarsus and Diar-Bekr.

639 Invasion of Egypt by Amru.

641 Battle of Nehavend, and great victory of the Mohammedans over the Persians. Most of the Persian nobility come to terms with the Mohammedans. Yezdegerd the king flees to a remote corner of the realm, where he holds a vestige of power until 651 or 652. Alexandria captured.

644 Death of Omar, succeeded by Othman, a weak ruler, who allows the power to fall into the hands of the Koreish nobility.

647 Invasion of Africa by Abdallah. Arabian victories, expelling the Romans.

649 Invasion of Cyprus.

650 Conquest of Aradus.

652 Conquest of Armenia.

654 Conquest of Rhodes.

655 Defeat of the emperor Constans by the Mohammedans in naval battle off Mt. Phœnix in Lycia.

656 Murder of Othman by a party in opposition to the growing worldliness of Islam. Ali, of the opposition, and son-in-law of Mohammed, succeeds. Battle of the Camel. Ali victorious over his opponents. Moawiyah, governor of Syria, heads the opponents of Ali, and incites them to revenge.

657 Ali invades northern Syria. Battle of Siffin. The theocratic faction rebels against Ali.

658 Decision of the umpires, Ali and Moawiyah; the latter wins. Peace made with the Byzantine Empire. Egypt conquered for Moawiyah.

660 Truce between Ali and Moawiyah, dividing the caliphate into the East and West divisions.

661 Kharejite conspiracy to murder Ali, Moawiyah, and Amru. The former alone falls. His son Hassan succeeds, but abdicates in favour of Moawiyah.

THE OMAYYAD DYNASTY (661-750 A.D.)

661 Moawiyah at head of the reunited caliphate. The opposition to him is gradually reduced. The capital is removed to Damascus.

662-663 Great invasion of Asia Minor. Death of Amru.

668 Mohammedans advance to Chalcedon and hold Amorium for a short time.

669 Great invasion of Sicily.

670 Foundation of Kairwan.

673-677 The Mohammedans besiege Constantinople, and are finally driven off by means of Greek fire.

676 Yazid, son of Moawiyah, is appointed heir-apparent. Hereditary nomination becomes a precedent.

678 Thirty years’ peace made with Constantine IV of Constantinople.

680 Death of Moawiyah. Yazid I succeeds. The Ali faction refuse recognition. Hosein, son of Ali, and his company slain.

681 Abdallah ben Zobair proclaims himself caliph.

683 Rebellion and sack of Medina. The cause of Ibn Zobair grows. He maintains a rival court at Mecca, and rebuilds the Kaaba.

684 Death of Yazid. His weak son, Moawiyah II, reigns but a few months. Merwan elected to succeed.

685 Death of Merwan. His son, Abdul-Malik, succeeds. Peace with the emperor Justinian II.

685-687 Rebellion of Mukhtar. He is defeated and slain.

689 Abdul-Malik has Amru put to death.

692 Death of Ibn Zobair. The Omayyad rule is recognised without dispute.

692-693 The Mohammedans ravage Asia Minor and Armenia, but are compelled to accept peace.

695 The peace is broken. Arabic coinage first substituted for that of the Byzantine Empire.

697-698 Hassan’s invasion of Africa. Carthage taken. The last remnants of the Roman Empire disappear from the southern shore of the Mediterranean.

705 Death of Abdul-Malik and succession of his brother, Walid I, already designated as heir to the caliphate. His reign marks the culminating glory of the Omayyads. Schools founded, and public works of all kinds promoted.

709 Conquest of Tyana by the Mohammedans.

711 Invasion of Spain at instigation of Julian, governor of Ceuta. Battle of Xerxes. Tarik destroys the Visigothic kingdom.

712 The Mohammedans take Antioch in Pisidia. In these years great success of the generals Kotaiba and Muhammed b. Kasim in Asia.

715 Death of Walid and accession of Suleiman, the predesignated heir.

716 The Mohammedans invade Asia Minor. Siege of Amorium. The town is relieved by Leo the Isaurian.

717 Siege of Pergamus. Siege of Constantinople. Death of Suleiman. The appointed heir Omar II, grandson of Merwan I, succeeds.

718 Repulse of the Mohammedans from Constantinople. In revenge the caliph excludes all Christians from service in the state. Omar’s reign is not distinguished by any important warlike events. It marks the beginning of the Abbasid movement in favour of the descendants of Abbas, uncle of the prophet, acquiring the caliphate.

720 Death of Omar. Yazid II, son of Abdul-Malik, succeeds. Yazid b. Muhallab, who has been in disgrace for some years, collects a small army and takes Basra (Bassora).

721 Death of Ibn Muhallab in battle. The Mohammedans cross the Pyrenees and capture Narbonne, but, defeated at Toulouse, they retire under Abd ar-Rahman.

724 Death of Yazid. His son Hisham, the appointed heir, succeeds. He is a severe and pious ruler.

725 Abbasid revolt at Balkh. Abbasid troubles continue.

726 The Mohammedans invade Cappadocia.

734 Mohammedan invasion of Asia Minor.

737 Peace restored in the Abbasid faction.

739 Great Moslem defeat by the Byzantines at Acroinon. Death of Sid (Said) al-Battal. The Saracen power ceases to be formidable to the empire.

743 Death of Hisham. His nephew, Walid II, succeeds. Walid’s debaucheries and irreligion make him hated. Yazid, son of Walid I, assumes title of caliph, and is received at Damascus, in absence of Walid.

744 Death of Walid in battle with his rival. Yazid III succeeds. Signs of disintegration become marked. Abd ar-Rahman b. Muhammed declares himself independent in Africa. Revolt of Emesa over Walid’s death, and defeat of rebels at Eagle’s Pass. Merwan, Yazid’s grandfather, attempts to obtain caliphate. Yazid makes him governor of Mesopotamia. Death of Yazid, after reign of six months. His brother, Ibrahim, succeeds. Merwan marches against Damascus. Ibrahim flees, after reign of two months, and Merwan II is acknowledged caliph.

746 Mohammedan invasion of Cyprus.

750 As a result of the ferment in the eastern part of the empire, the Abbasid Abul-Abbas assumes title of caliph. War between Omayyads and Abbasids. Battle of the Zab. Defeat of Merwan, and downfall of the Omayyad dynasty.

THE ABBASID DYNASTY (750-1258 A.D.)

750 Abul-Abbas established in the caliphate. He has all the Omayyad princes (except Abd ar-Rahman b. Moawiyah, who escapes to Africa) put to death. Revolts break out, owing to his cruelty, but they are suppressed. Abul-Abbas fixes his residence at Anbar.

754 Death of Abul-Abbas. He has designated Abu Jafar (Al-Mansur), his cousin, as his successor. Abdallah b. Ali revolts, but is defeated at Nisibis. Several risings are suppressed. Revolt in Africa, which hereafter only nominally belongs to the caliphs.

755 The Mohammedans in Spain elect Abd ar-Rahman b. Moawiyah caliph. Spain lost to the Abbasids.

756 Foundation of the western Omayyad caliphate.

756-757 Invasion of Asia Minor. Capture of Malatiya. Defeat of the Byzantines in Cilicia. Seven years’ truce with the emperor.

762 Baghdad made the capital of the caliphate.

763 Muhammed Mahdi falls in battle, after having caused himself to be proclaimed caliph. His brother, Ibrahim, also revolts, and is killed in battle.

775 Death of Mansur. His son, Muhammed (Al-Mahdi), succeeds. He busies himself at once with improving internal conditions and restoring peace. Revolt of Hakim in Khorasan. Continued invasion of Asia Minor.

780 Capture of Semaluos by Harun ar-Rashid.

782 Renewal of war between Moslems and Byzantines. Victory for the latter in Cilicia. Harun ar-Rashid takes command. He marches to the Bosporus, and compels the empress Irene to pay large yearly tribute.

785 Rebellion of Mahdi’s eldest son, Musa, because Harun is preferred as heir. Death of Mahdi on his way to crush the rebellion. Musa, who takes the title Hadi, succeeds. Rising of Hosein b. Ali suppressed.

786 Hadi attempts to exclude Harun from the caliphate, and is smothered at instigation of his mother. Harun ar-Rashid, the most celebrated of the caliphs, succeeds without opposition.

789 The Arabs invade Rumania.

792-793 Suppression of the party formed by Yahya b. Abdallah.

797-798 Continued victories over the Byzantines cause the empress Irene to sue for peace. The Khazars driven out of Armenia.

800 The Aglabite dynasty founded at Kairwan.

801 Harun sends an embassy to Charlemagne.

802 The emperor Nicephorus refuses to continue payment of tribute. Harun makes such a devastating invasion of Asia Minor that Nicephorus sues for peace. He breaks it the next year, and the same process is repeated.

804-805 Rebellion in Khorasan.

806 Peace renewed with Nicephorus after hostilities have once more been begun.

808 Edrisite dynasty founded at Fez.

809 Death of Harun on the way to quell disturbances in Khorasan. His reign is a flourishing period of art and science. His son, Emin, succeeds. His reign is mostly taken up with the rebellion of his brother, Mamun, who gradually wins all the provinces, except Baghdad, to his side.

813 Capture and assassination of Emin. Mamun proclaimed at Baghdad. The civil war continues.

817 Mamun appoints Musa b. Ali heir to the throne, whereupon the people of Baghdad declare Mamun deposed and elect his uncle, Ibrahim, caliph. Sudden death of Musa.

820 Appointment of Tahir as governor of Khorasan, where his descendants rule until 872—sometimes called Tahirite dynasty.

829 Euphemius invites the Mohammedans from Africa into Sicily. They take Palermo.

831 The Mohammedans begin a long invasion of Asia Minor.

832 Capture of Heraclea.

833 Death of Mamun. His reign is the Augustan age of Arabian literature. Works on science and philosophy translated from the Greek. Mamun orders the measurement of a degree of the earth’s circumference. The designated heir, his brother Mutasim, succeeds. A party in favour of Mamun’s son, Abbas, is put down. Mutasim employs Turks in his body-guard, and their excesses cause Baghdad to revolt. The caliph removes the capital to Samarra.

836 The emperor Theophilus destroys Zapetra in his savage war on the Moslems.

838 Moslem victory at Dasymon. Amorium captured. Second revolt of Abbas, who dies in prison.

841 Death of Mutasim. His son, Wathik, succeeds. The caliphate begins to decline.

845 Truce with the empress Theodora.

847 Death of Wathik. The state officials elect his son, Muhammed, to succeed, but immediately recall their choice and substitute Wathik’s brother, Mutawakkil. He is noteworthy for his atrocious cruelty, and persecutes the Jews and Christians.

852 Serious revolt in Armenia suppressed in four years.

858 A great war with the Byzantines begins in Asia Minor. The Mohammedans capture the Byzantine commander.

860 Byzantine defeat near Melitene.

861 Murder of Mutawakkil by his Turkish guard, bribed by his son, Muntasir, who takes the caliphate.

862 Death of Muntasir, probably by poison. His cousin, Akhmed, who takes name of Mustain, is chosen to succeed by the Turkish soldiery.

863 Great victory of the Byzantines over the Moslems at Amasia. Death of the general, Omar. Peace for some years results.

866 The Turks revolt against Mustain and choose his brother, Motazz, caliph. Surrender of Motazz, who is put to death. He tries to free himself of the yoke of the Turkish soldiery.

869 The Turks besiege the caliph, who is imprisoned and dies. Mutahdi, son of Wathik, is chosen caliph. He tries in vain to reform the empire.

870 Mutahdi slain by the Turks. Mutamid, son of Mutawakkil, chosen as caliph. He reduces the power of the Turkish soldiery, and re-establishes capital at Baghdad.

872 The Tahirites overthrown in Persia, and the Saffarid dynasty founded. War with Byzantines recommences.

878 Akhmed b. Tulun, governor of Egypt, makes himself independent, and founds Tulunite dynasty that lasts until 905.

887-888 Mohammedan invasions of Asia Minor.

892 Death of Mutamid. His nephew, Mutadid, succeeds. Rise of the Karmathian sect, inimical to the pomp of the Baghdad court. Turkestan becomes independent under Samani, who afterwards conquers Persia and extinguishes the Saffarid dynasty.

894 The Karmathians having ravaged Mecca, the caliph rebuilds the city.

902 Death of Mutadid, leaving the throne to his son, Muktafi. Struggles with the Karmathians. They plunder the pilgrimage to Mecca and slay twenty thousand pilgrims. They are badly defeated and remain quiet for a while.

904 The Mohammedans capture Thessalonica.

905 Muktafi takes Egypt from the Tulunites and gives it to the Ikhshidites.

908 Death of Muktafi. His son, Muktadir, succeeds. Rebellion in favour of Abdallah b. Motazz is put down and Abdallah killed. Muktadir is a weak caliph, who leaves the government to his ministers. Establishment of the Fatimite dynasty in Egypt and Africa. It subverts the Aglabite and Edrisite dynasties. During the remainder of Muktadir’s reign, the Byzantines invade Mesopotamia and the Karmathians recommence their disorders. The caliph’s inaction and indolence cause a reaction against him.

930 He is deposed and his brother, Kahir, made caliph, but he recovers the throne. Revolt of Mosul and foundation of the Hamdanite dynasty in Mesopotamia. The Karmathians seize Mecca and carry off the Black Stone of the Kaaba.

932 Death of Muktadir in battle with his rebellious minister, Munis. His brother, Kahir, succeeds.

933 Foundation of the Buyid dynasty in Persia. The caliphate is reduced to the province of Baghdad.

934 Kahir deposed and blinded. His nephew, Radhi, succeeds. He creates the office of emir of the emirs, corresponding to mayor of the palace. He is the last caliph to possess any considerable spiritual or temporal power.

939 Capture of Mosul.

940 Death of Radhi, succeeded by his brother, Muttaki. Al-Baridi, the head of a Chaldean principality, besieges Baghdad, but is repulsed.

944 Turun seizes Muttaki and puts his eyes out. Mustafki, son of Muktafi, is chosen by Turun to succeed. Owing to the unpopularity of Zirak, the emir of the emirs, the people call upon Akhmed, the Buyid ruler, who establishes himself vizir to the caliph with title Muiz ad-Daula. He and his successors, under the title of emir of the emirs, absorb all political power.

946 Mustafki conspires against Akhmed, who seizes him and puts his eyes out. Muktadir’s son, Muti, is chosen to succeed. Constant war with the Byzantines.

958 The Fatimite caliph, Muiz ad-Din, subdues all Africa and Egypt and is acknowledged by Arabia.

961 Foundation of the principality of Ghazni.

968 Nicephorus takes Antioch from the Mohammedans.

974 Abdication of Muti. His son, Tai, succeeds. The Buyid princes contend furiously for the office of emir.

991 The emir, Baha ad-Daula, compels Tai to abdicate, and appoints Kadir, grandson of Muktadir, to the caliphate.

995 Aleppo taken from the Mohammedans by the emperor Basil.

997 Mahmud, of Ghazni, comes to the throne. He reigns until 1028.

1020 Firdusi, the Persian Homer, flourishes. The power of the Seljuk Turks increases.

1030 Mohammedan victory over the Byzantines at Azaz.

1031 Death of Kadir. His son, Kaim, succeeds.

1038 Mohammedans regain Edessa.

1055 The caliph, oppressed by the emir, calls upon Toghril Beg, the Seljuk. The latter enters Baghdad, overthrows the Buyids, and takes their place.

1063 Death of Toghril, leaving the power to his nephew, Alp Arslan.

1074 Suleiman, the Seljuk, conquers Asia Minor and founds kingdom of Rum or Iconium.

1075 Death of Kaim. His grandson, Muktadi, succeeds.

1076 The Seljuk Turks conquer Syria from the Fatimites and take Jerusalem.

1090 Hassan b. Sabba, of Nishapur, organises a band of Karmathians, named the “Assassins.”

1092 Death of Malik Shah, successor of Alp Arslan. Decline of Seljuk power.

1094 Death of Muktadi. His son, Mustazhir, succeeds.

1096 The Fatimite caliph, Mustali, takes Jerusalem.

1099 The crusaders succeed in getting the whole of Asia Minor.

1118 Death of Mustazhir. His son, Mustarshid, succeeds.

1135 Murder of Mustarshid by the Assassins. His son, Rashid, succeeds.

1136 Rashid defends Baghdad against the Turks, but is murdered by the Assassins. His uncle, Muktafi, succeeds. He is captured by the Ghuz Turks and carried about in an iron cage, but afterwards escapes.

1160 Death of Muktafi. His son, Mustanjid, succeeds. His reign is marked by great disorders in Persia, where the governors have all made themselves independent.

1170 Death of Mustanjid. His son, Mustadi, succeeds.

1171 Saladin, sultan of Egypt, destroys the Fatimite dynasty.

1180 Death of Mustadi. His son, Nasir, succeeds. He recognises the usurpation of Saladin.

1183 Fall of Ghazni.

1206 Jenghiz proclaims himself khan of the Mongols.

1218-1221 Conquests of Jenghiz Khan.

1225 Death of Nasir. His son, Dhahir, succeeds.

1226 Death of Dhahir. His son, Mustansir, succeeds. The whole of Persia is subject to the Mongols.

1245 Death of Mustansir. His son, Mustasim, succeeds.

1256 Hulagu, khan of the Mongols, invades Persia and extirpates the Assassins.

1258 Hulagu takes Baghdad, and puts Mustasim to death. End of the Abbasid dynasty.

THE MOHAMMEDANS IN SPAIN (711-1492 A.D.)

Within four years after the landing of Tarik in Spain, the whole peninsula, except the mountainous districts in the north, is in the hands of the Mohammedans. The first forty years of the occupation is a period of discord, and a number of emirs succeed each other in rapid succession. The Mohammedans fight with the Christians in the north, and penetrate into France, whence they are driven back by Charles Martel, in 732. The Arab power is on the eve of falling to pieces, when Abd ar-Rahman, the sole survivor of the Omayyad massacre in Arabia, arrives in Spain. In 755 Abd ar-Rahman is elected king of Mohammedan Spain.

THE OMAYYAD DYNASTY (756-1031 A.D.)

756 Abd ar-Rahman I defeats the Abbasid emirs, and founds his kingdom at Cordova. His reign is one of constant warfare, for he has to suppress many revolts.

778 Destruction of Charlemagne’s army at Roncesvalles, on its return from the invasion to restore Hosein to power.

780 Capture of Saragossa. Hosein taken and executed.

786 Suppression of the rebellion of the Beni Yusuf.

788 Death of Abd ar-Rahman. His son and appointed heir, Hisham I, succeeds. He proclaims the holy war and finishes the mosque of Cordova.

796 Death of Hisham. His son, Al-Hakim, succeeds. He is victorious over his rebel uncles.

800-801 The Franks invade Catalonia and recover Barcelona from the Moslems.

807 After continual disorders in Toledo Al-Hakim treacherously massacres the chief citizens. Resistance is abandoned.

815 Rising in Cordova put down with great cruelty. Exile of the inhabitants. They go to Africa.

821 Death of Al-Hakim. His son, Abd ar-Rahman II, succeeds.

823 A band of Cordovan exiles from Alexandria effect the conquest of Crete. The king defeats his great-uncle, Abdallah.

832 Great defeat of the rebellious Toledans.

852 Death of Abd ar-Rahman. His son, Muhammed I, succeeds. The Christian monarchs are acknowledged lords paramount over Castile and Navarre. Revolts continue in many quarters.

862 Muhammed recovers Tudela and Saragossa after death of Musa, the head of the rebellious Beni Casi, but the latter, with the help of Alfonso III of Asturias and Leon, soon expel his soldiers. Ibn Merwan forms an independent state in the west.

886 Death of Muhammed. His son, Mundhir, succeeds.

888 Death of Mundhir. His brother, Abdallah, succeeds.

890 Defeat of Omar b. Hafsan, who for many years has maintained his independence with a large force in an impregnable fortress in Andalusia. Other serious risings in Elvira and Seville take place.

912 Death of Abdallah. His son, Abd ar-Rahman III, succeeds. He is the greatest of the Spanish caliphs, and his reign is the most brilliant period of the kingdom. He encourages the African Moslems to hold out against the Fatimites.

916 Ordoño II of Leon defeats army sent to avenge a raid he has made two years previously.

918 Brilliant victory of Abd ar-Rahman over Ordoño and Sancho I of Navarre. Abd ar-Rahman penetrates as far as Pamplona.

921 Ordoño invades the Moslem territory as far as Cordova. Defeat of Ordoño at battle of Val de Junquera.

923 Sancho captures Viguera. Death of Ordoño II enables Abd ar-Rahman to complete work of internal organisation.

929 Abd ar-Rahman assumes title of caliph.

934 Ramiro II of Leon, having restored peace in his kingdom, resumes war on the Moors. Defeat of the Moors at Simancas.

939 Great defeat of the Moors at Alhandega, but Ramiro is compelled to abandon operations against the Moors by his quarrel with the count of Castile.

950 The death of Ramiro enabling Abd ar-Rahman to win many victories.

960 The caliph restores the deposed Sancho I to the throne of Leon.

961 Death of Abd ar-Rahman. His son, Al-Hakam II, succeeds. He is a great book collector and patron of literature. The most notable event of his reign is the rise of Mohammed Ibn abi Amir.

976 Death of Al-Hakam. His ten-year-old son, Hisham II, after some opposition is established on the throne. The real power is in the hands of Ibn abi Amir, who reorganises the army.

981 Defeat of Ramiro III of Leon by Ibn abi Amir, who assumes the name of Almansor (Al-Mansur).

982 Bermudo II, Ramiro’s successor, pays tribute to Cordova.

986 Capture and sack of Barcelona, the capital of a Spanish fief, by Almansor.

987 Bermudo tries to free himself from Moorish sovereignty. Almansor razes Coimbra to the ground. The next year Almansor penetrates to the heart of Leon.

996 Capture of the city of Leon. After this Almansor takes Compostella. In Africa the generals of Almansor gain victories in Mauretania.

1002 Death of Almansor. His son, Abdul-Malik, succeeds to his office of hajib. He continues his father’s successes.

1008 Death of Abdul-Malik. His brother, Abd ar-Rahman (Sanchol), succeeds to the chief ministry. He conducts a campaign in Leon.

1009 Muhammed, cousin of Hisham, revolts. Sanchol put to death. Muhammed Al-Mahdi imprisons Hisham and assumes the caliphate. Revolt of the Berbers, who occupy Cordova. Hisham abdicates in favour of Suleiman, a relative. Muhammed escapes to Toledo, but recovers Cordova with the help of the Catalonians.

1010 Defeat of Muhammed; the Slavs and Berbers desert him. Hisham recovers the throne. Murder of Muhammed.

1013 Suleiman takes Cordova and Hisham disappears. His fate is one of the unsolved mysteries of history.

1016 Overthrow of Suleiman by the Slavonic element headed by Khairan and Ali of Hammud. Ali made caliph.

1017 Revolt of Khairan, who sets up Abd ar-Rahman (IV) Mortada, great-grandson of Abd ar-Rahman III, as anti-caliph. Murder of Ali. His brother, Kasim, succeeds. Fierce civil war results.

1023 Mortada falls in battle. Abd ar-Rahman V, brother of Muhammed Al-Mahdi, succeeds, but is shortly murdered. Muhammed Ben Abd ar-Rahman succeeds.

1025 Muhammed driven from Cordova. Yahya b. Ali is in power. He is slain at Seville. Hisham III, brother of Mortada, raised to the throne.

1031 The caliphate is so disorganised that Hisham abdicates the empty title.

THE INDEPENDENT KINGDOMS, OR EMIRATES (1031-1091 A.D.)

Since the death of Almansor, Mohammedan Spain has been splitting up into a number of independent emirates or principalities. The fall of the Omayyad dynasty breaks the last link of unity, and we have now the separate and distinct emirates of Saragossa, Toledo, Valencia, Badajoz, Cordova, Seville, and Granada. The Christian states seize the opportunity to reconquer Spain. The Spanish national hero, “the Cid,” takes part in these conquests. Without following each of these states in detail, we note the most important events of the period.

1032 Civil war breaks out in the emirates.

1038 Ramiro I of Aragon drives the Moors from Sobrarbe, and annexes it to his possessions. Assassination of Al-Mundar of Saragossa, at Granada.

1043 Death of Gehwar of Cordova. His son Muhammed succeeds.

1046 Ferdinand I of Castile besieges Toledo. The emir pays tribute.

1060 Muhammed Al-Muatedid seizes Cordova, and then becomes the most powerful leader of the Moorish rulers in Spain. Muhammed Gehwar dies of grief.

1064 Last victories of Ferdinand I in Catalonia and Valencia. Al-Mamun of Toledo captures Valencia, deposing his brother-in-law, Al-Mudafar.

1070 Rise of the Almoravids in Africa due to Yusuf b. Tashufin.

1078 Ibn Abed of Seville takes Murcia.

1079 Conquest of Malaga by Ibn Omar, the vizir of Ibn Abed. Alliance between Ibn Abed and Alfonso VI of Castile.

1081 Alfonso VI invades Toledo. Al-Aftas, emir of Badajoz, drives him back.

1085 Capture of Toledo by Alfonso VI.

1086 Al-Mutamid, emir of Seville, asks Yusuf, the Almoravid chief in Africa, for assistance. He comes, and defeats Alfonso at Zallaka.

1087 Yusuf returns to Africa. The Cid defeats the Moors at Al-Coraza, and captures Huesca.

1088 Yusuf recalled to Spain, but is able to accomplish nothing, owing to discord and dissension among the emirs.

1089 The Moors besiege Alid, but are driven off by Alfonso. Yusuf returns to Africa.

1090 Yusuf returns to Spain with a large army, and conquers Granada.

1091 Conquest of Seville and Almeria by Yusuf. Al-Mutamin sent to Africa a prisoner. Yusuf is now supreme in the Mohammedan regions of Spain.

THE ALMORAVID DYNASTY (1091-1146 A.D.)

The Almoravids are a confederation of Berber sectaries who have established a vast kingdom in Africa. The king, Yusuf b. Tashufin, establishes his capital at Morocco, in 1069, and his intrusion into the affairs of Spain is explained above.

1092 Valencia betrayed to the Almoravids. Al-Kadir, the emir, slain.

1093 Yusuf captures Badajoz and puts the emir Al-Mutawakkil to death.

1094 The Cid takes Valencia from the Moors.

1095 The Balearic Isles submit to Yusuf.

1099 Death of the Cid. Valencia comes under Moorish rule the following year.

1103 Yusuf turns government over to his son Ali, and returns to Africa, where he dies, 1106, at age of one hundred. (Ninety-seven Christian years.)

1108 Victory of Ali over Alfonso VI of Castile, at Urcesia (Ucles).

1109 Alfonso defeats the emir of Saragossa. Ali returns to Africa after unsuccessful siege of Toledo. The centre of government is at Morocco.

1114 The Pisans take the Balearic Isles from the Moors.

1117 Alfonso allies himself with the emir of Saragossa against Ali. They take Lerida, and defeat the Almoravids.

1121 Rebellion of Cordova. Revolt of Muhammed b. Abdallah (Al-Mahdi) in Africa. Rise of the Almohads (Unitarians).

1123 Siege of Morocco by the Almohads. Ali drives them off.

1130 Ali, son of Tashufin, defeated by Alfonso. Abdul-Mumin, successor of Al-Mahdi, defeats Ali in Morocco.

1134 The Moors defeat and slay Alfonso I of Aragon at Fraga.

1138 Tashufin summoned to Spain by Ali to help him against the Almohads.

1139 Alfonso, duke of Portugal, defeats the Moors at Ourique.

1143 Death of Ali. His son Tashufin succeeds. General insurrection against the Almoravids.

1144 Abdul-Mumin totally defeats Tashufin in Africa. Death of Tashufin in flight to Spain. His son Ibrahim raised to the throne over such of his dominions as are left.

1145 Abdul-Mumin crosses into Spain.

1146 The Almohads take Seville. Castile and Aragon come to assistance of the Almoravids. Ibrahim put to death.

THE ALMOHAD DYNASTY (1146-1232 A.D.)

1146 Abdul-Mumin recognised as supreme over the Moors in Spain.

1147 Capture of Almeria by the Christian allies.

1148 Capture of Cordova by the Almohads.

1151 Abdul-Mumin continues conquests in Africa.

1156 Capture of Granada by the Almohads.

1157 The Almohads reconquer Almeria.

1158 Capture of Tunis by Abdul-Mumin.

1160 Abdul-Mumin returns to Spain.

1161 Badajoz, Beja, and Beira taken by the Almohads.

1163 Death of Abdul-Mumin. His son Yusuf Abu Yakub succeeds. The war between the Christians and Moors continues.

1176 Yusuf invades Portugal.

1184 Death of Yusuf at siege of Santarem. His son Yakub Almansor (Al-Mansur) succeeds.

1189 Sancho of Portugal captures Silves and Beja, but the Moors recover them three years later.

1193 The Christian princes of Spain unite against the Moors.

1195 The Moors administer a crushing defeat to Alfonso VIII of Castile at Alarcon.

1197 Capture of Madrid by the Moors.

1198 The Moors capture Calatrava and threaten Toledo.

1199 Death of Yakub. Muhammed An-Nasir succeeds. Rising of the Almoravids which takes five years to suppress. Muhammed makes preparations for a great conquest of Christian Spain.

1211 Muhammed besieges Salvatierra.

1212 Surrender of Salvatierra, followed by decisive defeat of Muhammed at Las Navas de Tolosa. The fate of the Almohads is sealed.

1213 Death of Muhammed. His infant son Yusuf Al-Mustansir succeeds.

1223 Death of Yusuf. Civil war breaks out among the Almohads.

1224 Abul-Malik, successor of Yusuf, deposed at Murcia by Abdallah Abu Muhammed, who succeeds. The Christian allies take Huejada in Valencia.

1227 Al-Mamun succeeds Abdallah. Discontent with the Almohads increases.

1232 Revolt of Al-Mutawakkil b. Hud, who drives Al-Mamun to Africa. End of the Almohad dynasty. Al-Mutawakkil takes Granada. Capture of the Balearic Isles by James I of Aragon.

1233 Great victory over the Moors by the Castilians.

1236 Capture of Cordova and part of Andalusia by Ferdinand III of Castile. James of Aragon attacks Valencia.

1237 Murder of Al-Mutawakkil by his generals.

THE KINGDOM OF GRANADA (1238-1492 A.D.)

With Al-Mutawakkil perishes the last semblance of Moorish unity. The emirs again become independent princes, but the Christian encroachment has been such that none of them has any considerable power, or territory, except Muhammed (I) Ben Al-Akhmar, who in 1238 founds the kingdom of Granada.

1238 Reduction of Valencia by James I.

1245 Muhammed cedes the town of Jaen to Ferdinand III of Castile, and becomes a tributary of Castile.

1248 Surrender of Seville to Ferdinand. Other cities follow.

1253 Muhammed founds the Alhambra at Granada.

1254 Alfonso X of Castile conquers many Moorish cities in southern Spain.

1261 Muhammed attempts to cast off the yoke of Castile, and encourages Andalusia and Murcia to rebel.

1264 Peace made with Castile. Granada is again tributary.

1266 Capture of Murcia by James I. All Spain is now Christian, except Granada.

1273 The Merinids arrive in Spain, from Africa, to assist the Moors. Death of Muhammed. His son Muhammed II succeeds. He makes a treaty with Alfonso X of Castile.

1275 Abu Yusuf, king of the Merinids, brings a large army to Spain. The Castilians and Aragonese are defeated, but Alfonso checks the conqueror.

1278 The Merinids drive the remaining Almohads from Spain.

1281 Alfonso allies himself with the Merinids to suppress a revolt in Castile.

1285 Death of Abu Yusuf.

1292 The Castilians take Tarifa, after defeating the Moorish fleet at Tangiers.

1294 Unsuccessful attempt of the Moors to recapture Tarifa. The Merinids finally withdraw from Spain.

1302 Death of Muhammed. His son Muhammed (III) Abu Abdallah succeeds.

1308 Capture of Gibraltar by Ferdinand IV of Castile. Treaty with the Granadans, who renounce some of their territory.

1309 Revolt in Granada. Muhammed is compelled to resign the throne to his brother Nasir Abu Abdallah. The rebellion continues, and

1313 Nasir is deposed by his nephew Ismail Feraj. He has constant wars with the Christians.

1319 Great defeat of the Castilians in Granada.

1325 Assassination of Ismail by one of his officers. His son Muhammed IV succeeds.

1328 Reduction of Baena by Muhammed.

1333 Muhammed obtains an army of Merinids from Africa, who retake Gibraltar. Alfonso XI attempts to retake. Muhammed comes to relieve the Merinids, but they assassinate him. His brother Yusuf Abul-Hagiag succeeds.

1340 Yusuf besieges Tarifa, with the assistance of Merinid auxiliaries. Alfonso IV of Portugal, and Alfonso XI of Castile, relieve the town and administer a crushing defeat to the Moors, on the river Guadacelito (Salado).

1343 Surrender of Algeciras to Alfonso of Castile, who makes ten years’ treaty of peace with Yusuf.

1354 Assassination of Yusuf by a madman, while at prayer. His son Muhammed V succeeds.

1359 Muhammed deposed by his brother Ismail, and retires to Africa.

1360 Abu Said, Ismail’s prime minister, murders him, and usurps the throne.

1361 Muhammed returns to Spain, and applies to Peter the Cruel of Castile for support.

1362 Murder of Abu Said while on an appealing visit to Peter. Muhammed regains the throne.

1370 Muhammed attacks Henry IV of Castile.

1376 Muhammed builds the great public hospital, and many other buildings, at Granada.

1391 Death of Muhammed. His son Yusuf (II) Abu Abdallah succeeds.

1392 His son attempts to dethrone him.

1396 Death of Yusuf. His younger son Muhammed VI succeeds, and exiles his rebellious elder brother. Muhammed wars his entire reign with the Christians.

1408 Death of Muhammed. His exiled brother Yusuf III obtains the throne. This event marks the end of internal tranquillity in the kingdom, and the beginning of its downfall.

1423 Death of Yusuf. His son Muhammed (VII) Al-Haizar succeeds. Many revolts follow.

1426 Muhammed’s cousin Muhammed (VIII) Az-Zaguir deposes him and seizes the throne.

1428 Muhammed VIII put to death by the Christians and Africans. Muhammed VII is restored.

1431 Invasion of Granada by the Castilians. The Moors are defeated, whereat they depose Muhammed, and declare Yusuf Al-Hamar king. He dies in six months, and Muhammed is again restored.

1435 The Castilians again invade Granada, and take Huesca.

1445 Deposition of Muhammed by his nephew Muhammed Osmin. His entire reign is troubled by a rival claimant, his cousin, Muhammed b. Ismail, who has support of Juan II of Castile.

1454 Muhammed (X) Ismail finally gets the throne from his cousin. He quarrels with the Castilians, who defeat him, and take the Ximena from him.

1466 Death of Muhammed. His son Mulei Ali Abul-Hassan succeeds.

1478 War with Castile renewed when Abul-Hassan refuses to pay tribute.

1482 Disastrous defeats of the Moors. Alhama taken. Abul-Hassan’s son Abu Abdallah (Boabdil) revolts against him.

1483 Slight gain of Abul-Hassan over the Christians. Abu Abdallah, encouraged by Ferdinand of Castile and Aragon in his rebellion, is proclaimed king by one faction.

1484 Abul-Hassan compelled to resign his crown, and his brother Abdallah Az-Zagal is made king, as rival to Abu Abdallah. Ferdinand, taking advantage of this internal discord, makes great progress with his arms.

1487 Surrender of Malaga to Ferdinand, after long siege and several defeats of Abdallah. Ferdinand takes other towns.

1488 New Malaga surrenders to Ferdinand.

1489 Surrender of Guadix, Almeria, and Baza.

1490 Abdallah surrenders all his territories to Ferdinand. Abdallah still holds Granada.

1491 Ferdinand begins siege of Granada.

1492 Surrender of Granada. Abu Abdallah is pensioned, and returns to Africa. End of Mohammedan dominion in Spain.

THE FATIMITE DYNASTY OF EGYPT (908-1171 A.D.)

Fatimites claim descent from Mohammed through his daughter Fatima wife of Ali, although their title to this claim is disputed. First to claim power is

908 Obaid Allah, a pontiff of the Ismailian sect, who is proclaimed Al-Mahdi. Displaces Aglabites in Kairwan. Makes his capital at Mahdiya, on the coast, to be safe from Berbers and to establish strong sea power. Fatimites oppose Aglabite emirs in Sicily.

916 Fatimite and Aglabite contentions in Sicily enable Latins and Italians, in alliance with Byzantines, to drive Saracens out of Italy.

917 Akhmed, Aglabite emir of Sicily, defeated at sea. Fatimites control Sicily. They attack Liguria, and take Genoa; attack Omayyads by sea—also come in contact with Omayyads on land.

924 Fatimites conquer Fez, capital of Edrisites. Northern Africa, with exception of Egypt, under Fatimite rule; Omayyads kept out during life-time of Obaid Allah. When Fatimite capital is removed to Cairo, Jusuf b. Zairi is left as governor in this region. His descendants become independent, and rule until displaced by Almoravids.

936 Death of Obaid Allah, succeeded by his son Abul-Kasim, who had conquered Alexandria in 919, but was soon driven out again.

945 Al-Mansur succeeds his father Abul-Kasim; makes friends with Arabian Shiites in Hedjaz and Yemen.

953 Muiz ad-Din succeeds Al-Mansur.

969 Sends army under Jauhar against Egypt; enters Fostat. Becomes first Fatimite caliph in Egypt. Hedjaz and Yemen acknowledge his supremacy. Syria also added to his dominions.

972 Fatimites found New Cairo. Great mosque Al-Azhar built, university of Egypt, still filled with students from all parts of the Mohammedan world. Soon after, Fatimite fleet meets Byzantine off Damascus, but no battle is fought.

973 Caliph sends embassy to Otto the Great. Egypt invaded by Hassan, who is defeated.

975 Death of Muiz, succeeded by his son Al-Aziz. Jaufar sent against Iftikir, Turkish chief in Damascus; is defeated, but Iftikir afterwards conquered by Aziz at Ramla.

981 Fatimites take Damascus.

982 Battle between Fatimites and Otto II in Calabria. Emperor defeated.

996 Death of Aziz, succeeded by his son Al-Hakim.

1006 Hisham, an Omayyad prince of Spain, invades Egypt; at first successful, afterwards captured and put to death by caliph.

1010 Hakim destroys Christian churches in Syria. Founds sect of Druses. Is murdered by his sister, who becomes regent, in

1021 for his son Dhahir. Dhahir makes treaty with Byzantine Romanus Argyrus, permitting him to rebuild church in Jerusalem. From Dhahir’s reign dates decline of Fatimite power in Syria.

1023 Aleppo taken by Salih ben Mardas, and Ramla by Hassan of the tribe of Tai.

1036 Mustansir Abu Temim succeeds to caliphate. Aleppo retaken and Syria conquered.

1058 Fatimite caliph publicly recognised caliph in Baghdad by Buyids. About this time occurs persecution of Christians in Alexandria.

1060 Beginning of Norman conquest in Sicily.

1061 Commencement of struggle between blacks and Turks in Egypt.

1069 Great famine in Egypt, followed by pestilence. Nasir ad-Daulah (Turk) conquers caliph, who is only nominal ruler thereafter till death of Nasir (1072).

1071 Aleppo recognises Alp Arslan. All Syria taken by Turkomans.

1072 Assassination of Nasir. Gemali, general and governor of Damascus, recalled.

1076 Egypt invaded by Turkomans, Kurds, and Arabs, under Aksis; routed in second battle by Gemali.

1086 Mahdiya captured and burned by Pisans and Genoese.

1090 Last Sicilian town surrenders to Normans.

1094 Death of Mustansir, succeeded by his son Mustali Abul-Kasim. Government in hands of Afdal, son of Gemali. In his reign occurs First Crusade.

1098 Jerusalem, taken by Afdal from Turks, a few months later yields to crusaders.

1099 Fatimite army under Afdal defeated at Askalon.

1101 Death of Mustali, succeeded by his son Emir, aged five years. Country governed by Afdal until Emir reaches majority, when he puts Afdal to death. Baldwin takes Ptolemais.

1104 Baldwin takes Tripolis.

1129 Emir put to death by partisans of Afdal, whose son Abu Ali Akhmed usurps government, making Hafidh, grandson of Mustansir, nominal caliph.

1149 Dhafir, son of Hafidh, succeeds to caliphate. After short reign, on account of his licentiousness is in

1154 assassinated by his vizir. Succeeded by Al-Faïz, only five years old. Reign filled with contentions of rival vizirs.

1160 Death of Faïz, succeeded by Adid, grandson of Hafidh, and last of Fatimite caliphs. Contentions of vizirs continue.

1162 Adil, son of Adid, dispossesses Shawir of his government in Upper Egypt. Shawir marches against Adil, kills him, and makes himself vizir in his place. Is put to flight by Al-Dirgham, and takes refuge with Nur ad-Din.

1163 Nur ad-Din sends army under Shirkuh to reinstate Shawir. Dirgham defeated, and Shawir restored. He soon throws off allegiance to Nur ad-Din, and allies himself with crusaders. Shirkuh withdraws.

1165 Nur ad-Din again sends Shirkuh to Egypt with a great army, accompanied by Saladin. Battle at Al-Babain, victory of invaders. Alexandria falls into their hands. Crusaders oppose them; Adid beseeches aid from Nur ad-Din. Shirkuh sent again. Shirkuh and Saladin enter Cairo. Shirkuh appointed vizir by Adid; on his death, succeeded

1169 by Saladin as vizir.

1171 Adid’s name suppressed in prayers, by order of Nur ad-Din. Adid dies without knowing of his degradation.

THE KINGDOM OF ARMENIA (189 B.C.-1375 A.D.)

The Armenians throw off the Macedonian yoke in 317 B.C., choosing Ardvates as king. He dies about 284, and the country returns to Seleucid rule. In 189 B.C. (according to Roman historians), after the defeat of Antiochus the Great by Rome, Artaxias or Ardashes and Zadriades, the governors of Armenia Major and Armenia Minor respectively, become independent kings with the connivance of Rome. Artaxias rules at Artaxarta. Hannibal takes refuge at his court.

B.C.

166 Antiochus IV takes Artaxias prisoner, but restores him to his kingdom.

149 According to Armenian historians Mithridates I of Parthia establishes his brother Valarsaces (Waharshag) on the Armenian throne and the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia is founded. Following the Armenian king list

127 Arshag I succeeds his father.

114 Artaces succeeds his father.

94 Tigranes I (II) succeeds his father. He is the next king mentioned by Roman historians. He is put on the disputed throne by Mithridates II the Great of Parthia. Tigranes removes the capital to Tigranocerta, and conquers Lesser Armenia and many Parthian provinces. He assumes the title “King of Kings.”

83 Tigranes makes himself master of the whole of Syria, having been invited by the Syrians to put an end to the civil strife among the Seleucid princes.

76 Tigranes’ father-in-law Mithridates the Great of Pontus instigates him to invade Cappadocia.

69 Tigranes refuses to surrender Mithridates to the Romans. War with Rome results, and Lucullus defeats him at Tigranocerta.

66 Tigranes surrenders his conquests to Pompey. Armenia becomes a vassal state of Rome. The Parthian monarch recovers the title “King of Kings.”

64 Defeat of Tigranes by Phraates III of Parthia. Pompey settles their dispute.

56 Death of Tigranes. His son Artavasdes I succeeds. He is the ally of Rome in Crassus’ campaign against the Parthians.

36 Artavasdes joins the Romans in the campaign against Artavasdes of Media. He deserts Antony and the expedition fails.

34 In revenge Antony proceeds against Artavasdes and captures him. His son Artaxias II is placed on the throne. He is defeated by the Romans and flees to Parthia. He soon recovers the throne and massacres all the Romans in Armenia.

20 The discontented Armenians complain to Augustus about Artaxias and ask that his brother Tigranes, then at Rome, be made their king. Tiberius Nero is sent after Artaxias, who is murdered by his relatives, and Tigranes II (III) is crowned by Tiberius. After a short reign Tigranes is succeeded by his son Tigranes III (IV). The land is full of civil discord.

6 Augustus places Tigranes’ brother Artavasdes II on the Armenian throne.

5 Tigranes recovers his kingdom. Both kings seem to rule simultaneously. They are finally driven out.

2 Ariobazanes or, according to some historians, Tigranes IV (V) is placed by Augustus on the disputed throne. He may have been a Mede or perhaps an Armenian exile.

A.D.

2 Death of Ariobazanes. Erato, probably widow of Tigranes III (IV), succeeds.

4 According to Armenian historians a son of Ariobazanes (Artavasdes III) takes the throne from Erato, but she regains it in a few months. After Erato’s death or deposition (date uncertain) and a short interregnum,

16 Vonones the exiled monarch of Parthia is chosen king, but Tiberius persuades him to retire to Syria.

18 Artaxias III chosen king after a short interregnum. He is succeeded by (date unknown) Arsaces I, placed on the throne by his father Artabanus III of Parthia.

35 Death of Arsaces through treachery of Mithridates, brother of Pharasmanes king of Iberia. Mithridates invades Armenia, and Tiberius gives him the throne. Caligula summons him to Rome, imprisons him, but restores him about 47.

52 Mithridates slain by his nephew Rhadamistus of Iberia.

54 Vologases I of Parthia expels Rhadamistus and makes his own brother Tiridates I king.

58 Corbulo drives out Tiridates I and puts Tigranes V (VI) Herodes the Cappadocian on the throne.

61 Vologases crowns Tiridates king of Armenia and proceeds against Tigranes.

66 Tiridates goes to Rome to receive the crown as a gift from Nero. Meanwhile, Erorant, of the younger Arsacid branch, has established himself, about 58, over a large portion of Armenia. He is the contemporary of Tiridates, and after the latter’s death, probably rules the whole country. He cedes Edessa and Mesopotamia to the Romans.

78 Exeardes, son of Pacorus II of Parthia, is appointed to the throne. He is several times driven out, but always manages to recover his throne.

112 Osroes, brother of Mithridates VI of Parthia, expels Exeardes and makes Parthamasiris, another son of Pacorus, king, for which act Trajan invades Armenia. Parthamasiris is humbled.

117 Trajan appoints Parthamaspates, son of Oroes, king. He is expelled, and recovers the kingdom from Hadrian. He is succeeded by his son, Achæmenides, and he in turn by Soemus or Sohæmus.

162 Vologases III of Parthia expels Sohæmus, who is friendly to Rome, and makes Pacorus king.

163 or 164 Sohæmus restored by the Romans, and is succeeded (date unknown) by his son, Sanatruces or Sanadrug, who is established on the throne by Septimius Severus.

212 Caracalla seizes Sanatruces.

Armenian historians speak of a Chosroes I, the Great, who rules about this time, but the Romans do not mention him. Sanatruces seems to have been followed by Vologases, his son, and he in turn by his son Tiridates II, who escapes from the Romans to Vologases V of Parthia, about 227. His successor is Arsaces II, brother of Artabanus IV of Parthia. He wars against Ardashir, the Sassanid.

258 Sapor I of Persia puts Artavasdes III on the Armenian throne.

285 About this date Tiridates III, the rightful heir of the throne and a Christian, is established by Diocletian. Narseh expels him after a few years, and this brings on a war between Persia and Rome. Tiridates is restored.

341 Probably at this date Arsaces III ascends the throne, after his father, Tiridates III, has been imprisoned by Sapor II of Persia. He assists Sapor in his wars with Rome, and then allies himself with Rome.

363 Arsaces deserts the Romans in the siege of Ctesiphon. He is seized by Sapor, and imprisoned. Sapor puts Aspacures on the throne, but Para, son of Arsaces, is also acknowledged king, with the help of the Romans.

374 or 377 Valens, dissatisfied with Para, has him put to death. Para’s nephew, Arsaces IV, succeeds, together with a brother, Valarsaces II, who dies soon. Arsaces proves so weak a ruler that Theodosius the Great and Sapor III decide to divide the kingdom.

387 or 390 Division of Armenia between Rome and Persia. Arsaces continues to reign in the Roman dominions. Sapor gives his (the eastern) portion to a Persian noble, Khosrau, or Chosroes.

389 Death of Arsaces IV. Theodosius confers his portion upon his general, Casavon, who plots with Chosroes to bring all Armenia under Roman dominion. Bahram IV of Persia seizes Chosroes and

392 puts the latter’s brother, Bahram Sapor, on the vassal throne of eastern Armenia.

414 Chosroes restored by Yezdegerd I.

415 Death of Chosroes. Yezdegerd’s son, Sapor, becomes king.

419 Death of Sapor. Interregnum until

422 when Artasires, son of Bahram Sapor, is appointed king by Bahram V.

429 The Armenian nobles apply to Bahram to remove Artasires. The Persian king decides to make Armenia a province, and deposes Artasires. Henceforth the province is known as Pers-Armenia.

From 429 to 632 Armenia is ruled by Persian governors, who are remarkable chiefly for their cruel attempts to subvert Christianity.

632 Heraclius restores Armenia to the Roman Empire, but in

636 it passes under Mohammedan rule.

885 The caliph Mutamid crowns Ashod I, one of the Bagratid family, king of Armenia. He rules in central and northern Armenia, and founds a dynasty that lasts until the assassination of Kagig II, in 1079, when the kingdom is incorporated with the Byzantine Empire.

908 The Ardzurian family, claiming to be descendants of Sennacherib, founds a dynasty in the province of Vashpuragan, or Van. Kagig is crowned by the caliph Mutadir, and the family rules until 1080.

962-1080 The Bagratids found and rule a dynasty in Kars.

962 The Bagratids found a dynasty in Georgia, which continues until that country is absorbed by Russia, in 1801.

984-1085 The Meravind dynasty of Kurds rules the country west of Lake Van.

1080 Rhupen, a relative of Kagig II, the last Bagratid king of Armenia, founds the kingdom of Lesser Armenia. It allies itself with the crusaders. Among the kings is

1224 Hayton I.

Some of the kings are Latin princes, who are trying to make their subjects conform to the Roman church, break up the country into discordant factions, until

1375 it is conquered by the caliph of Egypt. King Leo VI, the last king of Armenia, is driven out, and dies at Paris in 1393.

---