THE ARABIAN HEAVENS.—Ludwig Ideler
The majority of Arabic star-names mentioned by Kazwini owe their origin to the astronomy of the Greeks. For instance, to the latter belong El-dschediain, the two Kids (Hædi); El-ma’lef, the Manger; El-hhimârain, the two Asses; Kalb el-ased, the Lion’s Heart; El-sumbela, the Ears; El-zubênâ, the two Claws. Others indicate the positions of the stars in the Greek constellations as Râs el-tinnîn, Dragon’s Head; Râs el-hhauwâ, Head of the Snake Man; Râs el-dschêthi, Head of the Kneeling (Hercules); Dseneb el-dedschâdsche, the Hen’s Tail (Swan’s); Dseneb el-dschedi, Goat’s Tail (Wild-goat); Dseneb Kaitos, Whale’s Tail; Fom el-hhût, Jaw of the (southern) Fish; Ridschl el-dschebbâr, Giant’s Foot (Orion), etc. Still others, such as Khebd el-ased, Dafîra el-ased, El-dsirâ el-mebsûta, and el-mekbûda, El-nethra, El-dschebha, El-zubra, Sâk el-ased, Adschaz el-ased, refer to the Arabic Lion, which is a caricature of the Greek one.
Now if we separate these and many similar expressions from the astronomical nomenclature of the Arabs, there remains a class of star-names that present sufficient internal evidence to show plainly that they are indigenous to Arabia. It is worth while taking the trouble to collect and compare them. We shall in this way obtain a clearer idea of the sky that was altogether peculiar to this people.
In the first place, a large number of names of animals attracts our notice. In the vicinity of the North Pole, a shepherd (El-râï, Gamma in Cepheus), accompanied by his dog (Khelb el-râï, Zeta in Cepheus), is pasturing a herd of sheep (El-firk and El-agnâm, Alpha, Beta, Eta, and smaller stars in Cepheus), to which group also seem to belong two calves (El-ferkadain, Beta and Gamma in the Little Bear), a she-goat (El-anâk, Zeta in the Great Bear), a he-goat (El-tais in the Dragon), a young he-goat (El-dschedi, Alpha in the Little Bear), four mother-camels, a camel-foal, and a single camel pasturing by itself (El-awaîd, El-raba, and El-râfid, collectively on the head of the Dragon).
Various predatory animals are slinking around this herd, two Jackals (El-dsîbain, Zeta and Eta in the Dragon), which are specially stalking the camel-foal; a male-hyena (El-dsîch, Iota in the Dragon) and many other she-hyenas (El-dibâ, Beta, Gamma, Delta and Mu in Boötes), and other she-hyenas with their young (Aulâd el-dibâ, Theta, Iota, Kappa, Lambda, and others in the same figure).
In the neighborhood of the two jackals (two stars in the Dragon) bear the name of their claws (Adhfâr el-dsîb).
Another shepherd (El-râï, Alpha in Ophiuchus) pastures his sheep (El-agnâm, small stars in the region of Hercules’s Club) on a mead (El-rauda), which is defended on the side of the above-mentioned hyenas by two hurdles (Nasak schâmi and Nasak jemêni, rows of stars in Hercules and in the upper part of the Snake), and is open in the direction of the shepherd’s two dogs (Khelb el-râï, Alpha in Hercules and Beta in Ophiuchus).
A third shepherd and a third herd are to be found further to the south in the Milky Way. The latter was represented as a river in which four animals (camels or sheep) are drinking, while four others (El-naâîm el-sâdira, Zeta, Sigma, Tau, and Phi, in the Archer), are going away from it after having quenched their thirst. Lambda in the Archer was regarded as their shepherd (Râï el-naâïm).
Yet another shepherd was signified by the star Beta in Orion (Rigel). He was called Râï el-dschauzâ, the shepherd in the Dschauzâ, or Nut-region, i. e., in the region of Orion, which is splendid with many conspicuous stars. The herd which he was given to pasture are probably the “Thirst-quenched Camels” (El-nihâl), which were regarded as being the stars Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta, in the Hare in the vicinity of the Milky Way.
Besides these groups of animals, there are several others scattered over the heavens. The three pairs of stars standing close together at the feet of the Great Bear were likened to the footmarks of a gazelle. They were called the Gazelle’s Springs, or Hoofs (Kafzât el-dhibâ or Dhufra el-gizlân). Naturally the animal itself was regarded as being in the neighborhood of its tracks. On the one hand, Omicron, Pi, Rho, Sigma, A and d, on the head of the Great Bear, and on the other, as it appears, the stars of the Little Lion were included under the name Gazelle (El-dhibâ). The latter group also appears under the names the Gazelles and their Young (El-dhibâ w’ aulâdhâ).
The five stars of the Virgin, Beta, Eta, Gamma, Delta, and Epsilon, were looked upon as so many yelping dogs (El-auwâ); Alpha and Beta in the Archer as a pair of birds peculiar to Arabia (El-suradain); Alpha (Fomalhaut) in the Southern Fish and Beta (Diphda) in the Whale as two Frogs (El-difda el-awel and El-difda el-thâni); four stars in the Great Dog and the Dove and as many Monkeys (El-kurûd), and the two bright stars of the latter constellation as a pair of Ravens (El-ag’riba).
All the creatures so far mentioned are familiar to the Arabs, the camel most of all. Just as their language is rich in words which refer to this useful animal, so also it plays the chief rôle in their astronomical nomenclature. We have already met with some camel-groups in the Arabian heavens. We find two more in the Bull and in the Crow. The brightest star in the Hyades has the name of “the Large Camel” (El-fenîk or El-fetîk), the others are called “the Small Camels” (El-kilâs or El-kalâjis). The four principal stars of the Crow were regarded as so many male-camels (El-adschmâl), analogous to the above-mentioned four female-camels in a similar figure at the head of the Dragon.
Just as frequently do we come across the ostrich in the Arabian heavens. The Southern Crown bears the name of the Ostrich Nest (Udha el-naâm), to which two pairs of ostriches (El-dhalîmain, Lambda and Mu in the Archer) appear to belong. A second ostrich-nest was formed from a number of stars in the upper part of Eridanus. In the neighborhood are five hen-ostriches (El-naâmât, Zeta, Eta, Theta, Tau, and Upsilon) in the belly of the Whale, and somewhat further away are two male birds (El-dhalîm, Alpha in the Southern Fish and Alpha in the River). The latter have a number of young ostriches (El-rijâl stars in the Phœnix) between them. Ostrich eggs (El-baid), or their shells (El-kaid), are represented by small stars in the vicinity of the nest.
Besides the groups, we also find various isolated animals in the starry heavens of the Arabs. Among these is the Black Horse (El-dschaun, Epsilon in the Great Bear), perhaps belonging to the neighboring Governor (El-kâïd, Eta, in the same constellation); the beast of prey (Anâk el-ard, Gamma in Andromeda); the Male Camel (El-fahl), which was represented by Canopus and the Dog running in front of Sirius (El-khelb, Beta in Canis Major). This nomenclature, borrowed from the animal kingdom, to which must be added the Maidens (El-adsâra Omicron, Eta, Delta, and Epsilon in Canis Major); the Outrider and the Man-riding-behind (El-fawâris and El-ridf, Delta, Gamma, Epsilon, Zeta, and Alpha in the Swan); this nomenclature, I say, is peculiar in that only one star was always used to distinguish one animal.
The Arabs with so lively an imagination saw in the skies sheep, camels, ostriches, but without being led to it by the resemblance of the contour of the entire star group, as was the case of the designers of the Greek heavens. They therefore had no animal figures proper, but only animal names, such as the She-goat, the two He-goats, and the two Asses of the Greeks. On two occasions, however, it happened that more than one star was given to one animal. When the eight stars of the Archer, which were represented under the figure of only four animals at pasture going to and returning from drinking, were regarded by some as two ostriches, this does not seem to be an exception to the rule, but a misunderstanding instead, caused by the resemblance of two words (Naâïm and Naâm). The case is probably the same with the four stars, Delta, Pi, Rho, and Epsilon, in the Dragon which are called the He-goat by a very late Arab astronomer; for a star-name given by the lexicographer, Firuzabadi, would argue that analogy held true here also.
The two unmistakable cases to which I refer are those of the falling and flying Eagle (El-nesr el-wâki and El-nesr el-tâïr), the former of which was made up of three stars in the form of an equilateral triangle, and the latter of three standing in a straight line (Alpha, Epsilon, and Zeta of the Lyre, Alpha, Beta and Gamma of the Greek Eagle).
We need not take into consideration in this connection either the Arabic Lion or the complete Horse, since most probably both owe their origin to false interpretations of later grammarians.
It is quite different with a second class of Arabic star-names which signify inanimate objects. These have to do with real forms throughout, which, however, for the most part consist of only a few stars after the manner of the Greek Arrow and Triangle. To these belong El-chibâ, the tent of the Arab nomads resting on three or four supports. One of these was represented by three stars of the Charioteer (Lambda, Mu, and Sigma), and another by the four chief stars of the Crow.
El-athâfi, the three stones which the nomadic Arab placed under his pot or kettle in the form of an equilateral triangle to form the hearth. Every triad of stars standing in a similar figure might be called an Athâfi; for instance, Delta, Epsilon, and Rho in the Ram, and the three on the head of Orion, which were actually likened to one of these. In just so many words, however, the only stars that occur under this name are Alpha, Epsilon, and Zeta in the Lyre, and Sigma, Tau, and Upsilon in the Dragon.
El-kidr, the Pot, a ring of stars in the vicinity of the last Athâfi, which was formed from a number of small stars of Cepheus and the Swan.
El-midschdah, the wooden twirling-stick (spit). A kitchen utensil of similar triangular form was represented by the Hyades. The name in course of time came to be restricted to the chief star of this group.
El-fekka, the sounding plate with the broken rim, or Kas’a el-masâkhîm, the Beggar’s-dish. This name was given to the stars of the Northern Crown, which stand in a circle open toward the northeast.
El-mîzân, the Scale-beam, an appropriate name for three stars in a straight line. The ancient Arabs used it for Theta, Eta, and Delta in the Eagle; the modern ones use it to distinguish the three stars on the Belt and the three on the Sword of Orion, the former of which, on account of their equal distance from each other, are called the true scale-beam, and the latter the false one, on account of the unequal intervals.
El-dsirâ, the Ell, a term which may fitly be applied to every pair of conspicuous stars standing a certain distance from one another. It was used for the two pairs of stars on the head of the Twins and in the Little Dog.
El-ma’lef, the Manger—the name of the stars of the Cup which stand in a circular form. The more familiar Manger in the Crab belongs to the Greek Heavens.
El-kubba, the Traveling-tent, drawn by camels of the Arab’s female apartment. This name was given by some to the stars of the Southern Crown, while others, as has already been remarked, regard it as an Ostrich Nest.
El-zaurak, the Boat, was represented by the chief stars of the Phœnix. El-delv, the Well-Bucket, represented by the Square of Pegasus, occurred more frequently than any other, as is shown by the star-names relating to it—El-ferg, El-arkûwa, El-khereb, and Elnaâïm. Elna’sch, the Bier, was applied to the well-known quadrangle in the Great and Little Bear. The term particularly signifies the death-bier, and taken in this sense each of the two biers is accompanied by three mourning women—Benât—biers and mourners combined are called Benât na’sch, literally Daughters of the Bier, i. e., belonging to the Bier.
El-salîb, the Cross: one of these was referred to under the four stars on the head of the Dragon, which others regarded as four mother camels. A second was found in the stars of the Dolphin.
El-serîr, El-khursi, El-arsch, various kinds of Thrones. One, named Serîr benât na’sch, was represented by seven stars standing in the form of a bow on the head of the Great Bear, which were also called El-hhûd, the Pond. Two other thrones under the names Khursi, or Arsch el-dschauzâ, were distinguished under four stars of Eridanus, and four in the Hare, and yet another, named Arsch el-simâkh el-a’zal, in the stars of the Crow.
El-nidâm and El-nedm, every set of things arranged in a row, especially the Pearl Necklace, which was the name given to the four stars 1, 2, 3, 4, and Phi of the Whale standing in a straight line, and the three on Orion’s Belt. Synonymous with this, among words taken in their common acceptation is El-nasak, a name used for two rows of stars in the upper part of the Snake and Hercules, which also has a picturesqueness about it, since the two rows were regarded as hurdles around the meadow on which the above-mentioned shepherd pastures his flock.
El-fikrat, El-fekâr, and El-kelâda, the Brooch: the first of these appears as the name of the stars on the vertebra of the Scorpion’s tail; the second, for Orion’s Belt; the third, for stars of the Archer. El-dschauzâ, the Nuts, and El-lekat, the Golden-grains or Spangles. The former name was used for the stars of Orion and the neighboring Twins collectively, the latter merely for those on Orion’s Sword. Finally, to this class belongs El-khaf el-chadîb and El-khaf el-dschedsmâ, the Dyed and the Mutilated Hand, which figures were represented by the five chief stars of Cassiopeia and the five better known on the head of the Whale. Several of these figures, as we have seen, appear at more than one place in the sky. Hence arose, for astronomers at least, the necessity for distinguishing epithets. Thus the Cross on the head of the Dragon was called “the falling,” the Tent in the Crow “the southern,” one of the Biers “the smaller,” the other, “the greater”; one of the thrones in the vicinity of Orion, “the front”; the other, “the back.”
When these distinctions are wanting, as in the case of the Athâfis, it is probably because the astronomers only made use of the one in the Dragon. Ulug Bekh does not name the other in the Lyre; Kazwini also states that it only occurred in the speech of the common people.
There is still a third and very numerous class of genuine Arabic star-names, which, borrowed neither from animate nor inanimate objects, are consequently names that do not represent any figures. They owe their origin to many circumstances, the majority of which are lost to us. I will content myself with mentioning only a few of them whose origin is not shrouded in doubt.
The small star over the middle of the Great Bear’s tail is called El-suhâ, the Forgotten, the Lost, because it is only noticeable to a sharp eye; also El-saidak, the Touchstone (test-stone), because by it the eyesight was tested; Arcturus, Hâris el-semâ, the Warder of the Heavens, because it is never entirely lost in the rays of the sun; Capella, Rakîb el-thorejâ, the Watchman of the Pleiades, because it rises at the same time as they do; Alpha (Aldebaran), in the Bull, Hhâdi el-nedschm, the Driver of the Seven Stars; also El-tâbi and El-debarân, the Follower, because it rises immediately after that constellation; Beta (Denebola) in the Lion, El-serfa, the Breaker-up (Upsetter), because at its rising and setting in the morning twilight the hot and cold weather change; Alpha (Ras Alhague) in the Watersnake; El-ferd, the Isolated, because it is situated in a starless region, etc. Besides this, among this class we must include the Su’ûd, or fortunate stars, four of which are in Pegasus, two in the Wild Goat, and four in the Waterman.
It will already have been noticed that in this nomenclature single stars frequently appear under several names. Thus the stars of the Crow are sometimes called El-adschmâl, the Camels; sometimes El-chibâ el-jemêni, the Southern Tent; sometimes Arsch el-simâkh el-a’zal, the figure of the throne in the neighborhood of Spica—three quite different names which express so many various notions and have also so many separate authors.
Who were the originators of this nomenclature as a whole?
The Arabs, and particularly the nomad Arabs. To prove this we have only to cast a glance at the names in the first two classes.
The inhabitants of the northern part of the Arabian peninsula, the so-called “desert” and “stony” Arabia, for the most part, lead a nomadic kind of life.
The country is a treeless and waterless plain covered with naked rocks and sand-drifted hills, on which lie scattered single oases watered by springs and glorified with a luxuriant vegetation. On these the Arabs camp with their herds, and do not leave them until the provender is consumed, or until more powerful tribes force them to depart. They call themselves Bedâvi (Bedouins), that is, Scenitæ, Nomads, as they were called by the Greeks. These nomads, cut off from all intercourse with the world around them, who have never been subjugated by a foreign power, have preserved their character and their customs unchanged for several thousand years. Their most important occupation is cattle-breeding. Besides this, they follow the chase, or war upon their enemies, regarding as such all those not belonging to their race or who are not under their protection. They dwell in tents. Several families are under a Schech and several Schechs generally under an Emîr, who rules over the whole tribe.
The majority of these nomadic Arabs were Sabians, or Star-worshipers, before the adoption of Islam. History has preserved for us the names of several tribes who paid divine honors to single planets, or conspicuous fixed stars. No wonder that they should have fallen into such idolatry! The dust raised by the desert wind, which, as a rule, only blows during the day, and the heat of the sun compel them to pasture their herds and to undertake their hostile expeditions during the night. Leisure and necessity bid them gain information by directing their gaze at the starry sky, which is presented to them in a splendor of which we in our northern regions can scarcely form any idea. Since, therefore, the aborigines must have noticed at an early period that the nearly regular succession of changes in their climate took place in conformity with the annually recurring phenomena of the fixed stars, they ascribed to the latter a divine power. Thus originated the worship of the stars; and this once established, no other motives were needed to induce them to devote their constant attention to the starry skies. One result of this was that they applied proper names to the most conspicuous stars and groups of stars which were borrowed partly from the animal world around them, partly from their simple household effects, partly from various qualities and circumstances which they noticed in the stars. One tribe selected one name; another, another; and so it came to pass that one star, or group of stars, frequently bears more than one name. When, on the other hand, stars no less bright bear no names at all, the probable reason is that only fragments of the astronomical nomenclature of the Arab nomads have come down to us.
After this terminology had been transmitted by oral tradition, and especially by folk-songs, for hundreds, perhaps thousands, of years in its original condition, it was combined into an entirely heterogeneous mass—that variegated mixture which we find in the works of Kazwini, Ulug Bekh, and others.
When the Arabs in their fanatic zeal for the spread of Mohammed’s doctrines had conquered a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe, and established in the heart of the ancient world a mighty empire, they adopted from the Greeks, with whom they had now come in contact, their astronomy among other sciences, and with it the Greek constellations and their method of distinguishing the stars according to their position in the figures.[15]
Their astronomers now generally discriminated between the two classes of names in attributing the one to the Arabs, the other to the astronomers.
Abdelrahman Sufi, in the preface to his work on the constellations, says there are two kinds of heavens to become acquainted with—that of the astronomers and that of the Arabs. In the work itself he first describes the constellations used by the astronomers, i. e., the Greek ones, and then the old constellations of the Arabs. Kazwini in every case mentions a genuine Arabic star-name when he speaks of the Arabic, which is the case with almost every constellation.
Our early astronomers had very false notions of this relation of the nomadic heavens of the ancient Arabs to the mythological one of the Greeks adopted by their descendants. Schickard, in his Astroscopium, says: “Instead of the Dragon the Arabs depict two wolves and five dromedaries.” He means the two jackals and the family of camels which the nomads represented under the five stars on the head of the Dragon. The Arab astronomers drew the Greek dragon on their charts and globes just as we do. They only looked on the old jackals and camels as names for some of its stars. In Golius and Hyde we find a more correct view of the case.