Punctuation.
Punctuation is a system of marks the purpose of which is to indicate to the eye the relation of words to one another in meaning, and so the relative importance of the component parts of a written composition.
The marks of Punctuation, corresponding, for the most part, to pauses in spoken language, are the comma (,), the period (.), the note of interrogation (?), the note of exclamation (!), the colon (:), the semi-colon (;), the dash (—), parentheses ( ), brackets [ ], quotation marks (“ ”), and the hyphen (-).
Purpose of Punctuation.—To make a written composition clear and intelligent, and to facilitate the task of reading.
Avoid All Unnecessary Remarks.—In modern writings punctuation marks are less frequently used than they were among writers in the early part of the last century. A sentence consisting of a simple subject, a simple predicate, and a simple object, or the relation of whose parts is clearly intelligible without marks, should not be encumbered with any. Take, for instance, the following two sentences:
“The attack was prepared with impenetrable secrecy.”
“On the very morning of the massacre they were in the houses and at the tables of those whose deaths they were plotting.”
Comma.—Three or more words of the same part of speech not connected by conjunctions should be separated from one another by commas.
“He was strong, alert, active.”
“New York City is grand, immense, beautiful.”
Two words contrasted with one another are separated by a comma.
“He is slow, but sure.”
Words in a series of pairs should be separated by a comma. “Young and old, strong and weak, fair and dark, good and bad.”
Explanatory and parenthetical words or phrases (such as “therefore,” “moreover,” “indeed,” “however,” “in fact,” “to some extent,” etc.), inserted into the body of a sentence are usually marked off by commas.
A comma is inserted after the name of a person or thing addressed.
“John, you were mistaken.”
“My country, I am proud of thee.”
Period.—The period (.) is put at the end of every complete sentence that is not exclamatory or interrogative. It is also used as a part of every abbreviation, and after every initial letter standing in place of the full word in a name. “A. M.” (for Master of Arts), “Mr.” (for Mister), “Esq.” (for Esquire), “R. W. Emerson” (for Ralph Waldo Emerson), “Dr.” (for doctor).
Note of Interrogation.—The note of interrogation (?) should follow every direct question: “Are you coming?” “Shall I buy it?” An interrogation point does not, however, follow an indirect question, such as “Let me know what he says.”
Note of Exclamation.—The note of exclamation (!) follows an exclamation, or any series of words denoting an outburst of feeling. “Alas!” “Three cheers!” “Hurrah!”
Colon.—The colon (:) is used to divide from one another the several co-ordinate members of a compound sentence, when they might each of them form an independent sentence, but are ranged side by side in a compound sentence for the sake of better showing how they illustrate one another.
“New York is a wonderful city: The wealthiest in America.”
A quotation or enumeration of details is often preceded by a colon.
“He spoke as follows:” “His last words were:” “Among those present were:”
Semi-Colon.—The semi-colon (;) separates co-ordinate sentences more dependent on one another than are those parted by the colon.
“Where it is prescribed that an act is to be done; or that the adverse party has a specified time to do an act; if service required is doubly the time allowed; except that,” etc.
In sentences containing two sets of subjects and predicates where either clause is very long or contains a subordinate clause, it is well to use a semi-colon.
Parentheses.—Parentheses ( ) are used to enclose words or phrases in a sentence, inserted by way of explanation or comment, but lying outside of the construction of the sentence:
“You see (as I predicted would be the case) I have had a long journey for nothing.”
Dash.—The dash (—) denotes, in most cases, a sudden digression from the general run of the sentence: “I want to tell you—but first let us go into the house.”
Sometimes the dash takes the place of the parentheses, when the clause, though digressive, bears some relation to the context.
Brackets.—Brackets [ ] are used to isolate interpolated words from the passage in which they are used:
“The examiner said that if they [the candidates] were discovered talking with each other he [the examiner] would have them [the candidates] expelled from the room.”
Hyphen.—A hyphen (-) is used, first to connect the part of a word at the end of a line with the remaining letters or syllables of the word beginning the next line; second, to conjoin two or more words into a compound word; as, “a never-to-be-forgotten day;” “long-winded,” etc.
The part of a word to which the hyphen is attached should be an integral part; that is, an entire syllable, and not merely certain letters composing only a part of a syllable.
Quotation Marks.—Quotation marks (“ ”) are used to distinguish a word, phrase, clause, sentence, or passage taken word for word, from any source outside that of the writing into which it is inserted.
A quotation within a quotation is marked off only by a single inverted comma before and after it. But a quotation within the second quotation requires double marks.
A passage quoted, not word for word, but only in substance, is often distinguished by but one quotation mark before and after it.
Capital Letters.—In examinations containing papers the rating of which is determined in part by correctness in the use of capital letters the average candidate is usually at a disadvantage. The following rules, if committed to memory, will enable the candidate to avoid errors which, if made, might cause him to fail in the examination.
The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter.
The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays.
The names of places and countries; as, England, Yonkers, Belmont Park, etc.
The names of States, Mountains, Rivers and Lakes.
All words used to signify the Deity; as, He, Him, His, Thou, Thee, Thine, etc.
The names of persons, the titles of persons, and the titles of books; as, John Brown, Lord Salisbury, Senator Mitchell, “The Marble Faun.”
The first word in every line of poetry.
The pronoun I, and the exclamation O, or Oh.
The first word of a direct quotation should also begin with a capital; as, “To thine own self be true.”
CHAPTER X.
HOW COMPETITORS ARE JUDGED.
Methods by Which the Examiners Keep
Candidates’ Identity Secret.
After the examination, which is conducted with the most scrupulous care to guard against favoritism or fraud, the local examiners arrange the papers by sheets or subjects and all are forwarded under seal to the United States Commission. When they are reached in the order of rating, they are distributed by sheets to the examiners, Examiner A being given all of sheets 1, Examiner B all of sheets 2, Examiner C all of sheets 3, and so on, the sheets being distributed to as many examiners as there are subjects in the particular examination to be rated. After the papers are rated in the first instance they are redistributed, and the first rating is reviewed by other examiners.
When all of the papers of an examination have been rated and reviewed, those of each competitor are then, for the first time, assembled or brought together, his average percentage is ascertained, his declaration envelope is opened, and the declaration sheet to which he has signed his name is attached to his examination papers. The identity of the competitor, therefore, is not disclosed until his papers have been rated and reviewed and his average percentage determined. As the charges for specific errors are all fixed by the rules for rating, and as each subject is rated by two examiners acting separately and then reviewed by both jointly, it will be seen that absolute impartiality, accuracy and uniformity are secured in the work.
Appeals from the ratings are sometimes made by competitors, but the prospect of securing a higher rating is very remote. Errors on the part of examiners in making charges are seldom found, as the work of each examiner is verified and checked in every particular by another.
CHAPTER XI.
THE ELIGIBLE REGISTER.
How Names Are Placed on Eligible List and Mode of
Certification to Postmasters.
Usually it takes from three to six months to rate all papers after an examination. Candidates that make 70 per cent. or over are then notified of their relative standing. The period of eligibility for original appointments is one year from the date of entering the name on the register.
When a name has been placed upon a register it is not disturbed until a postmaster calls for a list of eligibles. Then the proper number of names are certified to him and he chooses those he needs. The names of all others are returned to the eligible register to await further certifications.
In making appointments the postmaster has the privilege of selecting one out of three down the list: If he had but one vacancy he could select the third name, but could not take the fourth; he also is permitted to appoint in regular order straight down the list, if he so choose.
The probationary period for letter carriers and clerks begins upon their promotion to the regular force and not at the date of original appointment as substitutes. The period of probation is limited to six months and cannot be extended. At its close a probationer must either be absolutely appointed or dismissed.
CHAPTER XII.
RULES FOR RATING.
Formula by Which Percentage Is Attained and
Credited to the Competitor.
All examination papers are rated according to the following rules:
Every correct answer, 100.
Every faulty answer according to its value on a scale of 100 and deduct the sum of the error marks of each answer from 100.
The difference between the sum of the error marks of each answer and 100 will be the mark of the answer.