JIM CROW AND HIS COUSINS.

While much can be said about the beauty and grace of birds of brilliant plumage and those of soul-stirring song, there is as much to be written concerning those noted for their sagacity and cunning. Some have selected the parrot as the model in this particular and the choice is not a mistake.

There is, however, a tribe which all may observe more or less, while a story relating to their habits or pranks will ever find willing listeners. The Crow is the best known of this genus, and grouped with him are the chough, the raven, the rook and the jackdaw. All of these may be tamed, and afterward may be taught to use the language of man.

The plumage of the Crow in the northern parts of the world is black, and we are so accustomed to that color that to speak of a white or of a spotted Crow might subject one to ridicule, yet in many parts of the world such Crows are found. Some are gray and black, and some species are larger than others. They are characterized by a comparatively short tail, long wings, and a strong, rather conical beak.

Crows are distinguished from ravens by their smaller size, and by the feathers of the neck blending with those of the body, while on the ravens, the neck feathers are pointed and distinct. The Crow family is widely distributed, but Crows, as properly understood, are mainly inhabitants of the north temperate zone. They are intelligent, wary birds (when persecuted), and are practically omnivorous, feeding upon fish, fowl, eggs, snakes, frogs, crabs, shell-fish, grubs, fruits, seeds and berries. The common Crow of North America is particularly abundant in the Eastern United States, and is looked upon as the inveterate foe of the farmer on account of the amount of injury he inflicts on growing crops, and especially upon corn. There is, however, a credit side to the account in the destruction of grubs; but as the Crow is by nature such a pilferer, he must be regarded as harmful in many ways.

In the fall and winter these glossy birds assemble by thousands in great roosts, or rookeries; one of these roosts on the Potomac above Washington has been estimated to harbor 40,000 Crows, while others are still larger. In the gray of the morning the birds leave in clamorous crowds for their feeding-grounds, often many miles away, and in the afternoon may be seen winging their way homeward in long lines, high above the earth in fair weather, low down in foul. The eastern fish crow, frequently found in company with the others, is a smaller bird, and can readily be distinguished by its hoarse caw.

The Carrion Crow of Europe and Asia closely resembles the North American Crow in form, size and habits, but is perhaps a little more destructive, attacking and killing lambs, or even weakly sheep. The Hooded Crow, found in northern and eastern Europe and in many parts of Asia, is gray, with black head, throat, wings and tail. The Gray-necked Crow of India is a small but bold and mischievous species, often stealing the very food from the table. On the other hand, it does much good as a scavenger, forming an able adjunct to the vultures in this respect.

An interesting story is told of a Crow of this species which had been tamed and petted until it behaved much as would a spoiled child. “Old Crusty,” as he was called, would actually take the food away from the dog while he was eating, not by open encounter, for that would have deprived him of his fun. But he would tease the poor canine until he barked from vexation, then snatch up the prey and triumphantly bear it off to a neighboring tree, where he ate it at his leisure, while the dog stood looking at him and uselessly venting his rage in loud, threatening barks.

The annual “muster” of the Crows, like that of blackbirds, is a scene very amusing, as well as mysterious. It has been my privilege to witness a few such gatherings, but to me there seemed more noise than meaning. It is said by naturalists, however, that the most extraordinary meetings of the Crows occur in northern Scotland. There they collect in great numbers, as if they had all been summoned for the occasion; a few of the flock sit with drooping heads, and others seem grave as judges, while others again are exceedingly active and noisy. One authority says: “These meetings will sometimes continue for a day or so before the object, whatever it may be, is completed. Crows continue to arrive from all quarters during the session. As soon as all have arrived a very general noise ensues, and shortly after the whole fall upon one or two individuals and put them to death. When the execution has been performed they quietly disperse.”

The Chough is a red-legged Crow and is one of the most mischievous birds of his genus. He carefully examines everything he finds, then carries it away if he can. And if there be a collection of anything to which he has access, he is sure to scatter it in all directions. Those which have been converted into pets have proven very affectionate, but they are easily offended and will often vent their spite in a most annoying yet very amusing manner.

The Raven is very much like the Crow in his habits, but is more given to fighting and to burglary than his shy cousin. He is a great tease, also, and will often attack children and even grown up people just for fun. By this it can be seen that the Raven is more susceptible to taming than the Crow, while no old Crow can steal so many articles or hide them as completely as the Raven. They are quick to make friends with dog or man, but, like the Chough, are very troublesome foes when once offended.

The Rook is a European bird, and though the farmer recognizes in him a destroyer of his young crops, he must admit that without the Rook he would save little or none of his crop. Worms constitute the favorite food of this bird, wherefore many a husbandman has learned that it is best to endure the disadvantages of a rookery merely for the sake of his harvests. For one queer habit of Rooks is that they will frequent the same spot all their lives, and it is next to impossible to dislodge them from their abode.

The Jackdaws are the boldest of the genus, and have a very remarkable “don’t care” look. They frequent high towers, hollow trees, and even appropriate to their own use the loftiest parts of the English castles. They choose their mates for life, and do not live in communities. They assemble in flocks, however, when cherries begin to ripen and will soon rob a tree if the owner is not on guard.

An amusing story is told of a tame Jackdaw. While pilfering one day he found a half-glass of whisky which had been left upon a table, and on tasting it, he liked it so much that he drank a quantity. In a few moments symptoms of intoxication began to appear; his wings dropped and his eyes were half-closed. He staggered towards the edge of the table, probably intending to fly to the floor, but he had either lost the power of his wings or he was afraid to trust them. He stood, seemingly meditating what he should do, all the while reeling like a drunken man about to lose his balance. Presently his eyes were shut and he fell over on his back with his legs in the air, exhibiting every sign of death.

An attempt was made to put some water down his throat, but he could not swallow it. He was then rolled in a piece of flannel, laid in a box and locked away in a closet. All the family, with whom he was a great pet, never expected to see him on his legs again. Next morning about six o’clock the door was opened, with the expectation of finding Jackie dead, but he had freed himself from the flannel and as soon as the door was open he flew out and hurried away to a basin-shaped stone, out of which the fowls drank, and copiously allayed his thirst. He repeated this several times that day and was none the worse for his exploit, but, with more forbearance than those who are endowed with reason, he never again would touch whisky.

Claudia May Ferrin.

COCOA.
(Theobroma cacao, L.)

The wretch shall feel

The giddy motion of the whirling mill,

In fumes of burning chocolate shall glow,

And tremble at the sea that froths below!

—Pope, “Rape of the Lock,” ii, 135.

The cocoa-yielding plant is a tree varying from fifteen to forty feet in height. The main stem or trunk is much twisted and knotty, from which the branches stand out almost horizontally. The bark is thick, rough and of a cinnamon brown color. The leaves are alternate, large, smooth, entire, and of a deep green color. Flowers occur singly, more usually in clusters, from those parts of the branches and trunk formerly corresponding to the axils of leaves. Calyx deeply five-cleft, pale red. Petals pink. Fruit solitary or several together, pendulous, large, pear-shaped; each pericarp enclosing numerous brown seeds about the size of a hickory nut or almond, from which the chocolate and cocoa are made.

The chocolate tree is a native of Mexico, Central America, Brazil and other South American countries. It is now extensively cultivated in most tropical countries of both hemispheres. The West Indian islands have numerous large plantations. It is also found in botanic gardens and greenhouses. There are several cultivation varieties.

The cocoa or cacao yielding plant must not be confounded with the coco-nut palm or the coca-yielding plant which has already been described.

The natives of Mexico used cocoa before the discovery of America by Columbus. The Toltecs cultivated the plant centuries before they were finally conquered by the more powerful and more progressive Aztecs in 1325. Cortez and Fernandez in their letters to Charles V. of Spain referred to the cultivation of cocoa by the Mexicans who used the seeds not only as a food but also as a medium of barter and exchange. It was apparently the only medium accepted in the payment of provincial taxes. Humboldt states that cocoa was similarly employed in Costa Rica and other Central American countries.

In remote times cocoa was somewhat differently prepared from what it is at the present time. The roasted and hulled seeds were coarsely pulverized in a stone mortar, strongly spiced by means of vanilla and other spices, boiled in water and when cold stirred to a frothy semi-liquid in cold water and eaten cold. The word chocolate is said to be derived from the Aztec chocolatl (choca, frothy and atl, water). Through Cortez and others who lauded very highly the value of cocoa as a nourishing food for those going on long journeys, it soon became widely known. In 1520 considerable quantities of it, pressed into cakes, were shipped to Spain. Remarkable as it may seem, it is stated that the Brazilians learned the use of cocoa from the Spaniards. The noted Italian traveler Carletti (1597-1606) introduced the use and preparation of cocoa into his native city, Florence. Not all Europeans gave favorable reports concerning the use of cocoa. Clusius stated that it was more suited to hogs than human beings. Acosta stated that the drink had “a nauseous aspect and caused heart troubles.” Cocoa was introduced into France about 1615, England about 1667, Germany about 1679. Somewhat later chocolate houses were established in various cities of Europe. William Homburg, a chemist, of Paris, extracted the fat from cocoa as early as 1695, and Quelus (1719) recommended its use as a salve and as an article of diet.

COCOA FRUIT.
Fruit and seeds.
FROM KŒHLER’S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN.

The fruit of the wild growing plants is small and the seeds exceedingly bitter, hence the cultivated cocoa is preferred. The seeds are prepared in two ways, fermented and unfermented. In the former the seeds are placed in heaps in holes in the earth, in boxes or barrels, covered with leaves. In the course of four or five days they begin to “sweat” or undergo a mild form of fermentation. During this time the seeds must be stirred about occasionally. At the close of the sweating process most of the bitterness is gone and they have lost about one-half in weight. Afterwards the seeds are rapidly dried in the sun or in ovens. The fully dried seeds have a rich brown color. The following are the more important market varieties of fermented cocoa:

1. Mexican or Soconusco Cocoa.—Seeds rather small, delicate flavor and of a golden yellow color. Since Mexico does not produce sufficient cocoa for home consumption this variety is rarely exported. This and the following varieties are said to be derived from Theobroma bicolor, Th. angustifolium and Th. ovalifolium.

2. Esmeralda Cocoa.—Similar to the Mexican; somewhat darker in color.

3. Guatemala Cocoa.—Seeds large, with mild flavor.

4. Caracas Cocoa.—From Venezuela. Color pale brown, with a mild, agreeable flavor. Usually coated with a film of soil due to their being buried in the earth during the sweating process. A very highly priced variety.

5. Guayaquil Cocoa.—From Ecuador. Seeds flattened, somewhat wedge-shaped, wrinkled, reddish brown. An excellent variety.

6. Berbice Cocoa.—From British Guiana. Seeds small, externally gray, internally reddish brown.

7. Surinam and Essequibo Cocoa.—Seeds rather large and more firm; externally a loamy gray, internally deep reddish brown. Taste somewhat bitter.

The unfermented cocoa, also known as sun cocoa and island cocoa, is dried rapidly without fermenting. It is of a beautiful reddish brown color and a bitter astringent taste. The following are the principal varieties:

1. Brazilian (Para, Bahia) Cocoa.—Seeds smooth, wedge-shaped, flattened. One edge nearly straight, the other convex.

2. Cayenne Cocoa.—Quite hard, externally grayish brown, internally purplish red.

3. Antilles Cocoa (Island Cocoa).—Of this there are the following varieties: a, Trinidad cocoa, with large, flat, almost black brown seeds; b, Martinique cocoa, with elongated, flattened, reddish brown seeds; c, St. Domingo cocoa, with small, flattened, dark purplish brown seeds.

Cocoa requires considerable care in cultivation. A moist atmosphere and uniform temperature of about 24 to 28 degrees C., with considerable shade, is best suited. The tall variety of banana and the tree-like Erythrina Corallodendron are the more common shade plants. The plants are grown from seeds which begin to germinate in eight days. The trees begin to bear fruit in about four years. More usually eight to ten years elapse before any considerable fruit is borne. Two crops are collected annually. It is stated that there is on an average only one fruit to every 3,000 flowers.

Chocolate and cocoa are prepared by roasting the seeds, removing the husks and crushing between hot rollers, which liquefies the solid fat and forms a paste. To make chocolate sugar is added and flavored with vanilla and cinnamon. Sometimes a coloring substance is added. The paste is finally moulded into cakes varying in size and form. Chocolate is frequently adulterated with lard, starches, rice flour and other substances. Cheap grades are usually flavored with sassafras nuts, cloves and other spices. In the manufacture of cocoa the husks are usually included and mixed with a variable quantity of sugar, starch, flavoring substances, etc. The roasted, hulled and coarsely broken seeds are known as cocoa nibs, and this is the purest kind of cocoa. The powder made from the seeds after the oil has been thoroughly expressed is known as broma.

The seeds contain about 50 per cent of fat. In the manufacture of broma and common cocoa most of this is removed and is placed upon the market as cocoa butter. The more or less broken hulls are sold as cocoa shells, from which a chocolate-like drink is made by boiling in water and sweetening with sugar.

There is perhaps no food substance which is more universally liked than chocolate. Mothers have no small amount of trouble in hiding the household chocolate from the children. With the omnipresent penny-in-the-slot machine more pennies are credited to it than to the chewing gum. The housewife and baker use it very extensively with chocolate cake. The confectioner uses it very freely, to the great delight of children.

The principal use to which cocoa is put is in the preparation of a beverage. For this purpose enormous quantities of chocolate, cocoa, broma and hulls are consumed annually. The word “Theobroma” is derived from the Greek, meaning drink for the gods. The drink is prepared by thoroughly triturating the desired amount of chocolate, cocoa or broma with a small quantity of water, then stirring this into the necessary quantity of boiling milk or water and boiling for a few minutes with constant stirring. The oil present gives the drink great nutritive value. It is also slightly stimulating, owing to the presence of an alkaloid theobromine which is closely similar in its properties to theine and caffeine, the active constituents of tea and coffee. The drink does not agree with some individuals, because the large amount of oil present causes indigestion. It is also highly probable that the indigestion or dyspepsia is due to the minute fragments of roasted cell-walls of the seeds, which are not only indigestible, but irritate the secreting mucous cells lining the inner surface of the stomach.

Cocoa butter, which resembles tallow in consistency and appearance, is used in medical and pharmaceutical practice as a salve, or pomade, for external application in eruptive diseases, as scarlet fever, etc., etc. Cocoa also finds extensive use in medical practice, though it has no marked curative properties. Cocoa from which the oil has been thoroughly expressed (broma) makes an excellent drink for convalescents. It is used to disguise the taste of disagreeable medicines, etc.

Albert Schneider.