TABLE OF CONTENTS.

VOL. XLVIII.

A Bit of Shopping Gossip,[282]
A Chapter on Necklaces, by Mrs. White,[213]
An Ornamental Cottage,[268], [269]
A Ruling Passion,[272]
Babylon, Nineveh, and Mr. Layard,[228]
Bearded Civilization,[227]
Braided Slipper,[261]
Boardman & Gray's Dolce Campana Attachment Piano-Fortes,[277]
Bonnets, from Thomas White & Co.,[193], [283]
Celestial Phenomena, by D. W. Belisle,[233]
Centre-Table Gossip,[282]
Chemisettes,[264]
Chemistry for Youth,[279]
Cottage Furniture,[263]
Deaconesses,[273]
Design for Screen,[198], [267]
Dress of American Women,[282]
Editors' Table,[271]
Editors' Table-Drawer,[273]
Embroidered Antimacassar,[269]
Enigmas,[280]
Fairyland, by Laura M. Colvin,[260]
Fashions,[283]
Feminology,[273]
Godey's Arm-Chair,[275]
Godey's Course of Lessons in Drawing,[216]
Influence of Female Education in Greece,[271]
Instructions for making Ornaments in Rice Shell-Work,[240]
Lady's Walking-Dress and Diagrams,[262]
Lay of the Constant One, by Mrs. Corolla H. Criswell,[258]
Letters Left at the Pastry Cook's, Edited by Horace Mayhew,[247]
Literary Notices,[274]
Little Children,[207]
Madame Caplin's Corsets,[265]
Mantillas, from the celebrated Establishment of G. Brodie, New York,[196], [197], [267]
Mrs. Mudlaw's Recipe for Potato Pudding, by The Author of the "Bedott Papers,"[250]
O'er Bleak Acadia's Plains, by Clark Gaddis,[261]
Old, while Young, by Mabel Clifford,[259]
Our Practical Dress Instructor,[262]
Patterns for Embroidery,[270]
Pictures from Dante,[273]
Presentiment, by Mrs. Priscilla P. Lompayrac,[260]
Public Liberality,[272]
Reading without Improvement,[272]
Receipts, &c.,[280]
Roman Women in the Days of the Cæsars, by H. P. Haynes,[243]
Selling the Love-Token, by Alice B. Neal,[208]
Sleeves,[264]
Sonnets, by Wm. Alexander,[260]
Table-Moving, by Pauline Forsyth,[235]
Taper-Stand,[266]
The Dying Wife, by Phila Earle,[257]
The Embroidered Slippers.—An acknowledgment of a Holiday Gift,[259]
The Life of Man, by C****,[261]
The Manufacture of Paper, by C. T. Hinckley,[199]
The Philadelphia School of Design for Women,[271]
The Toilet,[281]
The Trials of a Needle-Woman, by T. S. Arthur,[218]
The Wreck, by Mrs. E. Lock,[259]
'Tis Gold! 'Tis Gold! by James L. Roche,[258]
To my Brother, by Mrs. M. A. Bigelow,[258]
Vegetable Physiology, by Harland Coultas,[232]
Watch-Pocket.—Broderie en Lacet,[269]
We Parted, by M. A. Rice,[257]

EMBELLISHMENTS, &c.

March.

EMBROIDERED ANTIMACASSAR.

WATCH-POCKET.—BRODERIE EN LACET.

EMBROIDERY PATTERN.

FASHIONABLE BONNETS.

From the celebrated Establishment of THOMAS WHITE & CO., No. 41 South Second Street.

No. 1.—OPERA BONNET.

No. 2.—SPRING FANCY.

No. 3.—ENGLISH STRAW.

No. 4.—MISS'S FLAT.

POP GOES THE WEASEL.

THE FIGURES.

This is an old and very animated English Dance, that has lately been revived among the higher classes of Society.

It is danced in a line, the Gentlemen opposite the Ladies.

1st. Top couple down the middle and return. 8 Bars.
2d. Cast off outside and return. 8 Bars.
3d. The same couple execute hands three with the Lady next them. 8 Bars.
4th. Top couple raise their arms and the Lady passes under, at which time all sing Pop goes the Weasel 8 B's.
5th. The same couple repeat the last figure with the Lady's partner. 8 Bars.

The same couple repeat till down line, after passing three or four couple the top commences till all are in motion.

1st.Top couple down the middle and return.8 Bars.
2d.Cast off outside and return.8 Bars.
3d.The same couple execute hands three with the Lady next them.8 Bars.
4th.Top couple raise their arms and the Lady passes under, at which time all sing Pop goes the Weasel 8 B's.
5th.The same couple repeat the last figure with the Lady's partner.8 Bars.

PRESENTED TO GODEYS' LADY'S BOOK BY THE PUBLISHER,

T. C. ANDREWS, No. 66 Spring Garden Street, Philada.

[[See larger version]]

[[Listen]]

THE ARROGONESE

[From the establishment of G. BRODIE, No. 51 Canal Street, New York.]

(For description, see page [267].)

THE VALENCIA.

[From the establishment of G. BRODIE, No. 51 Canal Street, New York.]

(For description, see page [267].)

EMBROIDERY.—DESIGN FOR SCREEN.

(See description.)

PHILADELPHIA, MARCH, 1854.

EVERYDAY ACTUALITIES.—NO. XVII.
ILLUSTRATED WITH PEN AND GRAVER.
BY C. T. HINCKLEY.

Fig. 1.—PAPER-MAKING BY HAND.

THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER.

The advantages which the civilized world owe to the invention of paper are beyond calculation, and almost out of the reach of thought. The great blessing of knowledge which it has conferred on mankind, together with its peculiar mission, renders it a subject of interest to all classes of society. The material of which the sheet of paper which the reader now holds in her hand, a few months ago, perhaps, hung with its ragged fellows from the back of some mendicant, fluttering along the street—or perhaps commenced its career in the lining of some dress, in all its purity of white and stiffening, and gradually descended through the various grades of usefulness, until at last it was fished up out of the gutter and thrust into the rag-picker's bag to meet a host of others that had travelled over the same despoiling scenes of ragdom. Rags have, at times, held no mean position in the political arena, for we read that "the chiffoniers, or rag-dealers of Paris, rose against the police some years ago, because it was ordered, in certain municipal regulations, that the filth of the streets should be taken away in carts, without time being allowed for its examination by those diligent savers of capital."

Many experiments have been made upon substances proposed as substitutes for rags in the manufacture of paper. The bark of the willow, the beech, the aspen, the hawthorn, and the lime have been made into tolerable paper; the tendrils of the vine, and the stalks of the nettle, the mallow, and the thistle, have been used for a similar purpose; and bind of hops; and patents have been granted for making paper of straw. The process of bleaching the coarser rags, so as to render them fit for the purposes to which only those of the finest qualities were formerly applied, will, however, render the use of these inferior substances unnecessary for many years. The advance of a people in civilization has not only a tendency to make the supply of rags abundant, but, at the same time, to increase the demand. The use of machinery in manufactures renders clothing cheap; the cheapness of clothing causes its consumption to increase, not only in the proportion of an increasing population, but by the scale of individual expenditure; the stock of rags is therefore increasing in the same ratio that our looms produce more linen and cotton cloth. But then the increase of knowledge runs in a parallel line with this increase of comforts; and the increase of knowledge requires an increase of books. The principle of publishing books and tracts to be read by thousands, instead of tens and hundreds, has already caused a large addition to the demand for printing-paper. If, therefore, the demand for books in all civilized countries should outrun, which it is very likely to do, the power of each individual to wear out linen and cotton clothing to supply the demand, paper must be manufactured from other substances than rags.

A species of paper was manufactured at a remote period in Egypt, from the papyrus or paper-reed, a plant growing freely on the banks of the Nile. A manufacture of paper from the bark of trees and other substances existed also in China from a very early date; but among the nations of antiquity, before the introduction of paper, such substitutes were used as lead, brass, bricks, and stone, on which national edicts and records were written or engraved; or tablets of wood, wax, and ivory, skins of fishes, intestines of serpents, backs of tortoises, and the inner bark of trees for ordinary purposes. Indeed, there are but few sorts of plants that have not been used for making paper and books, and hence have arisen the terms biblos, codex, liber, folium, tabula, tillura, philura, scheda, &c., which express the several parts of the plant which were written on. The use of these was discontinued in Europe after the invention of papyrus and parchment, but they are still used in other parts of the world. The two early kinds of manufacture above alluded to must first be noticed, before we describe the later invention of making paper from cotton and linen rags, which, in the greater part of the world, has superseded all other methods of producing a material for writing on. The Egyptian papyrus was made by laying thin plates of bark, taken from the middle of the paper-rush, side by side, but close together, on a hard, smooth table: other pieces of the same size and thinness were then laid across the first at right angles; the whole was moistened with the water of the Nile, which was supposed to have some agglutinating property (though this probably resided in the plant itself), and pressure was then applied for a certain number of hours. Thus a sheet of paper was formed which required no other finishing than rubbing and polishing with a smooth stone, or with a solid glass hemisphere, and drying in the sun. This very simple process was rather a preparation of a natural paper than a manufacture—properly so called. The process adopted by the Chinese comes more legitimately under that head. The small branches of a tree resembling our mulberry-tree, are cut by them in lengths of about three feet, and boiled in an alkaline lye for the sake of loosening the inner rind or bark, which is then peeled off, and dried for use. When a sufficient quantity of bark has been thus laid up, it is again softened in water for three or four days, and the outer parts are scraped off as useless; the rest is boiled in clear lye, which is kept strongly agitated all the time, until the bark has become tender, and separates into distinct fibres. It is then placed in a pan or sieve, and washed in a running stream, being at the same time worked with the hands until it becomes a delicate and soft pulp. For the finer sorts of paper, the pulp receives a second washing in a linen bag; it is then spread out on a smooth table, and beaten with a wooden mallet until it is extremely fine. Thus prepared, it is put into a tub with a slimy infusion of rice and a root called oreni; then it is stirred until the ingredients are properly blended: it is next removed to a large vessel to admit of moulds being dipped into it. These moulds are made of bulrushes cut into narrow strips, and mounted in a frame; as the paper is moulded, the sheets are placed on a table covered with a double mat. The sheets are laid one on the other, with a small piece of reed between; and this, standing out a little way, serves afterwards to lift them up leaf by leaf. Every heap is covered with a board and weights to press out the water; on the following day, the sheets are lifted singly by means of the projecting reeds, and are placed on a plank to be dried in the sun. This paper is so delicate that only one side can be written on; but the Chinese sometimes double the sheets, and glue them together so neatly that they appear to be a single leaf.

This manufacture of the Chinese extended also to the making of sheets of paper from old rags, silk, hemp, and cotton, as early as the second century of the Christian era, and is supposed to have been the source whence the Arabs obtained their knowledge of paper-making. The latter people first introduced the valuable art of making paper from cotton into Europe, in the earlier half of the twelfth century, and established a paper manufactory in Spain. In 1150, the paper of Xativa, an ancient city of Valencia, had become famous, and was exported to the East and West. Notwithstanding its fame, this paper was of a coarse and inferior quality, so long as its manufacture was confined solely to the Arabs, in consequence of their employing only mortars, and hand or horse-mills for reducing the cotton to a pulp; but when some Christian laborers obtained the management of the mills of Valencia and Toledo, the different processes of the manufacture were greatly improved. Cotton paper became general at the close of the twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth centuries; but, in the fourteenth century, it was almost entirely superseded by paper made of hemp and linen rags. The paper made of cotton was found not to possess sufficient strength or solidity for many purposes; a very strong paper was therefore made of the above substances, not weakened by bleaching, according to the present mode, which, by removing the natural gum, impairs the strength of the vegetable fibre. Some of these old papers, having been well sized with gelatin, are said to possess their original qualities even to this day.

The manufacture of paper from linen rags became general in France, Italy, and Spain in the fourteenth century; the first German paper-mill was established at Nuremberg in 1390. English manuscripts on linen paper date as early as 1340; but it is believed that the manufacture did not exist in England until the end of the fifteenth century, when the Bartolomæus of Wynkyn de Worde appeared (1496), in which it is stated that paper of a superior kind was made for that work by John Tate, Jr., at his mills in Stevenage, Hertfordshire. In 1588, a German named Spielman, jeweller to Queen Elizabeth, established a paper-mill at Dartford. In 1770, the manufacture of fine paper was established at Maidstone, in Kent, by a celebrated maker, J. Whatman, who had worked as journeyman in some of the principal paper-mills on the Continent. Not long before this, wove moulds had been invented by Baskerville to obviate the usual roughness of laid paper, and these, attracting attention in France, led to the improvements which characterized the vellum paper of that period. Holland, too, contributed its share to the advancement of this manufacture, by inventing cylinders with steel blades for tearing the rags, and thus facilitating their conversion into pulp, which, by the old method of stampers only, was a very slow and defective process.

In 1799, the first attempt to produce paper in an endless web was made in France by a workman in the employ of M. Didot. The invention was brought to England by M. Didot, in 1801, and made the subject of patents, which, in 1804, were assigned to the Messrs. Fourdrinier. Mr. Bryan Donkin, the engineer, carried out the desired plans, and produced, after intense application, a self-acting machine or working model, on an improved plan, of which he afterwards constructed many others for home use and for exportation, which were perfectly successful in the manufacture of continuous paper. In 1809, Mr. Dickinson, the celebrated paper-maker invented another method of making endless paper, the highly ingenious details of which will be noticed hereafter. The Fourdrinier machines have been greatly improved by the inventions of other skilful manufacturers.

At one time there were serious apprehensions that the supply of linen rags would fail, and various researches were entered upon by ingenious individuals to find substitutes. A book written in German by M. Shäffers, so long ago as 1772, contains sixty specimens of paper made of different materials. This ingenious person made paper from the bark of the willow, beech, aspen, hawthorn, lime, and mulberry; from the down of the asclepias, the catkins of black poplar, and the tendrils of the vine; from the stalks of nettle, mugwort, dyer's weed, thistle, bryony, burdock, clematis, willow-herb, and lily; from cabbage-stalks, fir-cones, moss, potatoes, wood-shavings,[1] and sawdust. Paper has been likewise made from straw, rice, hopbind, liquorice-root, the stalks of the mallow, and the husks of Indian-corn. The fear of a failure of linen rags, and the consequent necessity for these experiments, were obviated by the discovery of chlorine. This powerful bleaching agent will restore many varieties of colored linen to their original whiteness, as well as discolored papers and manuscripts, so that the same substances may be used over and over again as a material for paper.

[1] A successful experiment of making paper from this material, as also of reeds, has lately been tried in Baltimore.

SUPPLY OF RAGS—SORTING—WASHING—GRINDING, AND BLEACHING.

The quality of the paper depends greatly on that of the linen worn in the country where it is made. Where that is coarse and brown, the rags and the paper made from them must be so too.

The quality of the rags depends very much upon the state of civilization of the countries which produce them; the lower the degree of civilization, the more coarse and filthy are the rags. When the rags are received at the mill, they are sorted according to their respective qualities; for if rags of different qualities were ground at the same engine, the finest and best parts would be ground and carried off before the coarser were sufficiently reduced to make a pulp. In the sorting of rags intended for the manufacture of fine paper, hems and seams are kept apart, and coarse cloth separated from fine. Cloth made of tow should be separated from that made from linen, cloth of hemp from cloth of flax. Even the degree of wear should be attended to, for if rags comparatively new are mixed with those which are much worn, the one will be reduced to a good pulp, while the other is so completely ground up as to pass through the hair strainers; thus occasioning not only loss of material, but loss of beauty in the paper; for the smooth velvet softness of some papers may be produced by the finer particles thus carried off. The pulp produced from imperfectly sorted rags has a cloudy appearance, in consequence of some parts being less reduced than others, and the paper made from it is also cloudy or thicker in some parts than in others, as is evident on holding a sheet up before the light. When it is necessary to mix different qualities of rags together to produce different qualities of paper, the rags should be ground separately, and the various pulps mixed together afterwards.

The rag-merchants sort rags into five qualities, known as Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. No. 1, or superfine, consisting wholly of linen, is used for the finest writing-papers. No. 5 is canvas, and may, after bleaching, be used for inferior printing-papers. There is also rag-bagging, or the canvas sacks in which the rags are packed; also cotton colored rags of all colors, but the blue is usually sorted out for making blue paper. Common papers are made from rag-bagging and cotton rags.

An operation sometimes required after unpacking the rags, is to put them into a duster, which is a cylinder four feet in diameter and five feet long, covered with a wire net and inclosed in a tight box to confine the dust. A quantity of rags being put into this cylinder, it is made to rotate rapidly on its axis, and thus a good deal of dust is shaken out, which might otherwise vitiate the air of the rag-cutting room.

Fig. 2.—CUTTING RAGS.

The sorting is done by women and children in a large room; each sorter stands before a table frame, covered at the top with wire cloth, containing about nine meshes to the square inch. To this frame a long steel blade is attached, in a slanting position, as shown in Fig. 2; and the sorter divides the rags into shreds by drawing them against the sharp edge of this knife; a good deal of the dust which is shaken out in this operation falls through the wire-cloth into a box beneath. The sections of rag are thrown into the compartments of the frame, according to their fineness. In importing rags, some attention is paid to their quality by the foreign dealers, so that each bale is tolerably uniform. Formerly, this was not the case, and in sorting a bale the woman had a piece of pasteboard hung from her girdle and extended on her knees, upon which with a long sharp knife she unripped seams and stitches, and scraped off any adhering dirt. The rags were sorted, according to their fineness, into the superfine, the fine, the stitches of the fine, the middling, the seams and stitches of the middling, and the coarse. These divisions are more or less observed at the present day. The very coarse parts are rejected or laid aside for making white-brown paper.

The sorted rags are washed with hot water and alkali, in an apparatus formed exactly on the principle of the bucking keirs or puffers, described under BLEACHING (June number, 1852); or the washing is performed at one of the mills or engines described below.

The rags are ground into pulp in mills, now made sufficiently powerful to reduce the strongest and toughest rags. Formerly, before the invention of mills, or when they were of much less power, it was customary to pile the rags in large stone vats, and leave them for a month or six weeks with frequent stirring and watering to ferment or rot, by which means the fibres became sufficiently loose to be reduced to pulp by pounding in wooden mortars with stampers.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

The vats were superseded by what are called engines, a Dutch invention well adapted to the purpose. The engines are sometimes arranged in pairs on different levels, the bottom of one being higher than the top of the other, so that the contents of the higher engine may be let off into the lower. In the upper engine, called the washer, the rags are first worked coarsely with a stream of water running through them to wash and open their fibres: this reduces them to what is called half stuff; they are then let down into the beating engine to be ground into pulp fit for making paper. Each engine consists of a large wooden vat or cistern V V, Figs. 3, 4, of oblong figure on the outside, with the angles cut off; the inside, which is lined with lead, has straight sides and circular ends. Or the vat may be entirely formed of cast-iron. It is divided by a partition P P, also covered with lead. The cylinder C is firmly fixed to the spindle s, which extends across the engine, and is put in motion by the pinion w, which engages other wheels set in motion by water or steam-power. The cylinder is of wood, but is furnished with a number of teeth or cutters attached to its surface parallel with the axis, and projecting about an inch from it. Immediately below the cylinder is a block of wood B, also furnished with cutters, so that when the cylinder revolves its teeth pass very near those of the block, the distance between them being regulated by elevating or depressing the bearings l l, on which the necks of the spindle s s are supported. These bearings are made on two levers l l, which have tenons at their ends fitted into upright mortises made in stout beams bolted to the sides of the engine. The levers l l are movable at one end of each, the other ends being fitted to rise and fall on bolts in the beams as centres. The front one of these levers, or that nearest the cylinder C, can be raised or lowered by turning the handle of the screw; the cylinder is thus made to cut coarser or finer by enlarging or diminishing the space between the two sets of cutters. At one part of the vat is a breasting B', made of boards and covered with sheet lead, curved to the form of the cylinder and nearly in contact with its teeth. An inclined plane I, passes from the bottom of the vat to the top of the breasting which terminates in the block B. The vat is supplied with water from the mill-dam by means of pumps worked by the water-wheel. The water is first discharged by the pipe P, Fig. 4, into the cistern c, the supply being regulated as occasion may require. A grating covered with a hair strainer is fixed across the cistern to prevent any solid impurity from passing into the vat; or the water may be strained through a flannel bag tied over the mouth of the pipe P, as shown in the figure. The vat being full of water and a quantity of rags put in, the cylinder is set in motion, the effect of which is to produce a regular current in the water in the direction of the arrows, by which the rags are drawn between the cutters of the cylinder and the teeth of the block; this cuts them to pieces: they are then thrown over the top of the breasting upon the inclined plane, down which they slowly slide and pass round the partition, and in about twenty minutes are again brought between the teeth of the cylinder and the block. The mode in which the rags are cut will be understood by considering that the teeth of the block are placed somewhat inclined to the axis of the cylinder, while the teeth of the cylinder are parallel to its axis, so that the cutting edges meet at a small angle and pass over each other something like the blade of a pair of shears, and the rags between them are cut up in a similar manner; and as they are brought many times under the action of the cutters, and must necessarily present their fibres each time in different directions, they are reduced to the condition of pulp.

Fig. 5.—BEATING-ENGINE.

The beater, with sixty teeth, and twenty to twenty-four cutters in the block, makes 180,000 cuts per minute, the effect of which is a low musical note or hum, audible at a distance from the mill. In the washing-engine the rags are opened, their fibres separated, and the dirt removed. Any small solid impurities are collected in the trough a, Fig. 4. When first put in the beating-engine, the rags are worked gently, the cylinder is raised some way above the block, so as to rub rather than cut the rags; at the same time a copious stream of water is admitted; after twenty or thirty minutes, the cylinder is let down so as to cut the rags, and the operation is at first so violent that the cylinder is often jerked or heaved up. After three or four hours the engine works steadily; the rags are cut up very small, and form what is called half stuff; this is let out into a basket, which retains it while the water flows off. For some kinds of paper the half stuff is left to mellow, or ferment; but it is usual at this stage to bleach the stuff, which is done by a solution of chloride of lime, in stone vats, or by using this solution instead of water in the engine at the last stage of the washing process, the slides g g being put down in the cover to prevent the loss of the solution. In the course of an hour, the yellow rags or half stuff are converted into a snow white. This is then put into the beating-engine, and in four or five hours it is ground into a fine pulp, a little water being let in from time to time, but none being allowed to escape. The quality of the water has considerable influence on that of the paper; the purest water is of course the best; water from chalky soils introduces lime into the pulp, and this forms a slight incrustation upon the moulds, which is washed off from time to time by vinegar.

In order to prevent common ink from running upon paper, size is introduced at a certain stage of the manufacture; but printing-ink being oily instead of watery, and, moreover, of greater consistence than common ink, is not so liable to run. Hence, for certain printing-papers, the sizing is done in the beating-engine towards the close of the operation. The size consists of finely pounded alum mixed with oil, about a pint and a half of the mixture being thrown into the engine at intervals during the last half hour of the beating. The blue is produced by smalt, or artificial ultramarine.

PAPER-MAKING BY HAND.

When the stuff is properly prepared, it is run out by the pipes o o', Fig. 4, into the stuff-chest, where the different kinds are mixed preparatory to moulding. From this chest it is transferred to vats or tubs, each about five feet in diameter and two and a half feet deep, provided at top with planks inclosed inwards to prevent the stuff from running over during the moulding. Across these planks is a board pierced with holes at one extremity, for supporting the mould. The stuff in the vat is kept at the proper temperature by a small grate placed in a hole lined with copper, at the side of the vat. The fuel is charcoal or coke, or the fire is entirely confined to the other side of the wall, a hole through it being made into the side of the vat. In this way smoke is prevented.

The paper is made into sheets by means of the mould and deckle, Figs. 6, 7. The mould is a square frame, or shallow box of mahogany, covered at the top with wire-cloth; it is an inch or an inch and a half wider than the sheet of paper intended to be made upon it. The wire-cloth of the mould varies in fineness with that of the paper and the nature of the stuff; it consists of a number of parallel wires stretched across a frame very near together, and tied fast through holes in the sides; a few other stronger wires are also placed across at right angles to the former; they are a considerable distance apart, and they are bound to the small wires at the points of intersection by means of fine wire. In several kinds of writing-paper the marks of the wires are evident from the paper being thinner in the parts where the pulp touched the wires. In what is called wove paper, there are no marks of the wires; these are avoided by weaving the wire in a loom into a wire-cloth, which is stretched over the frame of the mould, and being turned down over the sides is fastened by fine wire. The water-mark in paper is produced by wires bent into the shape of the required letter or device, and sewed to the surface of the mould;—it has the effect of making the paper thinner in those places. The old makers employed water-marks of an eccentric kind. Those of Caxton and other early printers were an ox-head and star, a collared dog's head, a crown, a shield, a jug, &c. A fool's cap and bells employed as a water-mark, gave the name to foolscap paper; a postman's horn, such as was formerly in use, gave the name to post paper.

Fig. 6. Fig. 7.

The deckle is a thin square mahogany frame, bound with brass at the angles; its outer dimensions correspond with the size of the mould, and its inner with that of the sheet of paper. The use of the frame is to retain the pulp upon the wire-cloth; it must be quite flat, so as to fit the cloth of the mould, otherwise the edges of the paper will be ragged and badly finished. When the deckle is placed upon the wire of the mould it forms a shallow sieve, in which the paper-maker takes up a quantity of the pulp suspended in water, and, the water draining through, leaves the pulp in the form of a sheet upon the wire. The deckle is not fastened to the mould, but is held to it by the workman grasping the mould and deckle together in both hands at the opposite sides. When the sheet is moulded the deckle is removed, and the sheet is taken up from the wire by laying it on a piece of felt or woollen cloth. These felts prevent the sheets from coming together, and they also serve to imbibe a portion of the water from the damp and loosely cohering sheet.

The wood-cut at the commencement of this article represents the process of making paper by hand.

Upon looking at the cut, it will be seen that one of the two men employed is dipping the deckle into the vat. This vat is supplied with stuff from the chest already described; and that stuff is kept warm by a copper within the vat, to which heat is communicated by a steam-pipe. It is also agitated by machinery within. The workman forming the sheet, who is called a vatman, is provided with two moulds. These are slight frames of wood, covered with fine wire. Fitting to each mould is a deckle, or movable raised edging, which determines the size of the sheet. The vatman, putting the deckle on one of the moulds, dips it vertically into the stuff; and bringing it to the surface horizontally, covered with pulp, shakes it gently. It must be evident that this operation requires the greatest nicety, both in determining the general thickness of the sheet, and in producing it of an uniform thickness throughout. The vatman then pushes the mould with the sheet towards his fellow-workman, who is called the coucher; and, taking off the deckle, applies it to the second mould, and proceeds as before. The coucher, who receives the first mould, having a heap of porous pieces of flannel by his side, called felts, turns the mould over upon a felt, upon which the sheet remains; and, placing a felt on the sheet, he is ready to turn over another from the second mould. Thus the vatman and the coucher proceed, the one moulding a sheet of paper and the other placing it upon felt, till they have made six or eight quires. The heap is then subjected to the action of a powerful press. The sheets, after this pressure, have acquired sufficient consistency to enable them to be pressed again by themselves. The felts are accordingly removed, and one sheet being laid upon another, the heap is subjected to a moderate pressure.

When the paper is taken out of the press, it is separated into small parcels of seven or eight sheets in each, for the purpose of drying. The drying is conducted in extensive lofts in the upper parts of the mill. The sheets are taken up upon a piece of wood, shaped like a T, and hung upon hair lines stretched across large horizontal wooden frames, called tribbles, and as these are filled they are lifted up between upright posts to the top of the room, and retained by pegs put into the posts; another frame is then filled, and put up in its turn, until the loft is filled. Air is admitted to the lofts by means of louvre boards. When sufficiently dry, the paper is taken down, and sleeked, dressed, and shaken, to get rid of dust, and to separate the pages. It is then laid in heaps in the warehouse, preparatory to sizing. The size is made from the shreds and parings of leather and parchment; it is nicely filtered, and a little alum added. A number of sheets are then dipped into the size and separated, so as to expose both surfaces of each sheet; the sheets are taken out, turned over, and dipped a second time. About a dozen handfuls being thus dipped, they are made into a pile, with a thin board or felt between every two handfuls, and pressed to get rid of superfluous size, which flows back into the size vessel. The paper is again transferred to the lofts, and dried. This being complete, it is taken down, carried to a building called the Saul (probably a corruption of the German saal, or the French salle, a hall, or large room), where it is examined, finished, and pressed. The imperfect sheets are removed. The press called the dry-press is a powerful one, or the hydrostatic-press is used. After one pressing, the heaps of paper are parted; that is, they are turned sheet by sheet, so as to expose new surfaces: the press is again used; then there is another parting, and so on, several times. The paper is next made into quires and reams, and once more pressed.

Connected with the sizing of papers is the blueing, which is said to have originated in the suggestion of a paper-maker's wife, who thought that the practice of improving the color of linen while passing through the wash, by means of a blue bag, might also be advantageously applied to paper. A blue-bag was accordingly suspended in the vat; and the effect proved to be so satisfactory that it led to the introduction of the large and important class of blue writing-papers. It was soon found that smalt gave a better color than common stone-blue; and smalt continued to be used for many years; but when artificial ultramarine came to be manufactured at a very low cost, and in a great variety of tints, this beautiful color gradually superseded smalt in the manufacture of writing-paper.

PAPER-MAKING BY MACHINERY.

The slow and difficult process of moulding the separate sheets of paper by hand has, to a great extent, been superseded by the introduction and gradual improvement of the very beautiful machinery of Fourdrinier, referred to in our introductory remarks. By means of this machine, a process which, under the old system, occupied about three weeks, is now performed in as many minutes. Within this brief space of time, and the short distance of thirty or forty feet, a continuous stream of fluid pulp is made into paper, dried, polished, and cut up into separate sheets ready for use. The paper thus produced is moderate in price, and, for a large number of purposes, superior in quality to that which was formerly made by hand. In fact, the machine-made papers can be produced of unlimited dimensions; they are of uniform thickness; they can be fabricated at any season of the year; they do not require to be sorted, trimmed, and hung up in the drying-house—operations which formerly led to so much waste, that about one sheet in every five was defective.

The paper-machine moves at the rate of from twenty-five to forty feet per minute, so that scarcely two minutes are occupied in converting liquid pulp into finished paper, a result which, by the old process, occupies about seven or eight days. If the machine produce ten lineal yards of paper per minute, or six hundred per hour, this is equal to a mile of paper in three hours, or four miles per day of twelve hours. The paper is about fifty-four inches wide, and, supposing three hundred machines to be at work on an average twelve hours a day, the aggregate length of web would be equal to 1,200 miles, and the area 3,000,000 square yards.

Paper is sent into the market in various forms and sizes, according to the use for which it is intended. The following table contains the name and dimensions of various sheets of paper:—

Inches.
Foolscap,14 by 17
Crown,15 by 20
Folio Post,16 by 21
Demy,17 by 22
Medium,19 by 24
Royal,20 by 25
Super Royal,22 by 27
Imperial,22 by 32
Medium and Half, 24 by 28½
Royal and Half,25 by 29
Double Medium,24 by 38
Do. Super Royal,27 by 42
Do. Imperial, 32 by 44

Many of the papers above enumerated are made by hand, of the exact size indicated; but, if made by the machine, the roll of paper has to be cut to the required dimensions. In order to do this with precision and expedition, various cutting-machines have been contrived, in which the paper, as it comes from the manufacturing machine, is cut to any size required.

HOT-PRESSING, GLAZING, AND FINISHING—STATISTICS.

Fine papers are, in some cases, hot-pressed and glazed. In hot-pressing, a number of stout cast-iron plates are heated in an oven, and then put into a screw-press in alternate layers, with highly glazed pasteboards, between which the paper is placed in open sheets; and the hard polished surfaces of the pasteboards, aided by the heat and pressure, impart that beautiful appearance which belongs to hot-pressed paper. A yet more smooth and elegant surface is produced by the process of glazing. The sheets of paper are placed separately between very smooth clean copper-plates. These are then passed through rollers, which impart a pressure of from twenty to thirty tons. After three or four such pressures, the paper is called rolled, and sometimes also hot-pressed; but, if passed more frequently through the rollers, the paper acquires a higher surface, and is then called glazed.

The general introduction of steel pens has increased the demand for smooth papers, and has led to improvements in finishing them.

As an improvement in the manufacture of paper sized by the machines now in use, it is proposed to conduct the web of paper, after it has been either partially or completely dried, through a trough of cold water, then to pass it through a pair of pressing-rolls, and afterwards to dry it on reels, or over hot cylinders. The paper thus treated will be found to "bear" much better, and admit of erasures being made on the surface of such paper, and written over, without the ink running in the way it does when the paper is sized and dried in the usual manner.

It has been found that when paper is dried, after sizing, by the drying-machines in present use, the paper is very harsh; and, until it stands for some time to get weather (as it is technically termed), great difficulty is experienced in glazing the paper. This inconvenience is proposed to be overcome by passing the paper partially round a hollow cylinder, through which a small stream of cold water is made to run. By this means the heat in the paper is carried off, and the paper is rendered more tractable, and brought to a proper state for undergoing the glazing operation.

It is stated that, "in England, writing-papers are sized with gelatin, and are stronger and harder than those of other countries; they are also cleaner, generally better put up, and show greater care in the manufacture, than those of France and of other countries. The old cream-laid papers, now so fashionable, were reintroduced a few years since, and they are still preferred for letter and note-paper. The thinner post writing-papers, however, are much better manufactured in France, Belgium, and other parts of the Continent, than in England. Those exhibited at the World's Fair from Angoulême, in France, and Heilbronn, in Germany, are the best; those made in Belgium are not sufficiently hard-sized. The white of the letter-papers of France, Germany, and other foreign countries is of great purity and beauty; and these papers being sized in the vat with farina, in addition to rosin-soap, instead of gelatin, they are less greasy under the pen, and consequently can be written on more freely than those which are sized with animal size; they do not, however, bear the ink so well. English printing-papers generally maintain a superiority over those of foreign countries; as also drawing-papers and strong account-book blue-laid papers. Tinted printing and drawing-papers, formerly made exclusively in England, are now produced by most foreign paper-makers."