FOOTNOTES:
[1] Prohibition.
[2] Liberal.
[3] Independent Republican.
[4] Independent Democrat.
[5] Independent.
[6] Readjuster.
To obtain a correct estimate of the Prohibition vote there should be added to the above amounts the Republican vote of Kansas, 4,398 votes cast in favor of a prohibition amendment in North Carolina, and 5,196 votes for prohibition candidates in Pennsylvania, which would swell the number to 141,328.
NATIVITIES OF CHICAGOANS AND NEW YORKERS.
Rockford, Ill.
Which has the larger ratio of foreign population, Chicago or New York, and of what elements is the foreign population of these cities composed?
An Old Subscriber.
Answer.—The foreign population of New York City, according to the last census, constituted a little over 38 per cent of the whole; the foreign population of Chicago was 40 per cent of the whole. Of the foreign population of New York 198,595 were natives of Ireland, 153,482 of Germany, 23,767 of England, 8,683 of Scotland, and 929 of Wales, 12,223 of Italy, 9,910 of France, 9,020 of Poland. 8,093 of Bohemia, 7,024 of British America, 4,743 of Austria, 4,551 of Russia, 4,545 of Switzerland, 4,101 of Hungary, 3,194 of Sweden, 1,860 of Holland, 1,644 of Cuba, 87 of Africa, 119 of Asia, 175 of Australia, 556 of Belgium, 747 of China. 1,096 of Denmark, 69 of Greece, 7 of Greenland, 20 of Japan, 100, of Luxemburg, 132 of Mexico, 893 of Norway, 66 of Portugal, 59 of Sandwich Islands, 427 of South American Islands, 667 of Spain, 77 of Turkey, 814 of West Indies, exclusive of Cuba; 17 of Central America, 35 of Atlantic Islands, 62 of Europe, nationality not given; 93 born at sea. Of the foreign population of Chicago, 44,411 were natives of Ireland, 32,919 of Prussia, 29,249 of other German States, 13,265 of Canada, 13,045 of England, 12,930 of Sweden, 11,887 of Bohemia, 9,783 of Norway, 5,536 of Poland, 4,152 of Scotland, 2,626 of Bavaria, 2,556 of Denmark, 2,145 of Baden, 2,045 of Holland, 1,356 of Austria, 1,590 of France, 1,919 of Hanover, 1,357 of Italy, 1,923 of Mechlenburg, 1,612 of Saxony, 1,459 of Switzerland, 1,408 of Wurtemburg, 484 of Belgium, 408 of Hamburg, 739 of Hessen, 300 of Hungary, 358 of Luxemburg, 235 of New Brunswick, 243 of Nova Scotia, 722 of Wales, 921 of Russia, 110 of Nassau, 258 of China, 107 of Australasia, 48 born at sea, 41 of South America, 61 of Spain, 59 of West Indies, 87 of Newfoundland, 81 of Oldenburg, 44 of Brunswick, 44 of Great Britain, what part not stated; 330 of countries not specified.
SLAVERY IN CUBA.
Grapeland, Texas.
What is the condition of slavery in Cuba, and in what time will emancipation be complete?
Subscriber.
Answer.—According to a Cuban law, passed by the Spanish Cortes in 1870, all persons who should be born after June 23, 1870, and all who should attain the age of 60, should be free after June 23, 1870. This enactment, however, was evaded to a considerable extent. The plantations were supplied not only with negro but also with Chinese coolies, who were subjected to even greater servitude. In November, 1879, a new bill was passed by the Spanish Cortes, which provided that all slaves from 55 upward should become free; that slaves from 50 to 55 should be liberated Sept. 17, 1880; from 45 to 50, September, 1882; from 40 to 45, in 1884; from 35 to 40, in 1886; from 30 to 35, in 1888, and those under 30 in 1890. The bill also provided that the sum of 100,000 piastres should be set apart annually for defraying the expenses of the emancipation, the owner to receive 350 piastres for each slave. This bill has gone into effect and is being generally observed, although there is still some complaint of its violation.
WASHINGTON TERRITORY.
Manson, Iowa.
Please give a few facts concerning the climate, soil, and products of Washington Territory.
W. Cleveland.
Answer.—The Cascade range of mountains extends north and south through Washington Territory, dividing it into two unequal parts, which differ somewhat as to their climate and soil. West of the mountains the climate is very moderate. The inhabitants do not suffer either from extreme heat or extreme cold, the annual range of the thermometer being from zero to 85 degrees. The rainy season lasts three months in winter, during which the inhabitants suffer no great discomfort. The soil on the river bottoms is a very rich alluvium. The uplands have a clay loam, but considerable tracts are sandy soil. About Puget Sound forests of fir and cedar extend up to the summits of the mountains, while in the river bottoms may be found the vine-maple, alder, and crab tree. Grain of all kinds, nutritious grasses, hops, fruit, and vegetables grow abundantly. East of the Cascades the climate is a little drier, and the summer and winter heat a little more extreme. The soil is whiter than that of the Mississippi Valley, being highly charged with alkaline deposits. Herding now is the chief occupation of the settlers, though it is expected that when the Northern Pacific Railway is completed agriculture will become more prominent. Fruitful orchards, surrounded by fields of wheat, oats, barley, and rye are not at all uncommon.
SACRAMENTO AND SAN JOAQUIN VALLEYS.
Edgington, Ill.
Please give a description of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys of California.
A Reader.
Answer.—Between the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada lie the beautiful valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, named from the rivers which drain them. The climate of the country is very uniform, the mean summer temperature of San Francisco, on the bay into which these rivers empty, being 60 degrees, and that of winter 51 degrees. The rainy season commences in November and continues until April, during which period, however, but little inconvenience is occasioned. The dry season is such that crops readily mature and may be harvested, threshed, and sent to market without being placed under shelter. The soil is very productive, and, unless the rain fails in its season, yields abundantly. The grasses are numerous and nutritious. Wheat, oats, corn, and other cereals are grown quite extensively. But in many portions of the valley the most lucrative business is the cultivation of orchards and vineyards. Grapes, apples, pears, plums, and in the southern part apricots, oranges, and other tropical fruits grow in abundance. On the verdant slopes of the mountains sheep-grazing is carried on on a large scale. Although these valleys offer many inducements to settlers, land may still be obtained in some places at moderate prices.
EX-GOVERNOR THROOP, OF NEW YORK.
Bucklin, Mo.
Please give a sketch of the late ex-Governor Throop, of New York.
F. M. Beers.
Answer.—Enos Thompson Throop, at one time very prominent in politics, was born at Johnstown, N. Y., Aug. 21, 1784. Choosing law as his profession, he was admitted to the bar in 1806 and began practice at Auburn. He early established an enviable reputation, and in 1814 was chosen to represent his district in Congress. He was afterward appointed by Governor Yates Circuit Judge of the Seventh District. In 1828 he was elected Lieutenant Governor, along with Governor Van Buren, and when the latter accepted a position in Jackson’s Cabinet he succeeded him. In 1830 he was re-elected, but in 1832 declined a third term. He soon after removed to Michigan, where he again became prominent in political affairs. As age, however, came upon him his health failed and he returned again to his native State. He died in his 91st year at Willow Brook, N.Y., on the shore of Owasco Lake.
CLOCKS AND NOON-MARKS.
Danvers, Ill.
How many correct noon-marks can be made during a year?
H. M. Valentine.
Answer.—Four correct “noon-marks” are made in a year, on the following days: Dec. 24, April 15, June 14, and Sept. 1. Owing to the inclination of the earth’s axis and its unequal movement in its orbit, solar days vary in their length. The average solar day corresponds to the twenty-four hours of our clocks, which keep what is called mean time. If a clock were so constructed as to give the real solar time for all periods of the year, it would be observed that sometimes when the solar clock pointed at noon, the ordinary clock, keeping mean time, would be pointing at figures between 11:45 and 12, or at other times between 12 and 12:15. Four times each year, however, upon the days mentioned, the two clocks would coincide, and the shadow of a dial, or noon-mark, would point due south at noon by the clock.
THE FATHER OF THE HUMANE SOCIETY.
Bedford, Iowa.
Please give a short sketch of Henry Bergh, so long the President of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
Frank Atkinson.
Answer.—Henry Bergh, the philanthropist, was born in New York, in 1823. He received his education at Columbia College, where he manifested a considerable love for literature. He afterward obtained some notoriety as an author by writing a drama entitled “Love’s Attractions,” a poem entitled “Married Off,” and several tales and sketches. In 1863 he was made Secretary of the United States Legation to Russia, and subsequently Vice Consul. Returning to this country, he founded the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, which was incorporated in 1866. This association has grown into considerable magnitude, having branches in most of the States and receiving the support of the best citizens. The society endeavors to prevent cruelty to all kinds of animals by securing the passage and enforcement of laws to accomplish that object. It also takes into consideration things which pertain to the health of the people, such as purity of meat, milk, etc. As a minor illustration of its good work, a few years ago sportsmen were accustomed to shoot pigeons at shooting matches; but by an effort of the Humane Society glass balls have been substituted. Mr. Bergh continues to preside over the association.
WEATHER SIGNS.
Aurora, Ill.
Now that Vennor and the Signal Service, or “Old Probabilities,” are engrossing so much of the public attention, we are in danger of forgetting the old weather proverbs. Cannot Our Curiosity Shop call to mind a few of these, and let its readers test them alongside of the prognostications of Tice, Vennor & Co.
Constant Reader.
Answer.—The editor of Our Curiosity Shop is neither a prophet nor the son of a prophet. The best he can do to meet this demand is to give the following quotations from a lecture on “Weather Prognostics”, delivered by Mr. William Marriott, before the Meteorological Society of England:
When round the moon there is a brugh (halo),
The weather will be cold and rough.
When the sun goes pale to bed,
’Twill rain to-morrow, it is said.
When the clouds are upon the hills,
They come down by the mills.
Mackerel sky and mares’ tails
Make lofty ships carry low sails.
When the wind veers against the sun,
Trust it not, for back it will run.
When the wind is in the south,
It is in the rain’s mouth.
When the mist creeps up the hill,
Fisher, out and try your skill.
If larks fly high and sing long, expect fine weather.
When sea-birds fly out early and far to seaward, moderate winds and fair weather may be expected.
If rooks go far abroad, it will be fine.
Cranes soaring along and quietly in the air foreshow fair weather.
If kites fly high, fine weather is at hand.
Wild geese, wild geese, ganging out to sea,
Good weather it will be.
When owls whoop much at night, expect fair weather.
Bats or flying mice, coming out of their holes quickly after sunset, and sporting themselves in the open air, premonstrate fair and calm weather.
Chickweed expands its leaves boldly and fully when fine weather is to follow.
White mist in winter indicates frost.
When fires burn faster than usual and with a blue flame, frosty weather may be expected.
In winter, when the sound of the breakers on the shore is unusually distinct, frost is indicated.
Clear moon,
Frost soon.
In winter, when the moon’s horns are sharp and well-defined, frost is expected.
If the wind is northeast three days without rain
Eight days will pass before south wind again.
If wind follow sun’s course, expect fair weather.
All the above prognostics, it may be remarked, are in strict accordance with scientific observation.
FIRST MICHIGAN STATE ELECTION.
Greenville, Wis.
When did the first State election occur in Michigan?
J. H. Stanley.
Answer.—In the year 1835 Michigan adopted a State constitution and chose Stevens T. Mason, the Territorial Governor, as its first State Governor. It then demanded of Congress a recognition as a State and the rights of representation. This request Congress agreed to grant, providing the petitioning State would accept the boundary line claimed by Ohio. Not until January, 1837, would Michigan accept such terms, and then only on condition that it should receive, in lieu of the disputed strip on the south, the territory on Lake Superior now known as the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. Immediately after this the State was formally admitted. By special permission the State was allowed to cast three electoral votes in the Presidential contest of 1836-7. In the same year in which it was admitted, Mr. Mason was re-elected to the position of Governor, which office he continued to hold until 1839.
THE LONGEST THROWS, LEAPS, AND RUNS.
Cambridge, Iowa.
What is the longest throw on record with a base ball? What is the longest single standing jump? What is the fastest time ever made by man running 100 yards? What is the fastest mile ever made by a horse?
A. Aplin.
Answer.—The longest throw with a base ball for the year 1882 was 132 yards 1 foot, made by E. N. Williamson, the third baseman of the Chicago league nine. The longest standing jump with artificial aid was made by G. W. Hamilton, at Romeo, Mich., Oct. 3, 1879. With 22 pound weights he jumped 14 feet 5½ inches. The longest standing jump without artificial aid was performed by J. J. Tickle, Sept. 2, 1871, at Manchester, England, who cleared 10 feet 5 inches. The fastest run of 100 yards was made by George Seward, an American, at Hammersmith, England, Sept. 30, 1844, who accomplished the feat in 9¼ seconds. The fastest recorded time ever made by a horse for one mile was 1 minute 39¾ seconds, which was accomplished by Ten Broeck, a running horse, at Louisville, Ky., May 24, 1877. The fastest mile in heat racing was performed by Ada Glenn, in 1 minute 41¼ seconds, running, at Sheepshead Bay, L. I., Sept. 21, 1880.
BOLIVAR, THE LIBERATOR.
Orange Grove, Miss.
Give a short historical sketch or the life of General Bolivar.
Frank.
Answer.—Bolivar y Ponte, surnamed The Liberator, was a South American patriot, who in July, 1783, was born in Caracas, a town in the then Spanish province of Venezuela. His father, having obtained considerable wealth, like many of the early adventurers, sent his son to Madrid to pursue the study of law. When Venezuela in 1810 endeavored to throw off the yoke of Spanish oppression, Bolivar joined the cause of the patriots and began service under Miranda. Soon his own ability eclipsed that of his senior officer and he was given a separate command. Defeating the Spaniards in August, 1813, he entered Caracas at the head of his victorious army in triumph. He was immediately appointed dictator; but his enjoyment of that office was suddenly terminated by the reappearance of the Spaniards, who in 1814 defeated and drove him from the province. His defeat, however, did not discourage him. In 1817 he led the patriots in a battle against Morillo and again found himself a conqueror. Venezuela chose him to be her President, and in 1819 New Granada did him like honor, the two States uniting to form Colombia. In 1823 his love for liberty and hatred of Spain caused him to lend assistance to the revolting Peruvians. The latter were successful, and as a reward for the excellent service of the Liberator, Bolivia, named in his honor, was erected into a separate State, and Bolivar was made its President for life. For a few years he remained President of both Colombia and Bolivia. He died in December, 1830.
ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS.
Huntingdon, Pa.
Who have been sovereigns of England since the reign of King John?
W. S. C.
Answer.—The following, beginning with John, the grantor of Magna Charta, have been sovereigns of England:
John—Sixth son of Henry II.
Henry III.—Eldest son of John.
Edward I.—Eldest son of Henry III.
Edward II.—Eldest surviving son of Edward I.
Edward III.—Eldest son of Edward II.
Richard II.—Son of the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III.
Henry IV.—Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III.
Henry V.—Eldest son of Henry IV.
Henry VI.—Only son of Henry V.
Edward IV.—Grandson of Richard, son of Edmund, son of Edward III.
Edward V.—Eldest son of Edward IV.
Richard III.—Younger brother of Edward IV.
Henry VII.—Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor by Katharine, widow of Henry V.
Henry VIII.-Only surviving son of Henry VII.
Edward VI.—Son of Henry VIII. by Jane Seymour.
Mary I.—Daughter of Henry VIII. by Katherine of Arragon.
Elizabeth—Daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn.
James I.—Son of Mary Queen of Scots, granddaughter of James IV. and Margaret, daughter of Henry VII.
Charles I.—Only surviving son of James I.
| Commonwealth— | { | Oliver Cromwell. |
| Richard Cromwell. |
Charles II.—Eldest son of Charles I.
James II.—Second son of Charles I.
| William III. | { | Son of William Prince of Orange |
| and | by Mary, daughter of Charles I. | |
| Mary II. | Eldest daughter of James II. |
Anne—Second daughter of James II.
George I.—Grandson of Elizabeth, daughter of James I.
George II.—Only son of George I.
George III.—Grandson of George II.
George IV.—Eldest son of George III.
William IV.—Third son of George III.
Victoria—Daughter of Edward, fourth son of George III.
WHO MADE MAXIMILIAN EMPEROR OF MEXICO?
Taylor, Ill.
What part did France take in placing Maximilian on the throne of Mexico?
M. M. Aldil.
Answer.—Taking advantage of the war which occupied the attention of the United States, Napoleon III., planned the conquest of Mexico. With but little difficulty his army succeeded in this enterprise and occupied the City of Mexico in 1863. He soon discovered the barren nature of his conquest and the certainty of final failure. To rid himself of the consequences of what had proved a most costly enterprise, before he should be forced to a humiliating abandonment of the country, he tempted Maximilian, Archduke of Austria, to accent the crown of Mexico. To give eclat to the affair and the color of popular approval, he ordered an election. This was dominated by French troops and Napoleon’s Mexican accomplices, and the result was an apparent popular vote to adopt an imperial form of government and invite Maximilian to accept the throne. In 1864 he was received with festivities and other marks of distinction planned by the French and their Mexican supporters. The Mexican patriots, however, still maintained an organization. When driven out of the capital President Juarez retired to San Luis Potosi, then to Monterey, and finally to Chihuahua, and with his Cabinet still maintained the form of a central, national head of the republic. The French availed of the excuse that Maximilian was in possession of the government to return to France, and leave him to his own resources. The guerrilla bands of patriots which had kept up the harassment of the imperial troops with more or less persistency from the first, gathered strength, and at last, deserted by Napoleon, attacked on all sides by the rallying militia of the republic, the unhappy Emperor undertook to escape from the country, was captured, and finally executed at Queretaro, June 19, 1867. The French were wholly responsible for placing Maximilian in Mexico and for abandoning him to his unhappy fate.
TRADES UNIONS.
Jacksonville, Ill.
Please give us information as to the origin, object, and extent of trades unions.
W. A. Lewis.
Answer.—The various trade societies are the outgrowth of the old English guilds, which originated in the beginning of the eleventh century, and had for their prime object the relief or support of infirm guild-brothers, the burial of the dead with proper religious services, etc. In time, however, these organizations became better classified and more exclusive. One guild was confined to the merchants, another to the woolen manufacturers, another to the cutlery manufacturers, etc.: the objects, at the same time, becoming more comprehensive. In order to secure skilled workmen and prevent competition with the inexperienced, the craftsmen secured the passage of apprenticeship laws. In the case of woolen and several other trades apprentices were required to serve manufacturers seven years. Employers and employes were then united in these efforts, but, finally, as the manufacturing industries became more profitable and improved, and machinery was introduced, the rich masters withdrew from the craftguilds, and began to hire children and men who had not served a complete apprenticeship. This action on the part of the employers caused the first “trade society” to be formed, in 1796, called the Institution, which had for its object the protection of its members against the encroachments of capitalists, and to secure the passage of stricter apprenticeship laws. Since that time the trades unions have increased in number and membership, until they include nearly all the craftsmen of England, and from protective associations they have grown into societies for the general improvement of the laboring classes. To its efforts mainly are due the passage of the eight-hour law of Great Britain and the statute granting the Saturday half-holiday. In the United States similar organizations are found, to which, especially in large cities, nearly all the workmen belong.
THE RED SEA.
Chicago, Ill.
Is it generally believed by Bible scholars that the Red Sea was so called because of the destruction of Pharaoh and the Egyptian army?
Ann Halliday.
Answer.—The drowning of Pharaoh and his host in the Red Sea had nothing to do with its name. It takes this from a peculiar reddish color remarked at certain seasons of the year in parts of this sea, due to marine plants, or to reddish animalculæ, called by sailors “whale feed,” which float on it like a scum; or to the reefs of red coral which abound in many parts of it; or, possibly, to the fact that its upper coast was one of the boundaries of Edom, “the red.” No Biblical scholar of any repute has ever asserted that the sea took its name from the overthrow of Pharaoh.
DESCRIPTION OF A CREAMERY.
Fort Dodge, Iowa.
The farmers of this section of the country need to know what a good creamery is. Tell us what the inside of a really good creamery looks like.
Many Readers.
Answer.—A Chicago inquirer says: “Oblige butter and cheese consumers with a description of a first-class creamery. Some of us have a very vague notion of such an establishment.—E. D. Smith.” Another inquiry comes from Neligh, Neb. So some care has been taken to obtain a description of a thoroughly well-constructed factory of this kind. This is the more important as the dairy business of the West is growing with wonderful rapidity, and nothing has done more to develop this industry than the recent introduction of creameries. The term creamery was formerly applied to an establishment fitted up expressly for the purpose of manufacturing butter, but now the name is given to factories where both butter and cheese are made. Milk is brought in spring wagons from dairy-farms for a distance of six miles or less, and cream is gathered anywhere within a radius of fifteen miles to be manufactured into butter and cheese. This product thus handled in larger quantities, in a scientific manner, with effective labor-saving machinery and proper surroundings, makes it possible to obtain the best results, and such product is always marketable at prices much higher than dairy butter. The factory of the Aurora Creamery Company, built at Aurora, Ill., about a year ago is generally regarded as a model establishment, and will furnish an example for this description. To operate a creamery successfully two things are absolutely necessary, viz., a good spring of living water of low temperature, say 50 to 54 deg., and good drainage; without these features there is no prospect of permanent success in the undertaking. The factory named has a spring located about 200 feet off which discharges, both winter and summer, 750 gallons of pure water per hour, temperature 52 deg., with 5 feet 9 inches fall, while drainage is supplied by a 2-foot square stone sewer which empties into the river, through which a slough is drained, and into which there is a 5-foot fall from the factory. The main building is of brick with a 12-inch wall: size, 32 × 70, 20 feet high; right wing, 20 × 24; left wing, 18 × 24, and rear extension, 18 × 26. The room in which the cheese is manufactured is 30 × 40. It contains a fine upright 9-horse-power engine, a Wir’s self-agitating rotary cheese vat with a capacity for 12,000 pounds of milk and a gang cheese press. The butter room, 30 × 30 feet, contains one churn with a capacity of 400 gallons, and one with a capacity of 150 gallons, a power butter worker, sink with steam pipes to scald, and revolving brush for washing cans, 3 cream vats 300 gallons each, a receiving vat into which the milk is strained, and from which it is drawn into deep pails, or sets, which are placed in three cemented water vats of capacity sufficient to cool 20,000 pounds of milk daily. The left wing of the factory contains a 16-horse power boiler, which furnishes steam to run the machinery and heat the building; a seventy-barrel water tank, which is placed over the boiler; a Davidson steam pump and coal bin which will store fifty tons of coal. An improvement which, it is claimed, is found in no other factory, is an elevated “whey vat” placed over the boiler-room, into which the whey is raised by a rotary pump, and from which the farmers draw their supply of whey to be carried into the country. When all that is wanted has been drawn out a gate is opened, and the balance is run into the river, after which the tank is scalded out and kept sweet and clean. This is a vast improvement over the pestilence breeding arrangement which is sunk in the ground, and is located near the butter and cheese rooms of most other factories. The right wing of the factory contains a driveway, a receiving-room, weighing platform, and stairway to office. The extension holds 150 tons of ice, and contains a refrigerator with a capacity of 30,000 pounds of butter. In the second story is a neat office, store-rooms, and curing room, to which the cheese are raised by an elevator. The lower floors are made of 2 × 6 joists, dressed and matched and imbedded in cement; under which is a four-inch coating of grout, so that there is no possible chance for the milk to leak through the floor and produce the sickening stench which is so common in many factories. Special attention has been given to ventilation in every part of the building and the whole establishment has the appearance in neatness of a tidy farmhouse kitchen. The sum of $10,000 was expended in real estate, buildings, and fixtures of this factory, but a good creamery with a comfortable outfit of medium capacity could be put up for much less money. The machinery for churning and working the butter is as simple as it is ingenious. The churn is a great square chest revolving on an axis running through its longest diameter; the butter-workers are fluted wooden cones running around a circular disk inclined at an angle to the horizon, so that the buttermilk runs off as fast as it is expressed. The apparatus for stirring the cheese curd and pressing the cheese, and a score of other nicely contrived instruments, operate with the uniformity and precision of clock work.
SPEED OF RAILWAY TRAINS.
Waukegan, Ill.
How does the speed of railroad trains in this country compare with that of trains in Europe?
C. D. Adams.
Answer.—The fastest recorded railroad speed in the United States is given in the New York Clipper Almanac, as follows: The train which left West Philadelphia for Jersey City over the Pennsylvania Railroad at 7:35 a. m., Sept. 4, 1879 (Edward Osborn, engineer), made 1 mile in 50¼ seconds; 3 miles in 2 m. 36¼ sec., and 5 miles in 4 m. 50 sec. A train on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad made the run from Hamburg to Buffalo, N. Y., 10 miles, in 8 minutes. The locomotive Hamilton Davis and six cars, on the New York Central Railroad in 1855, made 14 miles in 11 minutes. A new Fontaine engine and two coaches, carrying W. H. Vanderbilt and party, ran from Amherstburg to St. Thomas, Can., over the Canada Southern Railroad, 111 miles, in 98 minutes—no stop. Probably the fastest run ever made for any considerable distance in England was that of the special train carrying the Duke of Wellington from Paddington to Slough, 18 miles, in 15 minutes. But these are exceptional runs; what is of more importance is to compare regular time-table speed. The London Engineer says, commenting on a series of articles on this subject which have appeared in the German journal, Die Verkehrszeitung, in the American Railroad Gazette, and in other papers, “it appears that railroad speeds in Great Britain, on the Continent, and in the United States are much slower than most people suppose. If we take for instance, the run from London to Edinburgh, a distance of 397 miles via York, this is made in 9 hours by great Northern trains, the average speed being 44.1 miles per hour. From Euston the distance is 401 miles, and London and Northwestern trains make the run in 10 hours, or 40.1 miles an hour. By the Midland Railway the distance is 404 miles, and the time 10 h. 5 min., or very nearly the same speed. Some of the fastest trains in the world are those run between Leeds and London. From King’s Cross the distance by the Great Northern is 186½ miles. From St. Pancras by the Midland is 196 miles. The fastest train on the Great Northern makes the run in 4 h. 5 min., or an average speed of 45.4 miles an hour. The Midland trains traverse the distance in 4 h. 30 min., giving an average velocity of 43.5 miles an hour. The fastest train in the world is the Flying Dutchman, broad gauge, which makes the run to Swindon at 53½ miles an hour. The Great Northern trains run from London to York, 188 miles, at 48 miles an hour, and at least one train runs to Peterborough at 51 miles an hour. The run from London to Grantham has been made repeatedly at 51 miles an hour. On the United States railways the quickest run appears to be that made between Jersey City and Philadelphia, 89 miles, made at the rate of 47⅔ miles an hour. There is not in the world a train timed to run 60 miles an hour, although it is, of course, certain that that velocity is often exceeded. If a speed of 60 miles an hour could be maintained continually between London and Edinburgh, the journey would occupy only 6 hours and 36 minutes; and allowing for three stops of 10 minutes each on the route, the time would be under 7¼ hours, instead of 10 hours. So far as the machinery of a railway is concerned—by which we mean the road, the rolling stock, and the signals—there is nothing to prevent an average speed of 60 miles an hour being maintained. That it is not attained is certain.”
THE UNITED STATES CIVIL LIST.
Oskaloosa, Iowa.
What officers are included under the civil service?
L. A. H.
Answer.—The civil officers of the United States are those employed by the several departments. In 1876, in reply to an inquiry made by order of Congress, the following official statement was made: Department of State, 430; Treasury, 12,482; War Department, 1,489; Navy Department, 131; Postoffice Department, 44,897; Interior, 2,475; Department of Justice, 528. Total number of civil officers, 62,427.
GREAT FIRES.
Joliet, Ill.
Which was the greatest fire, that of London, Moscow, or Chicago?
An Inquirer.
Answer.—The great fire of London, which occurred in 1666, destroyed about two-thirds of the city; but there is no estimate of the value of the property. The burning of Moscow, in September, 1812, destroyed property which has been valued at $150,000,000. The great Chicago fire of 1871 consumed $192,000,000 worth of property. The area burnt over in the Chicago fire was greater than that covered by either the London or Moscow fire.
PRESIDENT JACKSON’S DOUBLE MARRIAGE.
Owensville, Ark.
Who was the first husband of Andrew Jackson’s wife, and what was the cause of the separation?
Subscriber.
Answer.—Mrs. Jackson was formerly the wife of Mr. Lewis Robards, of Kentucky. While Mr. Robards and his wife were residing at the home of Mrs. Donelson, the mother of Mrs. Robards, Andrew Jackson became a boarder, and consequently quite intimate with the family. In time, Mr. Robards became intensely jealous of his wife, which culminated in his charging her with adultery and suing for divorce. This charge, however, was neither proven nor generally believed. Through the influence of Jackson, the Legislature in 1791 passed an act legalizing the separation of Mr. and Mrs. Robards, but the legal divorce from the courts was not obtained until 1793. After the act of the Legislature, Jackson married Mrs. Robards, supposing that she was lawfully divorced; but after the decision of the court, in order to remove everything questionable, he was remarried.
THE BUNKER HILL FLAG.
Chicago, Ill.
What flag, if any, did the provincials use in the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775? What was the first flag used by the revolutionary army?
H. J. H.
Answer.—Reference to that standard work, “The Origin and Progress of the Flag of the United States of America,” by George Henry Preble, U. S. N., and other sources of information, shows that it is uncertain what flag, if any, was displayed by the Americans at Bunker Hill, in the famous fight of June 17, 1775. The flag raised on Prospect Hill by General Putnam, a month later, July 18, 1775, was red, with the motto, Qui Transtulit Sustinet , (who transplanted still sustains) on one side, and “An Appeal to Heaven” on the other. This latter motto was emblazoned on the white flag with a green pine tree carried by the privateers commissioned by Massachusetts, soon after this. The first cruisers commissioned by Washington also bore “the pine tree flag.” Before the battle of Bunker Hill, indeed, immediately after the battle of Lexington, on the 19th of the preceding April, the provincial troops of Connecticut carried a standard bearing the arms of that colony and the Latin motto above cited. As General Putnam and his Connecticut troops took a prominent part in the battle of Bunker Hill, it is presumable that this flag was displayed in that action, and by parity of reasoning it may be inferred that the colonial flags of Massachusetts and New Hampshire were carried into the action by the militia of those colonies. Precisely what these were it is almost or quite impossible to determine with certainty. Indeed, there seem to have been several different flags. The “union-flags” so frequently mentioned in the accounts left us of the revolutionary movements of 1774 and the early part of 1775 were, in most instances, the English red ensign, with such mottoes as “Liberty and Union,” “Liberty and Property,” or simply “Liberty.” Peculiar devices were employed by the patriots of different neighborhoods. Not until Jan. 2, 1776, was the first common standard raised. This was the “Great Union,” as it was christened, adopted by General Washington, and first displayed at his headquarters in Cambridge, Mass., on the date above given. It consisted of thirteen stripes, alternately white and red, with the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew in the union where the stars now glitter.
ORIGIN OF PORTERHOUSE STEAK.
Chicago, Ill.
Can Our Curiosity Shop tell us why steaks cut from the small end of the sirloin are called porterhouse steaks?
Epicure.
Answer.—Colonel Thomas F. De Voe, a New York butcher, author of “The Market Book,” “The Market Assistant,” and other works of similar nature, gives the following account of this now popular cut of beef: Martin Morrison kept a favorite porterhouse at No. 327 Pearl street, New York, near the old Walton House. It was a popular resort with many of the New York pilots, because here they were always sure of a pot of ale or porter and “a hot bite,” including one or two substantial dishes. On one occasion, in 1814, Morrison had enjoyed an unusual number of calls for steaks, and when an old pilot, who dropped in at a late hour, called for something substantial to eat, he was forced to cut from a sirloin roasting piece which he had got for the next day’s family dinner. The old pilot relished his steak amazingly and called for another. This disposed of, “he squared himself in front of his host and vociferated, ‘Look ye here, messmate, arter this I want my steaks off the roasting piece! Do you hear that? So mind your weather eye, old boy!’” The old pilot’s companions soon learned to appreciate these cuts, and it was not long before they were all insisting on having them. Accordingly, Morrison’s butcher, Thomas Gibbons, of the Fly Market, asked him why he had ceased to order the large sirloin steaks. Morrison explained that he had found that cuts from the small end of the sirloin of the beef suited his single customers best, both in size and quality, and directed that thereafter, instead of sending him the sirloin roasts uncut, he have them cut into chops or steaks, as he should direct. Gibbons’ daily order, “Cut steaks for the porterhouse,” soon gave these the name of “porterhouse steaks,” by which they became known all through the Fly Market, particularly as this excellent cut rapidly became popular in all the public houses of the city. The name is now familiar to housekeepers on both sides of the Atlantic, at least wherever the English language is spoken.
SOLDIERS’ HOMESTEADS.
Cedar Falls, Iowa.
Is a soldier who served more than three years in the army during the late rebellion, and who almost immediately afterwards took up a homestead claim of 120 acres of land, whereon he is now living, entitled to enter forty acres more in another place?
A. N. Wilson.
Answer.—The following letter from Commissioner McFarland, in answer to a similar inquiry from Mr. A. H. Field, of Indian River, Mich., answers this question officially. Observe that the answer turns upon the important fact that Mr. Field entered his homestead of only eighty acres after the passage of the act approved June 22, 1874, hence the Commissioner holds that he is not entitled to the benefits of the act, whereas if he had made final proof of his claim before June 22, 1874, he would be entitled to an additional eighty acres.
“Washington, D. C., Feb. 14, 1883.—A. H. Field, Esq., Indian River, Mich.—Sir: I am in receipt of your letter of the 31st ult., in which you state that you served four years in the army during the late civil war, and that in 1878 you made a homestead entry of eighty acres—all that you could get in that locality—and have lived on the same ever since, and made final proof. You ask if you are not entitled to an additional entry of eighty acres. In reply, I have to state that you are not. The homestead act of June 8, 1872, provides that any soldier who served for ninety days in the army during the war of the rebellion, and was honorably discharged, who may have heretofore entered under the homestead laws a less quantity than 160 acres, shall be permitted to enter a sufficient quantity of land, which, added to that embraced in the original entry, shall not exceed 160 acres. Such provision was carried into the Revised Statutes of the United States (Sec. 2306), which statutes were approved June 22, 1874, and since that date if such a soldier elects to enter a less amount of land than 160 acres, he must abide by his election. Very respectfully,
“A. C. McFarland, Commissioner.”
Mr. Field writes to The Inter Ocean, inclosing this letter from the Commissioner of the General Land Office, and complaining that this law inflicts a hardship on him and other soldiers in the late war, who, like himself, deferred their entries until after the passage of the above act. He says: “It seems that it is unfortunate for me, as an old soldier, that I did not locate my land previous to June, 1874. I ought to be entitled to eighty acres of land more as well as any other class of soldiers.” Whether this complaint is or is not well founded, the fact remains that the law is as above stated.
FINDING ONE’S POSITION AT SEA.
Plymouth, Wis.
By what method do sailors at sea determine their exact position?
Dobs.
Answer.—The mariner determines his latitude by observing the meridian altitude of a celestial star whose declination or distance from the equator is known. In the northern hemisphere for an approximate answer the pole star is generally taken, the altitude of which is nearly the latitude of the place. If an observer were standing upon the equator and looking to the north he would see the pole star on the horizon, with no altitude. If he should move three degrees north the pole star would have an altitude corresponding. At Chicago it is above the horizon about 41 degrees 50 minutes, corresponding to the latitude of this city. Owing to the apparent revolution of the pole star about a central axis, which is the true pole of the heavens, the accurate latitude can only be obtained by observing its least and greatest altitude and taking one-half their sum. The longitude of any place computed from Greenwich, Washington, or other prime meridian, is easily determined by observing the Greenwich or Washington time when the sun passes the zenith meridian. In other words, knowing the difference in time between Greenwich and the place of observation, the longitude of the place may be readily computed. A difference of time amounting to one hour represents 15 degrees of longitude east or west, as the case may be. The difference in time between Chicago and Washington is forty-three minutes, which makes the longitude of Chicago 10 degrees 45 minutes, reckoning from the legal prime meridian of the United States, which is that of Washington. Every ship carries a marine chronometer, which is a time-keeper of the most careful construction, whose accuracy has been tested with the utmost precision—which is plainly a matter of the utmost importance to a vessel when it is remembered that an error of four seconds of time represents about one and one-tenth statute miles, enough to wreck a ship on a lee shore when the captain, following the chronometer, supposed himself at a safe distance from the shoal or shore.
YEARS FOR PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION.
Streator, Ill.
Is there any easy rule for finding the years on which Presidential elections have been held or are to be held?
A. C.
Answer.—Every year divisible by four, without exception, is the year for the election of President and Vice President of the United States.
U. S. BONDED DEBT—WHEN PAYABLE.
Barton, Wis.
When and in what sums does the bonded debt of the United States fall due?
W. Munger.
Answer.—Several of the later issues of bonds are payable at the pleasure of the government, but the following cannot be redeemed except by purchase in the market until specified dates. Four per cents payable July 1, 1907, $738,829,600; 4½ per cents payable Sept. 1, 1891, $250,000,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept. 1, 1895, $3,002,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept. 1, 1896, $8,000,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept 1, 1897, $9,712,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept. 1, 1898, $29,383,000; Pacific Railway 6’s payable Sept. 1, 1899, $14,526,512.
THE SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC.
Geneva, N. Y.
Who first devised the signs of the zodiac, and for what purpose?
Chas. W. Smith.
Answer.—Representations of the zodiacal signs are found among the ancient writings of the Hindoos, Persians, and Chinese, and among the carvings on the ruins of Egyptian temples. There is such a degree of similarity in the characters that a common origin must be supposed. The signs of the zodiac embrace the twelve important constellations, which, owing to the motions of the earth, appear to revolve through the heavens within a belt extending nine degrees on each side of the sun’s apparent annual path, and within or near which all the planets revolve. Since the sun appears successively in each of these twelve constellations during the year, the zodiac was divided into twelve equal parts, corresponding to the months. These signs and their subdivisions were used in measuring time and as the basis of astronomical and astrological calculations and predictions. Astronomers now, for convenience, use the same signs, giving to each constellation an extent of thirty degrees, although the constellations vary in size. These signs are Aries representing the ram; Taurus, the bull; Gemini, the twins; Cancer, the crab; Leo, the lion; Virgo, the virgin; Libra, the balance; Scorpio, the scorpion; Sagittarius, the archer; Capricornus, the goat; Aquarius, the water-bearer; and Pisces, the fishes. On the 20th of March the sun enters Aries, and at midnight Virgo, the opposite constellation, will be overhead. During the month of April the sun will pass into Taurus, and at midnight Libra will be overhead. The early astronomers were astrologers, and claimed to be able to predict the future careers of individuals and nations by observing the positions and movements of the planets, and condition of the weather, at the most important periods of men’s lives. A man born when the sun was in the constellation Scorpio was believed to be naturally bent toward excessive indulgence of the animal passions; one born when the sun was in Aries was destined to be a great scholar or ruler; one born when the sun was in Pisces was predestined to grovel or be a servant, and so on. All this is regarded now as exploded superstition, except by fortune-tellers and their dupes.
AREAS OF ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND.
Houghton, Mich.
What are the areas of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales? Also, what is the area of the county of Cornwall?
W. J. Uren.
Answer.—England has an area of 50,914 square miles, or 32,584,735 acres; Ireland, 32,524 square miles, or 20,815,460 acres; Scotland, 30,462 square miles, or 19,496,132 acres; Wales, 7,397 square miles, or 4,734,486 acres. The county of Cornwall contains 1,390 square miles, or an acreage of 869,898.
TO SELECT HOUDAN FOWLS.
Clinton, Iowa.
By what marks can I tell Houdan fowls I am about to purchase a pair, if they are what they are represented to be—of pure breed.
J. Allen.
Answer.—Houdans stand and walk erectly; the males weigh from eight to nine pounds; the hens from five to seven pounds. They are lumpy in shape, are evenly speckled white and brown, with large comb, crest, and beard. Refuse any that have not pink-white feet, black and white plumage, and good crests.
THE FIRST CABLE MESSAGE.
Fairpoint, Minn.
What was the first message sent on the Atlantic cable?
Frank Palmer.
Answer.—The first message on the Atlantic cable of 1858, which soon proved a failure, was a congratulatory dispatch from Queen Victoria to President Buchanan. The first message on the successful cable completed in 1866 was the announcement of the treaty of peace between Prussia and Austria.
PRINCE NAPOLEON.
Aurora, Ill.
Will Our Curiosity Shop tell us what relation the Prince Jerome Bonaparte, lately arrested in France for issuing an insurrectionary proclamation, bears to Napoleon I. and oblige many readers?
T.
Answer.—Jerome Bonaparte, the father of this Prince Jerome, was the youngest brother of Napoleon I. In 1803, when he was only 18 years of age, he married Miss Elizabeth Patterson, of Baltimore. This act was displeasing to Napoleon, who passed a decree annulling the marriage on the ground that his brother was not of age and the bans were not published in France. Soon after the return of Jerome to his native country he was made King of Westphalia, and at the suggestion of Napoleon, married Catherine, daughter of the King of Wurtemburg. Of this marriage three children were born—Jerome Napoleon, in 1814, who died in 1847; Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul, the subject of this sketch, in 1822, who afterward took his elder brother’s name, and the Princess Mathilde. The Prince first came into prominence by his denunciation of the government of Louis Philippe and his sympathy with the revolutionists, which caused his banishment in 1845. But, in 1848, he returned and participated in the revolution. In 1852 he took his seat in the Senate and Council of State, receiving the title of Prince and being declared by decree of the Senate the heir of his cousin, Napoleon III., in case the latter should die without issue. He took part in the Crimean war, commanding a reserve force at Alma and at Inkerman. Before the close of the war he was recalled, ostensibly on account of his health, and soon entered upon the duties of several important civil offices. In 1859 he was married to Princess Clothilde, daughter of the late Victor Emanuel, King of Italy, by whom he has three children. In 1861 he visited the United States, and, with his suite and the French Minister, accompanied the Army of the Potomac, pushing as far South as Richmond. After his return he sympathized to a certain extent with the democratic feeling arising in France. For this seeming absurdity he was given the name Plon-Plon. In 1876 he was returned to the French Assembly from Corsica, but in the year following he was rejected. On the death of the Prince Imperial, as the son of Napoleon III. is called, in Zululand, in 1879, Jerome became the head of the Bonaparte family. He was not popular with a majority of the leading Bonapartists, many of whom refused to acknowledge him as their chief, and urged the proclamation of the elder of Jerome’s two sons as the heir of Napoleon III. Of late, however, there has been a reconciliation between the ex-Empress Eugenie and Jerome, and the Bonapartists generally seem disposed to acquiesce; so that, in case of the Bonaparte’s coming to the front once more, his title of Prince may become something more than an empty sound.
THE CORN CROP ESTIMATES FOR 1882.
Dunlap, Iowa.
How much corn was produced in 1882? Are there any reliable statistics on the subject?
W. H. Dedrick.
Answer.—According to the report of the Department of Agriculture the corn crop of 1882 amounted to 1,624,917,800 bushels. These figures have been questioned, but they are based on the estimates of about 1,500 agricultural observers and reporters employed by the bureau, and they are generally conceded to be a fair estimate. Of course, all our crop statistics are only estimates.
CEDAR COUNTY, NEBRASKA.
Melon, Iowa.
Please give a short description of Cedar County Nebraska.
Subscriber.
Answer.—This county lies on the northern boundary of the State, being washed by the Missouri River and drained by the several branches of the Bow and Beaver Creeks. In many portions the land is very rich and yields abundantly wheat, corn, and other cereals. In 1879 the corn crop of Cedar County amounted to 2,826,259 bushels, or 40 bushels per acre, which was the largest yield of any county in the State. Orchards of choice fruit trees have been set out and thrive well. The climate is like that of Southern Dakota and Northwestern Iowa, very warm in summer and cold in winter, which latter, from the dryness of the climate, is rendered more endurable than a higher temperature in some of the more Eastern States. The population in 1880 was 2,899. St. Helena, the county seat, is a thriving little town of 300 inhabitants.
THE SITE OF EDEN.
Westfield, Wis.
In Our Curiosity Shop of Jan. 11, C. A. Sharp asks for the location of the Garden of Eden. The Bible tells us that “a river went out of Eden to water the garden, and from thence it was parted and became into four heads.” It then proceeds to give them in the order of distance above the mouth of the Euphrates. But one of these rivers is now known by its original name, and that is the Euphrates. Let us, therefore, go down that and see if we can find the other three tributary to it that will agree with the narrative. The first is a large stream from the north. We at once recognize it as the Hiddekel. This is the third river, and its head is far to the north, as is also that of the Euphrates. The text says, “it goeth toward the east of Assyria.” The marginal reading, I think, will be found to explain this. It says “it goeth east to Assyria,” and the great Assyrian Empire was upon it. As we go down these united rivers we find a considerable stream from the northeast, the head of which is in the mountains toward the Caspian Sea. If this is the second river, the Gihon, the text says it “compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia.” This expression has doubtless led to much confusion, as the mind has been turned to Ethiopia, in Africa, and which seemed irreconcilable with the text. But turn to the passage and we find the marginal reading to be Cush, and Cush, or Cutha, was a country east of the Hiddekel, through which this stream flows. We turn again to the narrative and it says the first river is the Pison, and that it compasseth the land of Havilah, where there is gold and precious stones. After leaving the mouth of the second river, the Gihon, we find a stream having its head in the mountains east of the Persian Gulf, and also a place called Havilah. The country abounds in precious stones and valuable minerals, and this, with the other three rivers, seems to fill the conditions of the text. We will now hastily review the above to see more clearly its coincidence with the account as given by Moses 2,500 years afterward, in the second chapter of Genesis. A river went out of Eden to water the garden, and from thence it was parted into four heads. The name of the first is Pison, etc.; this we find in the stream coming from Persia, which fulfills its conditions. The second is the Gihon; it too coming from the land of Cush agrees with the text. The third, the Hiddekel, all admit to be the modern Tigris and its connections with Assyria agree well with the record. The fourth is the Euphrates, which flows as of old. But was there a place called Eden from which these streams flowed? Turn to Isa. xxxvii., 12, in the blasphemous letter sent to King Hezekiah by the commander of the Assyrian army, and among the nations he has destroyed is Eden, which from its connections with the other nations is supposed to have been near the junction of the third and fourth rivers. And in the list of nations trading with Tyre we find Eden connected with the nations in the same vicinity. See Ezekiel xxiii., 23. Here then, at no great distance above the Persian Gulf, near 30 degrees north latitude, in a mild climate on a noble river, we may look for the home of the progenitors of our race.
E. H. Fisher.
OVER 2,700 COUNTIES.
Topeka, Kan.
I have just read a statement in a newspaper that there are 2,400 counties in the United States, which is doubted. We therefore ask The Inter Ocean to give us the facts.
R. E. Hinckley.
Answer.—This is an understatement, since in 1880, according to the census, there were 2,671 counties in the United States, including the fifty-nine in Louisiana, locally called parishes. Here is the full list of States and Territories:
| No. of | |
| States. | Counties |
| Alabama | 66 |
| Arkansas | 75 |
| California | 53 |
| Colorado | 32 |
| Connecticut | 8 |
| Delaware | 3 |
| Florida | 45 |
| Georgia | 137 |
| Illinois | 102 |
| Indiana | 92 |
| Iowa | 99 |
| Kansas | 113 |
| Kentucky | 117 |
| Louisiana | 59 |
| Maine | 16 |
| Maryland | 24 |
| Massachusetts | 14 |
| Michigan | 82 |
| Minnesota | 86 |
| Mississippi | 75 |
| Missouri | 117 |
| Nebraska | 80 |
| Nevada | 17 |
| New Hampshire | 10 |
| New Jersey | 21 |
| New York | 60 |
| North Carolina | 94 |
| Ohio | 88 |
| Oregon | 26 |
| Pennsylvania | 67 |
| Rhode Island | 5 |
| South Carolina | 33 |
| Tennessee | 94 |
| Texas | 232 |
| Vermont | 14 |
| Virginia | 99 |
| West Virginia | 54 |
| Wisconsin | 63 |
| 2,472 | |
| Territories. | |
| Arizona | 7 |
| Dakota | 94 |
| Idaho | 13 |
| Montana | 11 |
| New Mexico | 14 |
| Utah | 27 |
| Washington | 25 |
| Wyoming | 7 |
| Dis. of Columbia | 1 |
| Total | 2,671 |
There have been a number of new counties organized since the census year, particularly in Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, and other States and Territories where the settlement of the country is proceeding most rapidly. There are now about 2,730 counties in the United States.
CARDINAL WOLSEY.
Colfax, Ind.
Please give a short biography of Cardinal Wolsey.
Samuel Smith.
Answer.—Thomas Wolsey, the wily, skillful statesman and ambitious Cardinal, whose life was so intimately associated with that of the profligate king, Henry VIII., studied theology at Oxford, and in 1500, at the age of 29, took holy orders and became the rector at Lymington. He was introduced into the royal court of Henry VII. as chaplain, in which office he obtained the confidence of the king, and was often consulted in important state affairs. His successful diplomacy at the court of the Emperor Maximilian secured for him, as a reward, the deanery of Lincoln. When Henry VIII. ascended the throne he employed Wolsey as his almoner. With the talents of a skillful diplomat, the ambitious priest obtained an influence over this monarch even greater than he had previously held over his royal father. In 1514 he was appointed Archbishop of York, and in the following year became Lord Chancellor of England. The Pope was not unmindful of his able supporter, who in the same year that he became Chancellor was clothed in the resplendent robes of a cardinal. Four years after he became legate. In the height of his power he was the virtual sovereign of the kingdom, and in addition he exercised throughout England and its dependencies, and to some extent beyond these boundaries, nearly all the prerogatives of the sovereign pontiff. His income was scarcely surpassed by that of the king himself. Princes and even monarchs were among the suppliants for his favor and influential offices. He aspired to sit on the papal throne, and twice it seemed as if he would realize this aspiration, but he was defeated through the intrigues and power of Charles V., whose elevation to the imperial throne, left vacant by the death of the Emperor Maximilian, he had opposed in behalf of Henry VIII. His almost regal power continued until Henry desired to put away his wife, Catharine, aunt of Charles V., when Wolsey’s dilatoriness in securing the divorce exasperated the king, and upon his refusing to sanction Henry’s marriage with Anne Boleyn, he was soon dismissed in disgrace. He was stripped of all his honors and estates, but was suffered to retain his episcopal see of Winchester until the following year, 1530, when a conspiracy against the king’s life having been discovered, Wolsey was arrested us an abettor. He was on his way to London to undergo trial on a charge of treason, when he fell ill and died Nov. 29, 1530, at the Monastery of Leicester. Among his last words were the following addressed to the Lord Lieutenant of the Tower: “Master Kyngston, if I had served my God as diligently as I have done the king, He would not have given me over in my gray hairs.” As paraphrased by Shakespeare, these last words of the fallen Cardinal are now immortal.
ALASKA.
Rock Island, Ill.
How does Alaska compare in size with New York State or Illinois; and what are its principal natural characteristics?
A. N. Brown.
Answer.—Alaska, according to the report of Ivan Petroff, special agent of the census of 1880, contains 531,400 square miles. This is as large as all New England, together with New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and the following seven grand States west of the Alleghanies: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Kentucky, and Tennessee. It is a vast region, 2,200 miles in length from east to west (measuring to the farthest of the Aleutian Islands), and 1,400 miles broad. It has a remarkable coast line of 25,000 miles in extent, which is about two and a half times as much as the sea coast of all the rest of the United States. The islands of Alaska alone, according to the estimate quoted by Dr. Jackson, comprise an area of over 31,000 miles, or twice as much as the total area of Maine. The highest mountains in the United States are in Alaska: Mount Fairweather, 15,500; Mount Crillon, 15,900: Mount Cook, 16,000, and Mount St. Elias, 19,500. It is remarkable for the number and stupendous proportions of its glaciers. Says Dr. Jackson: “From Bute Inlet to Unimak Pass nearly every gulch has its glacier, some of which are vastly greater and grander than any glacier in the Alps.” Hot and mineral springs abound. The Yukon River is one of the largest in the United States, being for the first 1,000 miles from one to five miles wide with five mouths, forming a delta seventy miles across. According to Mr. Robert Campbell, of the Hudson’s Bay Fur Company, including its chief tributary, the Pelly, it is navigable at certain seasons for nearly 3,000 miles.
Nearly all the sealskins used in the markets of the world come from two little islands belonging to Alaska. The skins of the sea otter are also very valuable, and there are many choice land fur-bearing animals. The waters are wonderfully rich in fish. Besides cod, “Alaska can supply the world,” says Dr. Jackson, “with salmon, herring, and halibut of the best quality.” It is also “the great reserve lumber region of the United States.” There are “thousands of square miles of yellow cedar, white spruce, hemlock, and balsam fir that densely cover the southeastern section of Alaska.” Gold and silver mines of considerable importance have been opened, and there are indications that the Territory is rich not only in the precious metals, but in other minerals, especially in iron, copper, and coal. In the interior the climate along the Yukon is not unlike that of Dakota. At Fort Yukon the thermometer often rises above 100 degrees in summer, and indicates from 50 degrees to 70 degrees below zero in winter. Along the immense southern coast and islands the climate is moist and warm. At Sitka, according to records kept for forty-five years, the mean spring temperature is 41.2 degrees; summer, 54.6 degrees; autumn, 44.9 degrees; winter, 32.5 degrees; for the whole year, 43.3 degrees. “The surprising fact is brought to light,” adds Dr. Jackson, who takes the above figures from the Alaska Coast Pilot, “that the winter climate of Southern Alaska for forty-five years past has been the average winter climate of Kentucky and West Virginia, and the average summer climate of Minnesota.” The mild climate of this region is due to the warm Japan current of the Pacific, the Kuro-Siwo. Generally of Alaska, Mr. William H. Dale, of the Smithsonian Institution, says: “I come back convinced, from personal inspection, that Alaska is a far better country than much of Great Britain and Norway, and even part of Prussia.” The total population in 1880 is given at 33,426, of whom 430 were white, 1,756 Creole or mixed races, and the rest Indians—Innuits, 17,617; Aleuts, 2,145; Thlinkets, 6,763; Hyda, 788, distributed as follows: The whites and creoles are nearly all in Southeastern Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, and Kadiak, which is the division including the south coast of the Alaska Peninsula down to Zakharof Bay, with the adjacent islands, the Kadiah group, the coast and islands of Cook’s Inlet, the Kenai Peninsula, the coast of Prince William’s Sound, and valleys of rivers running into the waters of these coasts. Since the census was taken the white population has been greatly increased by the influx of gold miners and speculators. This Territory is still without a regularly constituted civil government. The laws of the United States “relating to customs, lumber, and navigation” are extended over it, and the Collector and Deputy Collectors have authority to arrest persons violating these laws and send them to Oregon or California to be tried in United States courts. Otherwise the government is mainly a provisional one, organized by the people and enforced by general consent. It is high time that this state of things was ended.
THE AGE OF BENEDICT ARNOLD.
Ogdensburg, N. Y.
What was the true age of Benedict Arnold? No doubt you are aware that authors do not agree as to the time of the birth of General Arnold. Will you please give us light?
R. W. J.
Answer.—It is true that authors differ as to the age of Benedict Arnold. Appleton’s Cyclopedia says he was born Jan. 3, 1740. Lossing’s Cyclopedia of History gives the time as Jan. 3, 1741, and other authorities do not agree. We prefer to adopt the facts given by the Hon. Isaac N. Arnold, of this city, who has just written and published what there is good reason to believe is the most carefully prepared and impartial history of the American arch traitor of Revolutionary times that has ever appeared. This historian fixes Arnold’s birth on Jan. 14, 1741, and his death on June 14, 1801, in London.
METROPOLITAN POLICE.
Warsaw, Ind.
In what respect do metropolitan police differ from city police?
A. B.
Answer.—Metropolitan police are appointed and supported by the State or central government, while city police receive their appointments from the city magistrates. The city of London is guarded by 11,667 metropolitan policemen and 842 city policemen. At one time the city of New York was protected by metropolitan police, but for various reasons, one of which was because it restricted the free exercise of the spoils system so common with city governments, the act authorizing the appointment of such police was repealed.
WAS CHRIST BORN IN B. C. 4.
Chicago, Ill.
Is it certain that Christ was born four years before the Christian era?
Chicago.
Answer.—All investigations prove conclusively that it is impossible to determine to the satisfaction of chronologists in general either the day, month, or year of Christ’s birth. It is almost universally admitted that this event preceded the commencement of the Christian era as now reckoned. St. Clement, the earliest of the “church fathers,” fixes it on Nov. 18 in the twenty-eighth year of the Emperor Augustus, a little more than two years before the beginning of our era. Since the death of Herod the Great, according to Josephus, must have occurred before Easter of B. C. 4, modern scholars are generally agreed that Christ’s birth could not have been later than B. C. 4; and there is strong reason to believe that it was in B. C. 6 or 7. See McClintock and Strong’s “Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature,” under “Jesus Christ.” As to the day and month of Christ’s birth the differences are still more difficult to overcome. Modern investigation is strongly against Christmas, or any day in mid-winter, as unseasonable either for the shepherds to be watching their flocks in the fields, or for the congregating of the people from all parts of the kingdom to be registered and taxed, which was the occasion of Mary and Joseph’s being at Bethlehem. These two arguments are used, along with others, by the Biblical scholars who hold severally to the opinions that the nativity was not earlier in the year than March, and, one party says, in March, another in April or May, another in June, and still others in July or August.
GROWTH OF ENGLISH INTEMPERANCE.
Rantoul, Ill.
Is it true that drunkenness continues to increase in England, notwithstanding the wonderful success of English and American temperance reformers and the large number of total abstainers enrolled by the Salvation Army?
A Teetotaler.
Answer.—Whatever the explanation, and whether or not it constitutes an additional argument for the temperance movement, it is declared to be a fact that the number of persons charged with drunkenness in 1881 was 1,622 more than the number charged in 1880, being 174,481 to 172,859. Furthermore, according to the excise reports there was 7½ per cent more beer drunk in 1881 than in 1880, the total quantity being 970,785,564 gallons in a population of 26,000,000, or about 31 gallons for each man, woman, and child. The increase in the population during the decade of 1871-1881 was 3,256,020, which is about 1.43 per cent a year, while the increase in drunkenness was nearly 1 per cent in the last year.
TEMPERANCE IN COMMON SCHOOLS.
Chicago, Ill.
What is the text of the bill recently proposed in the Illinois state Legislature to require teachers to give instruction in temperance? Who introduced it? What are the arguments used in its favor?
A Teacher.
Answer.—The following is the bill introduced Jan. 31 in the General Assembly of this State, by the Hon. Jesse D. Jennings, of Fayette County: “Be it enacted,” etc., “that they (the directors) shall direct that elementary instruction be given in physiology and hygiene, which shall give special prominence to the effects of alcoholic drinks, stimulants and narcotics upon the human system. The certificate of qualification held by any person who desires to teach shall show that satisfactory examination has been passed upon the effect of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics upon the human system.” The advocates of the bill maintain that, in view of the admitted evils of intemperance, and particularly the moral and physical injuries to individuals and society resulting from the use of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics, it is of the highest practical importance that the youth of the public schools be properly instructed as to the effects of these insanity engendering poisons. They say that since the State, for purposes of revenue, and also professedly with the desire of preventing abuses, has authorized men and women to publicly offer these poisons for sale, it is morally bound to warn the youth of the land not to use them except as medicine, or in the arts, as other poisons are sometimes used. They hold that those who admit the iniquities of intemperance, but are opposed to sumptuary legislation, cannot reasonably oppose this recourse to educational remedies for these appalling evils. If the law requires road commissioners, when repairing the highways, to hang out danger lights wherever they open cess-pools and sewers, or make other perilous chasms in the road, the advocates of this bill argue that it is the duty of the State licensing the opening of liquor shops to throw enough light on the traffic to prevent young people from falling into drunkenness in the dark.
CANADIAN DENOMINATIONAL STATISTICS.
Chicago, Ill.
Herewith I hand you the denominational statistics of Canada, as given in the government returns for 1881. Those recently given in Our Curiosity Shop, on the authority of Rand, McNally & Co.’s Atlas of the World, are out of date:
| Roman Catholics | 1,791,982 |
| Methodists | 742,981 |
| Presbyterians | 676,155 |
| Church of England | 574,818 |
| Baptists | 275,291 |
| Congregationalists | 26,900 |
| All other denominations | 236,683 |
| Total | 4,324,810 |
K.
TWO INDIANA TEMPERANCE RESOLUTIONS.
Oregon, Ill.
Please give us the temperance planks in the platforms of the Indiana Democracy and Indiana Republicans, as adopted in their conventions of last summer.
A Prohibitionist.
Answer.—The Indiana Democracy met in convention last August: after wrestling with the few prohibition delegates for a brief moment, they adopted the following resolution:
“The Democratic party is now, as it has always been, opposed to all sumptuary legislation, and it is especially opposed to the proposed amendment to the constitution of Indiana known as the prohibitory amendment, and we are in favor of the submission of the proposed amendment, as well as other proposed amendments, to the people, according to the provisions of the constitution for its own amendment: and the people have the right to oppose or favor the adoption of any or all the amendments at all stages of their consideration, and any submission of constitutional amendment to a vote of the people should be at a time and under circumstances most favorable to a full vote, and therefore should be at a general election.” The Republicans, several days later, on Aug. 9, adopted this resolution: “The Republican party resolves that reposing trust in the people as the fountain of power, we demand that the pending amendments to the constitution shall be agreed to and submitted by the next Legislature to the voters of the State for their decision thereon. These amendments were not partisan in their origin, and are not so in character, and should not be made so in voting upon them. Recognising the fact that the people are divided in sentiment in regard to the propriety of their adoption or rejection, and cherishing the right of private judgment, we favor the submission of these amendments to a special election, so that there may be an intelligent decision thereon, uninfluenced by partisan issues.”
PASSION PLAYS.
Berlin, Wis.
What is the origin and history of the “Passion Play,” of which we hear so much lately?
F. Peck.
Answer.—This recent dramatical representation of the passion of Christ claims its origin and justification in sentiments akin to those which it is said inspired the old religious dramas, known as “Moralities,” or “Miracle Plays.” The first composition of this nature is ascribed to Ezekiel, a Jew, who, in the third century, adapted the story of Israel’s exodus from Egypt to the Grecian stage. His object was to arouse the patriotism of his exiled and despondent countrymen and excite in them a hope for the re-establishment of their kingdom in Palestine. In the fourth century, St. Gregory Nazianzen, the Bishop of Constantinople, having noticed the effect of the Grecian drama upon the people, concluded that the readiest method of extending the church of Christ was the dramatic presentation of the sufferings of its author, which he accomplished in the drama entitled “The Passion of Christ.” When the barbarians made their inroads into Southern Europe, and the church began to extend its influence northward into the lands of the Germans, Normans, and Saxons, it found great difficulty in coping with the fascination which the heathen festivals and performances exercised over the uneducated minds of the people. In order to obviate this trouble, miracle plays were introduced. Adapting the drama to the surrounding circumstances, many of the heathen characters, slightly changed, were retained. The play was supplied with humor by the artful caprices of the impersonated devil. In one representation “Judas, assisted by the devil, who sits upon the scaffold, hangs himself. When the hanging is complete both slide down to hell on a slanting rope.” Soon after the Reformation the miracle plays began to decline, and now they are performed in only a few places, mostly in Southern Bavaria and the Tyrol. The passion play of Oberammergau is famed the world over, and attracts an immense concourse of visitors from all lands whenever it is presented. In 1633 the flax in that neighborhood became diseased and unfit for the spindle. To prevent the recurrence of any such calamity the Oberammergau peasants made a vow to God that every ten years they would present the sufferings of Christ upon the stage in this way. This vow was kept until the beginning of the present century, when the further performance of the play was prohibited. Thereupon the peasants appealed to King Maximilian, who granted them permission to continue their celebrations, providing certain objectionable features were removed. This was agreed to, and in 1811 the drama, written by Pastor Weise, was first presented devoid of the devil and comic personages. The gospel story commences with Christ’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and closes with a scene previous to the ascension. In a practical manner, the plot is developed. The money changers are driven from the temple in anger. Judas smarts under the rebuke which he received at the home of Lazarus. They meet and plan the betrayal resulting in the crucifixion. The part of Christ is impersonated by a peasant. The ignorant inhabitants still regard these plays as the most impressive and effective method of teaching the gospel and various moralities. The claim that the passion play now occupying so much of the public attention was inspired by religious motives is rejected by the public generally, and is ridiculed by the press. There is an all but unanimous feeling of opposition in England and in this country to having the passion of the Savior, the solemn tragedy of Calvary, mimicked on the stage by ordinary stage performers. This feeling led the late Mayor Grace, of New York City, to refuse to license the presentation of the play in that city, and his successor, Mayor Edson, has taken the same stand. Salmi Morse, the manager, threatens to test the legality of this interdiction. Such is the attitude of this matter at present.
RATIO OF BEEF TO LIVE WEIGHT.
Rogers Park, Ill.
What is the proportion of good meat in a well-fed beef animal compared with its live weight?
A Consumer.
Answer.—Sixty pounds of dressed beef for each 100 pounds of live weight is considered a fair average, and indicates that the animal was of good stock in first-rate marketable condition. Of course the choice cuts, consisting of the ribs, sirloin and rump steak, constitute only about half of this. So that an animal which weighs 1,000 pounds live weight will produce but about 600 pounds of dressed meat, of which the choice cuts will amount to about 310 pounds and the “coarse meat” to 290 pounds.
NAMES OF CERTAIN BLOOD RELATIVES.
Grove City, Ill.
What relation are children of first cousins? What relation is a child to its parents’ first cousin?
V. T. Houston.
Answer.—The children of first cousins are second cousins. A’s child is “first cousin removed” to A’s first cousin, while he is second cousin to the son or daughter of A’s first cousin.
FINDING LATITUDE AT SEA.
Garrison, Iowa.
Referring to the explanation of the method of determining latitude by observations on the pole star, given in a recent issue of Our Curiosity Shop, I venture to submit the following indication of the common method by which sailors ascertain their latitude at sea. It is true that latitude may be determined by means of a carefully observed altitude of the polar star, providing the apparent time of observation can be ascertained within a few minutes. This method might frequently be used at sea when the horizon is well defined if the star were of the first magnitude; but being only of the second or third it is difficult to determine the altitude with certainty. For this reason the usual method of finding the latitude at sea is by taking the altitude of the sun when on the meridian. The latitude of a place, being its distance from the equator, is measured by the arc of the meridian contained between the zenith and the equator; hence, if the distance of the sun from the zenith when on the meridian and the declination be given the latitude is easily determined.
B. F. Hussey.
AUTHORS, EDITORS, AND MANUSCRIPTS.
Mt. Hope, Kan.
Kindly explain the editorial rules governing the receipt and treatment of manuscript offered for publication, whether intended for newspapers, periodicals, or books. Suppose, too, that an author should send the manuscript of a book to a publisher on the promise that it would be returned if not accepted, how long ought it to be before he should be notified of its receipt and acceptance or rejection?
W. S. W.
Answer.—There is no definite general rule for these matters beyond the common understanding that the editor must attend first of all to the regular routine of his office, and manuscript must wait, until he has time to read it. In the case of contributions to a periodical, it is understood unless contributors specifically request the return of their contributions and inclose postage stamps for this purpose, that the editor, if he does not use them, is at liberty to consign them to the waste basket. It is not unusual for contributions to literary magazines and standard reviews to lie on the editors’ tables for a month or six weeks before the verdict “accepted” or “rejected” is pronounced. A glance at a contribution, even the mere subject, indicates to the editor whether the article is likely to suffer by delay. Stories and many other contributions will keep; current news and kindred matters will not. These manuscripts must be read at once; those must wait; and how long, only the editor is in the position to determine. Even after articles are accepted the same law prevails, and the circumstances of each particular issue determine what is to be used and what “held over.” It frequently happens that editorials which have cost the editor serious labor, and are actually in type, are crowded out by unexpected events which must take precedence, and are held back by a succession of such events until too stale to be used, and the writer is forced to write “kill” over against the children of his own heart and brain. Many a disgusted contributor would feel less mortified and indignant at the rejection of his offering if he could understand all the circumstances of the case. The contribution rejected to-day might have been gladly accepted had it come a day sooner. An article accepted yesterday and paid for, perhaps never appears; why, only the editor can explain. Even champagne tastes flat after it has stood a few moments; witticisms are still-born if not ushered in at the right instant. The book-publisher is subject to similar influences, but not in the same degree as the editor of a newspaper or review. But many a book manuscript has been rejected because out of season. Many another has been rejected because the writer was impatient and the editor, rather than keep him in such a mood and unwilling to take the responsibility of publishing what he had not read with critical care, has relieved himself by returning it “with thanks.” It is no slight matter for an editor to read and so digest a book, in which the publisher is asked to invest from $1,000 to $5,000, as to enable him to pronounce a favorable judgment with confidence. Of course long and carefully prepared manuscripts, especially books, are entitled to more consideration than ordinary newspaper contributions; and should never be destroyed until the authors have been courteously notified that they are not wanted, and have had ample time to send for them. In the supposed case of the above question, acknowledgment of receipt of the book manuscript should have been mailed as soon as it came to hand, unless it was received by express or as registered mail matter, and from thirty to sixty days, according to the length and nature of the book would not be too long to grant the editor or publisher before expecting a decision. Except in special cases, editors of newspapers do not receipt by mail for contributions sent to them.
RAILROAD MILEAGE.
Oshkosh, Wis.
Please give a few statistics in reference to railroad construction in the United States and in the more important foreign countries.
W. L. Frost.
Answer.—The number of miles of railroad in the world constructed prior to Jan. 1, 1881, was 226,442, of which sum 93,671 miles were within the United States. Germany had built 21,037 miles; Great Britain and Ireland, 17,696; France, 15,287; Russia, 13,571; Austria-Hungary, 11,471; British India, 8,615; Canada, 6,891; Italy, 4,999, and Spain, 4,264. During the year 1881 the railway mileage of this country increased to 104,813 miles, to which the year 1882 added 10,821 miles, making a grand total of 115,634 miles. To build these great highways and properly equip them about $5,750,000,000 have been expended. Iowa during the past year took the lead, having constructed 953.37 miles, and Texas followed close after with 817 miles of new road.
A FEW AMERICAN WORTHIES.
Manson, Iowa.
Please name five or more of the greatest of the following classes of Americans: Orators, poets, historians, inventors.
George Bell.
Answer.—Any answer to such a question is largely a matter of personal opinion. Among political orators Patrick Henry, James Otis, Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, Thomas Pike, Sergeant Smith Prentiss, John C. Calhoun stand among the most illustrious. As to pulpit orators, it would be invidious to name one without designating at least fifty who are evidently of the same rank. Our great poets have not been many. First among them have been and still are, as regards fame, William Cullen Bryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, George Denison Prentice, and Nathaniel P. Willis. Whittier, T. Buchanan Read, Holmes. Lowell, Miller, Holland, Saxe, Morris, Mrs. Sigourney, are poets not soon to be forgotten. Irving, Sparks, Prescott, Bancroft, are among our most eminent historians. Fulton, inventor of the steamboat; Morse, inventor of the first practical electric telegraph; Whitney, inventor of the cotton-gin, and Howe, inventor of the first successful sewing machine, are among the first of the ten thousand American inventors who have done the world noteworthy service. Edison and several hundred other inventors, who have improved upon the inventions of their predecessors until they have doubled, trebled, and in some instances quadrupled their value to the world, are quite as worthy to be remembered.
RAILROAD LAND GRANTS.
Oshkosh, Wis.
Give us the total amount of public lands granted by the United States to aid in the construction of railways, and oblige a subscriber.
W. L. Frost.
Answer.—The table below shows the total land grants made by the United States down to 1880, as given in “The West in 1880.”
| States and | Acres | Acres |
| Corporations. | Granted. | Certified. |
| Illinois | 2,595,053 | 2,595,053 |
| Missouri | 2,985,160 | 1,828,005 |
| Iowa | 6,795,527 | 3,940,270 |
| Michigan | 4,712,480 | 3,328,987 |
| Wisconsin | 4,808,486 | 2,672,803 |
| Minnesota | 9,992,041 | 6,925,351 |
| Kansas | 9,370,000 | 3,851,536 |
| Pacific Railroad | 159,486,766 | 8,831,687 |
| Total | 215,203,807 | 42,847,403 |
These grants, amounting in the aggregate to 215,203,807 acres, or over 355,000 square miles, are only about 6,000 miles less in area than all the original thirteen States of the Union taken together, and is more than 60 per cent greater than the total area of the German Empire. Fortunately for the country, a number of these grants have been forfeited; yet, as above shown, 42,847,403 acres, or more than the total area of England and Wales together, had been actually certified to the States and roads named before June 30, 1879; and many acres have been certified since that time. The exact amount down to date is not yet published. To avoid taxation, the railroads entitled to public lands delay taking their certificates until the settlement of the country and opportunity for selling make it to their interest to do so. A large amount of the land covered by the above grants will be certified to the grantees on demand.
POPULATION OF THE GLOBE.
Unionville, Iowa.
Please state in Our Curiosity Shop the estimated present population of the world. Also, the population of the United States according to the revised census of 1880.
A. J. R.
Answer.—The population of the entire globe is still far from being definitely determined. Hardly two original investigators agree. In this country the estimates of Drs. Behm and Wagner are generally accepted as the most reliable, yet their latest figures differ from those of two years before by upward of 22,000,000. Then they stated the population of the entire globe at 1,455,923,500, whereas now they state it at 1,433,887,500, distributed as follows:
| Europe | 327,743,400 |
| Asia | 795,591,000 |
| Africa | 205,823,200 |
| America | 100,415,400 |
| Australia and Polynesia | 4,232,000 |
| Polar regions | 82,500 |
One might infer from this that instead of increasing, as would be naturally expected, the human race is dying out: but closer inspection shows that the estimate of the population of China has been reduced about 55,000,000. Accepting this and all the other estimates, there seems to be an increase in other countries of about 33,000,000; part of which is due to the fact that the geographers had the benefit of the census takers in different countries in 1880 and 1881, showing the growth of five to ten years. The total population of the United States in 1880, according to the revised census, is 50,155,783.
DRINKING FROM SKULLS.
Burlington, Iowa.
What is the origin of the expression “A soldier’s drinking cup,” as applied to a human skull?
Wm. A. T.
Answer.—Thomas Middleton was a dramatic writer who flourished in the early part of the seventeenth century. In “The Witch,” one of his most celebrated plays, when “the Duke” takes a bowl and is told that it is a skull, he exclaims:
“Call it a soldier’s cup;
Our Duchess, I know, will pledge us, tho’ the cup
Was once her father’s head, which, as a trophy,
We’ll keep till death.”
The barbarous custom of converting the skulls of enemies into drinking cups was a common one in ancient times among the fierce tribes of Northern Europe; and was not unknown to the more civilized regions of the South. The Italian poet, Marino, makes a conclave of friends in Pandemonium quaff wine from the skull of Minerva. In his “Wonder of a Kingdom,” Torrent makes Dakker say:
“Would I had ten thousand soldiers’ heads,
Their skulls set all in silver, to drink healths
To his confusion who first invented war.”
The old Scandinavian sagas represent as among the delights of the immortals the felicity of feasting and drinking to drunkenness from the skulls of the foes they had vanquished on earth. Mandeville goes further, and represents the Guebres as exposing the dead bodies of their parents to the fowls of the air until nothing but the skeletons remained, and preserving the skulls to be used in a spirit of devotion as drinking cups.
GENERAL WILLIAM W. AVERELL.
Etna, Mo.
Give a short sketch of General Averell.
M. M. Shanes.
Answer.—General William W. Averell was born in the State of New York in 1830. At the age of 25 he graduated at West Point, and began his military career as Lieutenant of mounted riflemen on the Western frontier. In the rebellion he took an active part in the battles of Bull Run, Yorktown, Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, Malvern Hill, Fredericksburg, Kelly’s Ford, Opequan, Fisher’s Hill, and various other engagements in West Virginia, Tennessee, and the Shenandoah Valley, at the same time being successively brevetted Major, Lieutenant Colonel, Colonel, Brigadier General, and Major General, U. S. A. In 1865 he resigned, and in the following year represented the United States as Consul General in Canada. Afterward he retired to accept the Presidency of a manufacturing company in New York.
PRINCE GORTSCHAKOFF AND THE UNION.
Chicago, Ill.
What was the action of the late Prince Gortschakoff during our civil war that is alluded to in the recent obituary notices of that diplomat as a reason for the gratitude of Americans?
O. N. Adams.
Answer.—Prince Alexander M. Gortschakoff, who was at that time the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, when invited, at a critical time in the history of our civil war, to associate Russia with England and France in their unfriendly attitude toward the United States, involving, among other things, a proposition to recognize the independence of the Southern Confederacy, positively declined. The following extract from one of his state papers at that juncture shows his disposition toward this country, which he quickly emphasized by dispatching a Russian fleet to New York as a proof of his friendship and sincerity; an act which greatly alarmed and disconcerted both England and France, since many of their politicians jumped to the inference that there was a secret treaty of alliance between the two countries, and that in case of a rupture Russia would openly take sides with the United States. These are the words of the dispatch alluded to, and Americans should not soon forget them:
“The North American Republic not only presents itself to us as an indispensable element of the international balance of power, but, besides that, it is a Nation toward which our most august Emperor and the whole of Russia have always had a most friendly disposition, because both countries are in the ascendant period of their development, and seemed called to a natural unity of interests and sympathies, proofs of which have already been given on both sides.”
WOOD USED AS FUEL.
Moline, Ill.
How does the amount of wood used as fuel in Illinois compare with the quantity used in Pennsylvania, New York State, Iowa, and Kansas? State the average for each inhabitant, and tell the average price of such fuel in each of these States, so far as the market prices can be ascertained.
D. Morgan.
Answer.—The extent to which wood is used as fuel in the United States, and the estimated value of the same, are among the subjects investigated by the present Census Bureau. The special agent in charge of this investigation estimates that there were 32,375,000 persons in the United States in 1880 using wood as fuel for domestic purposes, consuming 140,537,439 cords, valued at $306,950,040. Besides this, there were about five and a quarter million cords consumed for other purposes, making a total of nearly three hundred and twenty-two million cords, as follows:
| Uses. | Cords. | Value. |
| Domestic use | 140,537,439 | $306,950,040 |
| Railroads | 1,971,813 | 5,126,714 |
| Steamboats | 787,862 | 1,872,083 |
| In mining and amalgamating precious metal | 358,074 | 2,874,593 |
| Other mining operations | 266,771 | 673,692 |
| Manufacture of brick and tile | 1,157,522 | 3,978,331 |
| Manufacture of salt | 540,448 | 421,681 |
| Manufacture of wool | 158,208 | 425,239 |
| Grand total | 145,778,137 | $321,962,273 |
The amount of wood used for domestic purposes is given by States as follows:
| States. | Cords. | Value. |
| Alabama | 6,076,754 | $8,727,377 |
| Arizona | 170,017 | 724,572 |
| Arkansas | 3,922,400 | 5,095,821 |
| California | 1,748,062 | 7,693,731 |
| Colorado | 426,719 | 1,638,783 |
| Connecticut | 525,639 | 2,371,532 |
| Dakota | 422,948 | 2,028,300 |
| Delaware | 177,306 | 751,311 |
| District of Columbia | 26,902 | 80,706 |
| Florida | 609,046 | 1,230,412 |
| Georgia | 5,910,045 | 8,279,245 |
| Idaho | 09,910 | 383,689 |
| Illinois | 5,200,104 | 14,136,662 |
| Indiana | 7,059,874 | 13,334,729 |
| Iowa | 4,090,649 | 14,611,280 |
| Kansas | 2,095,438 | 7,328,723 |
| Kentucky | 7,994,813 | 13,313,220 |
| Louisiana | 1,944,858 | 4,607,415 |
| Maine | 1,215,881 | 4,078,137 |
| Maryland | 1,152,910 | 3,170,941 |
| Massachusetts | 890,041 | 4,613,263 |
| Michigan | 7,838,904 | 13,197,240 |
| Minnesota | 1,669,568 | 5,873,421 |
| Mississippi | 5,090,758 | 7,145,116 |
| Missouri | 4,016,373 | 8,633,465 |
| Montana | 119,947 | 460,638 |
| Nebraska | 908,188 | 3,859,843 |
| Nevada | 155,276 | 972,712 |
| New Hampshire | 567,719 | 1,964,669 |
| New Jersey | 642,598 | 2,787,216 |
| New Mexico | 169,946 | 1,063,360 |
| New York | 11,290,975 | 37,599,364 |
| North Carolina | 7,434,690 | 9,019,569 |
| Ohio | 8,191,543 | 16,492,574 |
| Oregon | 482,254 | 1,254,511 |
| Pennsylvania | 7,361,962 | 15,067,651 |
| Rhode Island | 154,953 | 706,011 |
| South Carolina | 3,670,959 | 11,505,997 |
| Tennessee | 8,084,611 | 10,674,722 |
| Texas | 4,883,852 | 10,177,311 |
| Utah | 171,923 | 418,289 |
| Vermont | 782,338 | 2,509,189 |
| Virginia | 5,416,112 | 10,404,134 |
| Washington | 184,226 | 499,904 |
| West Virginia | 2,241,069 | 3,374,701 |
| Wisconsin | 7,206,126 | 11,863,739 |
| Wyoming | 40,218 | 224,848 |
From the above data we have prepared the following table showing the average number of cords consumed for domestic purposes only (stated in cords and hundredths of a cord), the average price per cord, and total consumption for each man, woman, and child in each of the States named in the above question:
| States. | Cords per capita. | Value per cord. | Cost per capita. |
| In Pennsylvania | 1.72 | $2.05 | $3.52 |
| In New York | 2.22 | 3.32 | 7.37 |
| In Illinois | 1.70 | 2.27 | 4.90 |
| In Iowa | 2.45 | 3.57 | 8.75 |
| In Kansas | 2.14 | 3.50 | 7.49 |
According to this exhibit the effect of the marvelous coal fields of Pennsylvania and Illinois on the consumption and price of wood is very apparent and significant. The above does not include the wood converted into charcoal, of which there were 74,008,972 bushels, valued at $5,276,736, consumed in the production of iron and the precious metals in the twenty largest cities of the Union; which does not cover probably half the entire amount used in this country.
LARGEST AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVES.
Keokuk, Iowa.
What is the weight of the largest locomotive engine; and what is the number of its drive wheels?
Reader.
Answer.—This question was referred to Messrs. Burnham, Parry, Williams & Co., of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, and their reply in full is subjoined:
“Replying to your favor of the 8th inst., we may say that there has been considerable activity of late in the construction of very large locomotives, the most approved railroad practice having changed materially within the past few years with respect to the weight of the engines employed. We have recently built some very heavy locomotives for the Northern Pacific Railroad, which weigh, in working order, exclusive of the tender, about 115,000 pounds. The tenders with coal and water weigh about 65,000 pounds each, additional, making the total weight of engine and tender some ninety net tons. These engines have cylinders 20x24 inches.
The Central Pacific Railroad Company have recently built in their Sacramento shops some very heavy locomotives with four pairs of driving wheels coupled and a leading four-wheeled truck, which weigh in working order, exclusive of the tender, about 123,000 pounds. The weight of the tender, with coal and water, is about 65,000 pounds, making the total net weight of the engine and tender some ninety-three net tons. These engines have cylinders nineteen inches in diameter and thirty inches stroke, and are probably at this time the heaviest engines in use in this country.”
BUTTER PRODUCT OF A GOOD COW.
Peoria, Ill.
1. What may be fairly regarded as the average annual butter product of a good class of dairy cows? 2. Is not $50 an exorbitant price to pay for an average cow?
Young Housekeeper.
Answer.—Of course the butter product depends on the kind of stock, the pasturage and winter feed, the care of the cattle, and the skill and industry of the butter-maker. The following statement of Mr. Wm. Guinter, of Twin Grove, Wis., shows the average annual product of butter realized by him from six cows, together with the average value of this product: “I have kept a strict account for one year of the income from six cows. I have sold 1,185 pounds of butter, and counting four pounds a week of cream and butter for family use of four persons, increases the total product to 1,393 pounds. The highest price received per pound was 38 cents, and the lowest was 16 cents, making an average of 26 cents. The whole amount realized, then, was $362.18, or $60.36 a cow. I have my cows come in fresh in the fall on account of making a better quality of butter and getting a better price. I keep them in good condition all winter: feed chopped corn and oats and all the clover hay they want. Feed about three quarts of chop twice a day to each cow. My cows are only the common grade. I have clover pastures, but never turn cattle in till the first or middle of May, so as to let it get a good start, and then the pasture will be good all summer. Some of my neighbors ask: ‘Do you think it pays?’ I do it whether it pays or not: but I think it does. You can’t expect a great yield of milk from straw and dry cornstalks. What stock you keep, keep well. It will pay.” 2. Obviously the value of a good milch cow depends somewhat on the locality. A cow is worth more in the immediate neighborhood of a good market than in a region remote from such a market. With the above average product of a good cow, in pounds, to guide one, every intelligent person can form a judgment as to whether it will be profitable for him, taking the price of butter and feed in his own market, to pay $50, or more or less, for a good cow.
VACCINATING IMMIGRANTS.
Washington, Ill.
Is it true that there are government physicians who examine all immigrants from Europe and compel them to submit to revaccination before they allow them to pass certain stations? If so, by what authority is this done?
A Doubter.
Answer.—The best answer to these questions is contained in the reports of the supervising inspectors of the National Board of Health, under whose authority, conferred by an act of Congress, the examination, or inspection, of immigrants entering the United States and traveling therein is conducted. The report of the Supervising Inspector of the Western District, Dr. John H. Rauch, Springfield, Ill., dated Nov. 10, 1882, shows that in this district there were 94,839 immigrants inspected between June 1 and Oct. 31, 1882, of whom 17,195, with or without their consent, were vaccinated, as the case seemed in the judgment of the assistant inspectors to call for:
| Number | Number | |
| Stations. | inspected. | vaccinated. |
| Pitts. Ft. W. & Chi. R. R. | 17,347 | 2,539 |
| Lake S. & M. S. R. R. | 14,011 | 2,285 |
| Mich. C. R. R. | 22,330 | 6,145 |
| Grand Trunk R. R. | 9,356 | 1,875 |
| Balt. & Ohio R. R. | 10,688 | 2,348 |
| Indianapolis | 13,746 | 1,635 |
| St. Louis | 7,361 | 368 |
| Total | 94,839 | 17,195 |
Cases of small-pox found on the trains by the inspectors are removed to small-pox hospitals. There were seven such cases in October, 1882, in the Western District.
BRIDGES AND RHYTHMIC VIBRATION.
St. Paul., Minn.
Does music weaken metallic or other bridges? If so, please explain why.
A. M. G.
Answer.—Measured vibrations are more trying to any kind of bridges, and particularly to suspension bridges, than irregular agitation. Music alone would not strain a bridge enough to injure it materially; but a regiment of troops keeping step to music when crossing a suspension bridge would subject it to a very severe strain. Consequently it is customary to stop the music before troops reach the bridge, and let the men break step, and march more or less irregularly. The reason of all this is obvious. The structure will naturally suffer least strain when at rest. When in uniform motion the bridge acquires a momentum equal to its entire suspended weight multiplied by the velocity of the motion. It is manifest that, in the case of a heavy structure, a uniform downward vibration, be it ever so small, would develop a momentum of many tons in the direction of a breaking strain. The same disturbing forces acting irregularly, so as to counteract one another, would be far less trying to the structure.
THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.
Vandalia, Ill.
Please give us the principal dates in the Franco-Prussian War.
T. M. K.
Answer.—The Franco-Prussian war was formally declared, on the part of France, July 19, 1870. The South German States, since then incorporated with Prussia and the other North German States in what is now called the German Empire, soon took sides and the Franco-Prussian war became the Franco-German war. On Sept. 1 the Emperor Napoleon surrendered his sword at Sedan. The war was protracted through the winter by the obstinate resistance of Paris, but the German army entered the city on Feb. 28, 1871, and ratifications of the preliminary treaty of peace were exchanged March 3. The severest fighting was over, and France was virtually at the mercy of Germany at the end of the first four months.
NATIONAL DEBTS OF FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN.
Chicago, Ill.
Which is the greater, the present national debt of France or that of Great Britain?
J. C. C.
Answer.—The present national debt of France is considerably larger than the national debt of Great Britain. On Jan. 1, 1879, the former was £794,481,439, and it has increased since then. On March 31, 1881, the latter was £768,703,692.
THE LEANING TOWER OF PISA.
Chicago, Ill.
In what city is the great belfry spoken of as “the leaning tower?” When was it built; and was it purposely constructed to lean as it does?
S. L.
Answer.—You probably refer to what is known as “the leaning tower of Pisa,” in one of the oldest and most famous cities of Italy. It is a campanile, or bell tower, commenced in 1174, by Bonannus of Pisa, and William of Innsbruck. It is cylindrical in shape, 50 feet in diameter, 179 feet high, and leans about 13 feet out of perpendicular. It is divided into eight stories, each having an exterior colonnade, or gallery. The top is reached by 330 steps. It was not purposely built to lean. The foundation settled more on one side than on the other until it reached the present inclination, which it has maintained with scarcely any perceptible increase for hundreds of years. The defect in the foundation was discovered before its completion, and the upper part of the structure was built in a manner to counteract in part the inclination; and the grand chime of bells, seven in number, of which the largest alone weighs 12,000 pounds, is mounted with reference to counteract this fault still further. This magnificent tower is justly regarded as one of the wonders of the world.
VIRGINIA STATE DEBT.
Oxford, Iowa.
What proportion of the State debt of Virginia do the “Readjusters” intend to repudiate? What part of it was created during the late civil war? Is the State really unable to pay its creditors? Give a few of the chief features of this Virginia debt controversy.
F. G. A.
Answer.—The whole of the Virginia State debt was contracted before the war, for railroads, canals, turnpikes, and public buildings, including penal and charitable institutions. Of course any debts made in aid of the rebellion were wiped out by section 4 of the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States. On Jan. 1, 1861, the State owed $33,248,141.63. On Jan. 1, 1870, owing to non-payment of interest during the intervening ten years, the debt had accumulated to $45,660,348. The constitutions of Virginia and West Virginia (the latter of which had been constructed out of Virginia during the war) both provided for an equitable apportionment of this joint indebtedness; but the two States have never agreed on a division. In March, 1871, the State of Virginia passed an act to set aside one-third of the debt to West Virginia, which contained about one-fifth of the population and one-third of the territory of the original State and a trifling proportion of the public improvements for which the debt was created, and to give the bondholders new bonds payable in thirty-four years with 6 per cent interest annually, and certificates promising that the payment of the remaining one-third would be provided for in accordance with such settlement as should thereafter be made with West Virginia. This left as the debt of the present State of Virginia $29,614,793 (report of Second Auditor, 1881). The State’s creditors hastened to exchange old evidences of indebtedness for the new bonds, which went forward rapidly until about two-thirds of the whole were refunded, when, a majority of Readjusters having been elected to the Legislature, the process of refunding was stopped. The old bonds left outstanding by this sudden change of policy constitute what is known as the “Peeler debt.” The interest coupons on the new bonds were “receivable for taxes and all dues and demands against the State,” and have been honored, but the interest on the Peeler debt has been paid only in part. In 1879 the creditors proposed the exchange of the bonds then outstanding for new bonds bearing 3 per cent interest for ten years, 4 per cent for twenty years, and 5 per cent for ten years, making an average of 4 per cent. The total principal of the debt at this time was $29,367,958.06. Accordingly the “McCulloch bill” was passed, binding the State to this settlement: and bonds to the amount of $8,000,000 were issued under this law. Senator Johnston, in an article in the North American Review setting forth the above facts, claims that, had the law been faithfully executed, the surplus revenue of 1879, after paying interest on all the State’s indebtedness and all State expenses of the government and the public schools, would have been more than $400,000, which would have gone to pay off so much of the principal.
Senator Riddleberger, in his reply to Mr. Johnston, in the North American Review for April, 1882, declares that instead of there being any surplus in the State Treasury at the close of 1879, the Readjusters found, on their accession to power, Jan. 1, 1880, “a great mass of the proposed McCulloch tax-receivable certificates ready for issue. They were forced to borrow money to run the government. Half a million of money, due by defaulting treasurers, was uncollected and unsued for. Over $1,500,000 had been diverted from the schools. The charitable institutions of the State were on the verge of bankruptcy.” Nevertheless, the boast of the Virginia press, that the mining, manufacturing, and agricultural resources of the State are developing more rapidly than before the war, is generally believed to be true; the crops of the six principal cereals and potatoes, tobacco, and hay in 1881 amounted to $44,280,690, and the live stock to $33,538,877; the taxable value of property, real and personal, even at the low assessment prevailing, is given at $308,455,135: facts which lead the world to believe that Virginia is perfectly able to pay her debt. Taking the total debt under the McCulloch bill at what Senator Mahone placed it at the time of the passage of the bill, the annual interest would have amounted to not quite $990,000, which, added to $565,000 for public schools and arrearages, and $765,000 for current expenses of the State Government, would make but $2,320,000. That same year the net revenue, if faithfully collected, would have amounted to $2,606,425.36, so that there would have been a remainder of $286,500 to apply as a sinking fund. Since then the Riddleberger bill has become a law, and the debt has been scaled down to about $20,000,000, instead of about $33,000,000, which is nearly what it would be had the McCulloch law been carried out. As there is no provision for the payment of the $15,239,370 set over to West Virginia, and which the latter repudiates on the ground that she has offsets to all her proportion of the original debt, it appears that the total loss to the State’s creditors, adding the accrued interest on the latter amount, is over $36,000,000, or fully 80 per cent of the amount conceded by the act of 1871 to be the total sum then due them.
POINTS OF A GOOD SHOT-GUN.
Fourche, D. T.
What are the essentials of a good shot-gun? Name several prime quality guns.
H. M. Eastman.
Answer.—The following, in the opinion of skilled manufacturers and practiced sportsmen of this city, are essentials of a first-class shot-gun. The barrel should be of laminated or Damascus steel or stub-twist (the former being generally preferred), and full choke or modified choke bore. A taper bore is also highly esteemed. Length of barrel, 28 to 32 inches; bore, 10 to 12 gauge. The gun should be a breech-loader, with rebounding lock and extension rib. Pistol grip, patent fore-end are points insisted on by some, although they are hardly to be classed as essentials. The front action or bar lock is a feature of many of the best guns. Among English guns the Greener and Scott stand very high; among Belgian, Charles Daly; among American, Parker, Colt, Remington, Nichols & Lefevre, and Baker; and in the Northwest, the Abby gun, manufactured in this city, is a favorite. Good English guns range from $350 to $400. Good American guns with English barrels may be had at prices ranging from $200 to $300.
WEALTH OF THE UNITED STATES PER CAPITA.
Woodlawn, Mo.
Please give the wealth of each State, together with the wealth per capita.
Reader.
Answer.—The following statistics represent the amount of taxable property, real and personal in each State and Territory, and also the amount per capita.
| Total. | Per capita. | |
| Maine | $235,978,716 | 362.09 |
| New Hampshire | 164,755,181 | 474.81 |
| Vermont | 86,806,755 | 261.24 |
| Massachusetts | 1,584,756,802 | 888.77 |
| Rhode Island | 252,536,673 | 913.23 |
| Connecticut | 327,177,385 | 525.41 |
| New York | 2,651,940,000 | 521.74 |
| New Jersey | 572,518,361 | 506.06 |
| Pennsylvania | 1,683,459,016 | 393.08 |
| Delaware | 59,951,643 | 408.92 |
| Maryland | 497,307,675 | 533.07 |
| District of Columbia | 99,401,787 | 845.08 |
| Virginia | 308,455,135 | 203.92 |
| West Virginia | 139,622,705 | 225.75 |
| North Carolina | 156,100,202 | 111.52 |
| South Carolina | 153,560,135 | 154.24 |
| Georgia | 239,472,599 | 155.82 |
| Florida | 30,938,309 | 114.80 |
| Alabama | 122,867,228 | 97.32 |
| Mississippi | 110,628,129 | 97.76 |
| Louisiana | 160,162,439 | 170.39 |
| Texas | 320,364,515 | 201.26 |
| Arkansas | 86,409,364 | 176.71 |
| Kentucky | 350,563,971 | 212.63 |
| Tennessee | 211,778,538 | 137.30 |
| Ohio | 1,534,360,508 | 479.77 |
| Indiana | 727,815,131 | 367.89 |
| Illinois | 786,616,394 | 255.24 |
| Michigan | 517,666,359 | 316.23 |
| Wisconsin | 438,971,751 | 333.69 |
| Iowa | 398,671,251 | 245.39 |
| Minnesota | 258,028,687 | 330.48 |
| Missouri | 532,795,801 | 245.72 |
| Kansas | 160,891,689 | 161.52 |
| Nebraska | 90,585,782 | 200.23 |
| Colorado | 74,471,693 | 383.22 |
| Nevada | 29,291,459 | 470.40 |
| Oregon | 52,522,084 | 300.52 |
| California | 584,578,036 | 676.05 |
| Arizona | 9,270,214 | 229.23 |
| Dakota | 20,321,530 | 150.33 |
| Idaho | 6,440,876 | 197.51 |
| Montana | 18,609,802 | 475.23 |
| New Mexico | 11,363,406 | 95.04 |
| Utah | 24,775,279 | 172.09 |
| Washington | 23,810,603 | 316.98 |
| Wyoming | 13,621,829 | 655.24 |
| Total | $16,902,993,543 | 337.00 |
THE OLDEST HISTORIANS.
Fourche, D. T.
Were there historians before Berosus, Manetho, and Herodotus, whose works have come down to us in Greek, Latin, or other European languages?
H. M. Eastman.
Answer.—Herodotus is the oldest of the Greek historians. He was born 484 B. C. He is generally recognized as the father of history. Berosus was an educated priest of Babylon, who lived about 260 B. C., and wrote in Greek three books of Babylonian-Chaldean history, the materials for which he declares he found in the ancient archives of Babylon. Manetho was an Egyptian historian, of the priestly order, who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Soter, in the beginning of the third century B. C. He, too, obtained the materials for his works from the temple records at his command, from which he wrote two works, one on the religion and the other on the history of Egypt. Only fragments of the writings of Berosus and Manetho remain—preserved in the works of Josephus, Eusebius, and other later writers. There are historical records on the ancient monuments of Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria which date back to earlier days, but except the historical books of the Old Testament, beginning with those of Moses (who was born 1738 B. C.), and some of the writings of Confucius (born 551 B. C.), there is nothing antedating the writings of Herodotus that is regarded as history.
FORMS OF LEAD CRYSTALS.
Burlingame, Kan.
Why is east and west lead ore always in cubes, while it is not always so with lead found in north and south lodes?
C. A. Damon.
Answer.—The primitive form of galena, or sulphate of lead, crystals is the cube. Whenever left free to crystallize, subject to no extraneous force or pressure, this ore takes that form. At cross veins it takes modified forms, the angles and edges of the cubes being replaced by faces, so as in many cases to form octahedral crystals. Now just why lead seems to have been more free to take its simple primitive form when crystallizing in east and west veins or lodes than in veins running in other directions is still largely a matter of theory or conjecture. Some theorists think that the north and south magnetic currents, to which the polarity of the magnetic needle is attributed, have something to do with this phenomenon, but a great many other wise people think nobody knows.
NATIONS OF THE GLOBE.
Silver Lake, Ind.
How many nations are there on the globe? Has each of them a flag?
J. F. Clymer.
Answer.—The following is a full list of the nations of the world, each of which has its own distinctive national colors or flag: The United States of America, Mexico, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, San Salvador, Costa Rica, the United States of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Argentine Confederation, Uruguay, Paraguay, Brazil, Venezuela, Hayti, and San Domingo, which are all the independent nationalities of North and South America and the West India Islands; Great Britain and her dependencies in both hemispheres, France and her dependencies in Asia, Africa, and Oceanica, the German Empire, Austro-Hungary, Russia, Italy, Spain and her dependencies in both hemispheres; Portugal and her dependencies in Asia and Africa, Switzerland, Belgium, Netherlands and her dependencies in both hemispheres, Denmark and her colonial possessions, Sweden and Norway, Greece, Roumania, Servia, Montenegro, Turkey or the Ottoman Empire, Andorra, San Marino, and Monaco; the only independent States of Africa (except those wholly savage), Liberia, Orange River Free State, Transvaal Republic, Morocco, and Abyssinia; the only independent nationalities of all Asia—Persia, Burmah, Afghanistan, Beloochistan, Siam, China, and Japan; finally the Sandwich Islands. This makes a total of fifty-seven nations universally recognized and diplomatically treated as such, although several of them, like Afghanistan and Burmah, are little more than nominally independent, and two of them—Monaco, with an area of only 5¾ square miles, or less than a Congressional township in this country, and a population less than 6,000, and San Marino, with an area of barely 23-8/10 square miles and less than 8,000 inhabitants—are so insignificant in comparison with their great neighbors that it seems a mockery of the name to call them nations. Indian tribes, Esquimaux, tribes of Africa, Asia, and Australia, although taken into treaty relations as independent or quasi independent peoples, are never correctly spoken of as nations in the sense in which the term is used in international law.
ENTERING LAND IN DAKOTA.
Huston, D. T.
Nine-tenths of the persons who have inquired of me about Dakota land entries since my brief note in The Inter Ocean did not inclose stamps or postal cards for replies. I have answered all that did observe this plain business rule. I am no land agent, nor have I land to sell, so I ask you to publish the following notes, which will answer nearly all the questions asked me. [A person should not invite a general correspondence through a paper like The Inter Ocean, “whose parish is the world,” unless he is prepared to employ one or two stenographic correspondence clerks. In almost every instance that we have published contributors’ invitations to Farm and Home readers to write to them, these rash friends have sent us word that they were deluged with correspondence.—Ed]. Of course, in the beginning all the government land in Douglas County, D. T., was subject to entry under the pre-emption and homestead or timber-culture acts. But at present there are not more than three hundred vacant quarters in the county, and, since the timber-culture act only allows one such claim in each section, these unentered quarters can be taken only under the homestead and pre-emption acts. A timber-culture claimant is required to plant ten acres of trees and protect and cultivate them for eight years. As no settlement is required, these claims are in good demand, the relinquishments selling for from $200 to $400, owing to location. Under the pre-emption law the settler pays $2 to file his claim. After he has lived upon the land six months final proof can be made by paying $1.25 per acre. Under this entry the claimant is allowed thirty-three months in which to prove up, at the end of which time, if he has not complied with this requirement, the land is again open for settlement. Under the homestead law the settler pays $14 to enter. He has then six months in which to begin his residence on the land, after which time, if he has not complied with the law, it can be contested on the ground of abandonment. Where a settler is unable to begin his residence and settlement within the time allowed by law, he can dispose of the claim by relinquishing to the government and allowing some one else to enter. Nearly all the land throughout the central part of the county has been taken; and what government land there is remaining is mostly in the western part and around the borders of the county. Relinquishments range in price from $50 to $300, owing to location and quality of the land.
H. S. Brown.
RECORDS OF THE BRITISH CELTS.
Dunlap, Iowa.
Had the Celts, at the time of the invasion by Julius Cæsar of what is now England and Wales, any records by which their origin could be traced?
J. H. G. Rogers.
Answer.—That they had any written records there is great reason to doubt, although there are inscriptions on certain rude stone monuments in parts of Wales, as in the southeastern counties of Munster, Ireland, consisting of long and short lines, known as Ogamic characters, the antiquity of which is not well determined. As far as deciphered, these inscriptions throw no direct light upon the origin of the Celtic race. Their spoken language, reduced to writing after the introduction of Christianity, is the only key of any importance to their origin. This language plainly marks them as an early offshoot of the Aryan family, the common Asiatic stock from which all the ruling races of Europe have descended. The descriptions left by the Romans of the aborigines of Britain at the time of the Roman conquest represent them as fierce, cruel barbarians. Neither Cæsar’s Commentaries nor the writings of Tacitus and other historians of the period of the Roman domination convey evidence that the Britons had any knowledge of letters until the Roman and Greek characters were taught them. Neither do these historians preserve any oral traditions of the British bards or druids calculated to shed much light upon the early history of the Celtic race.
REPUDIATING STATES.
Bement, Ill.
Name the States which have repudiated their debts, in whole or in part, and tell what party was responsible for the act in every case.
J. C. Miller.
Answer.—Virginia, W. Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Minnesota have each of them, at one time or another, repudiated a part of their State debts. Illinois repented almost immediately in sackcloth and ashes, and settled with her creditors. Indiana has settled everything but about twenty old internal-improvement bonds, which will no doubt soon be liquidated. Minnesota has recently determined to settle with her creditors, although the railroads, in aid of which the repudiated bonds were issued, were not constructed in conformity with the law, and the bonds are badly tainted with fraud. In every case but that of Minnesota and South Carolina repudiation came in under Democratic regimes.
THE CAPITAL OF LOUISIANA.
Alden, Iowa.
What is the present capital of Louisiana? Some geographies say New Orleans, and others Baton Rouge. Please explain this discrepancy.
Teacher.
Answer.—The capital of the first colonial government of Louisiana was fixed at Biloxi, in 1699. It was transferred to New Orleans in 1723. New Orleans was the capital of the Territory of Orleans, organized in 1804 out of a part of the vast Louisiana purchase. In 1812 the State of Louisiana was formed with New Orleans as the capital. In 1847 Baton Rouge was made the seat of the State government, and it remained so until after it came into possession of the Union army during the late war. A provisional government was established at New Orleans in 1864, and the State constitution of 1868 made that city the capital; but by the new constitution of Dec. 2, 1879, the honor of being the seat of the State government was restored to Baton Rouge, where it was established in 1880.
ANGORA AND CASHMERE FLEECES.
Sedan, Kan.
What are the distinctive differences between the “staples” of Angora and Cashmere goats? Which staple is the more valuable? What are the present prices of the same in the markets of this country? Give a few chief facts as to these two breeds of goats.
T. S. R.
Answer.—The Angora goat takes its name from the Turkish city and village of Angora, in the interior, mountainous region of Asia Minor (about 220 miles E. S. E. of Constantinople), which exports 2,000,000 lbs of mohair annually. The animals are highly prized, and command from $250 to $1,250 for the finest males and $200 to $900 for females, there being several varieties. The Cashmere goat is named from Cashmere, a province between India proper and Thibet. The animals are most numerous in Thibet, but most of the wool—or mohair, as it is technically termed—is manufactured in Cashmere, the 16,000 or more looms of which turn out about 30,000 shawls every year, worth in London from £100 to £450. There are marked differences in the “staples” of these two species of goats. They both have two coats. In the case of the Angoras there is a coarse, short hair close to the skin, and a long, curly, outer covering of the nature of wool, very soft and silky and, in good varieties, from seven to nine inches long. This is the more bulky and valuable part of the fleece. The Cashmere goat, on the contrary, has a coarse, outer coat of different shades from gray to black and a fine undergrowth of beautifully soft, silky texture, almost downy. It is perfectly straight, of a uniformly grayish color and glossy luster, and is fully double the length of the Angora staple, the best grades measuring eighteen inches. This is combed out of the animal’s coat in the spring, when it begins to be shed, and the product is so light that it has been said that the average yield is but three ounces per goat, which would require the product of ten goats for the manufacture of a shawl a yard and a half square. It is certain, however, that the yield of the finer animals ranges from seven to nine ounces. The value of this mohair in Cashmere is from 30 to 40 cents a pound. It is not exported to this country to such a degree as to establish a market quotation. There is some of the Angora mohair imported for manufacture in our Eastern States, at prices ranging, according to quality, from 60 cents to $1 a pound. The Angora goat has been successfully introduced into the British colonies of South Africa. Cape Colony alone exported in 1878 the sum of 1,300,585 pounds, valued at £105,313, or about 32 cents a pound. It is believed that it can be raised with profit in the mountainous parts of Georgia and Alabama, and still farther north; and in the mountainous districts of California and Oregon.
AN EARLY CALIFORNIAN COIN.
Chicago, Ill.
Please give the origin of the $20 gold piece of 1853, marked on one side, “San Francisco;” on the other, “Moffat & Co.” Is it worth anything above its face value?
J. A. Bloss.
Answer.—It being impossible to find any quotation of the value of the coin referred to, Messrs. Stevens & Co., well-known numismatists of this city, were asked to answer the above questions. The following is their reply: “The $20 gold piece here designated gives a good deal of trouble to curiosity hunters and coin collectors in general; very much as is the case with the silver dollar of 1878 with eight feathers in the eagle’s tail. There is no premium on either of them. There is no certain history of the Moffat & Co. pieces. They were a private coinage and issued under miner’s law; and all ’49 Californians know the potency or persuasive powers of that law. The quality or fineness of the pieces is below standard and their value much below our current $20 piece. The San Francisco mint was established in July, 1852, and very soon after that all private coinages ceased. Most of these pieces find their way into the brokers’ offices and are sold only at bullion prices.”
MOCHA COFFEE.
Mayville, D. T.
Where does Mocha coffee come from, and what makes it so much higher priced than other coffee?
Edward Palmer.
Answer.—The genuine Mocha coffee is produced in the province of Yemen, South Arabia. It takes its name from Mokha, the chief port of exportation, on the Red Sea. Very little of it, and that of inferior quality, is ever seen west of Constantinople. Mr. W. G. Palgrave, the Arabian traveler, says: “Arabia itself, Syria, and Egypt consume fully two-thirds of the annual crop, and the remainder is almost exclusively absorbed by Turkish and Armenian esophagi. Nor do these last get for their share the best or the purest. Before reaching the harbors of Alexandria, Jaffa, Beyrout, etc., for exportation beyond there, the northern bales have been sifted and resifted, grain by grain, and whatever they may have contained of the hard, rounded, half transparent, greenish-brown berry, the only one really worth roasting and pounding, has been carefully picked out by experienced fingers, and it is the less generous residue of flattened, opaque, and whitish grains which almost alone goes on the shipping. So constant is this selecting process that a gradation regular as the degrees in a map may be observed in the quality of Mokha, that is Yemen, coffee, even within the limits of Arabia itself in proportion as one approaches to or recedes from, Wadi Nejran and the neighborhood of Mecca, the first stages of the radiating mart.” About 10,000 pounds of this coffee are exported annually through the port of Mokha, says another authority; but this seems to be consumed, as Mr. Palgrave says, mainly in Africa and Turkey.
The Mocha sold in the markets of Western Europe and America is from the East Indies. Some of it even never crossed the Atlantic, being produced in the West Indies or Central or South America. The really exquisite flavor of this choice, small berried coffee, together with the almost fanatical prejudice of the Turks for it, because it is raised in Arabia, and the limited production, sufficiently account for the high price it commands.
INDEX OF PERIODICAL LITERATURE.
Chicago, Ill.
A party of ladies studying Shakespeare are deeply interested in the Baconian theory. We find very little concerning it in books. Can you tell us if there are any valuable magazine articles on this subject, and where they may be found? What guide is there to periodical literature?
Mrs. M. B. W.
Answer.—Happily we do now know where to direct not only this correspondent but other inquirers where to find a complete index of all periodical literature in the English language of any importance, whether upon the above-named subject or any other. It is in “An Index to Periodical Literature,” by William Frederick Poole, LL. D., Librarian of the Chicago Public Library: published by James R. Osgood & Co., Boston. This is the only work of the kind, except Dr. Poole’s first and second indexes, published the one in 1848, and the other in 1853, both of which are out of print and were mere pamphlets in comparison with this noble volume, a royal octavo of 1,442 pages. Fresh from the press, it is brought down to a very recent date. The answers to the above questions and another, from two correspondents who wish to read up on the protective tariff and free trade controversy, may serve to illustrate the advantages of this invaluable index. Under William Shakespeare there are eight and a half columns of references by title to articles in American and English reviews and magazines on Shakespeare and his works, all of which are alphabetically arranged. Running along the “A” column we come to “Authorship of” (Shakespeare), “and Lord Bacon. (Delia Bacon) Putnam, 7:1.—Frazer, 90:164. Same art, Liv. Age, 123:131.—Chamb, J., 18:87—Nat. R. 5:72—Canad. Mo. 16:76—(A. Morgan) Appleton, 21:112, 481. 23:481. 24:14—(M. B. Benton) Appleton 21:336.-Blackw, 80:616.—(C. C. Shackford) No. Am. 85:493.—(A. G. Sedgwick) No. Am. 104:276.—(N. Hawthorne) Astan. 11:43.—(E. O. Vaile) Scrib. 9:743.—(J. F. Clarke) No. Am. 132:163.—(W. H. Smith) Liv. Age, 51:481.—Harper, 34:263.—Nation, 2:402.—Scrib., 9:392.” This answers Mrs. M. B. W.’s question as to where she and her Shakspearean Club are to look for periodical literature on the Baconian theory of the authorship of Shakespeare.
Now turn to “Tariff,” and there are nearly two columns of titles of articles on this subject and where to find them; among them being the following, arranged under the head of “Protective Tariff.”
“Protective, (J. C. Pray) Hunt, 2:119.—(H. J. Burton) Hunt, 11:254.—(M. D. L. Rodet) Hunt, 11:299.—(E. Everett) No. Am., 19:223.—(A. H. Everett) No. Am., 03:160; 32:127.—No. Am., 35:265.—(F. Bowen) No. Am., 73:90.—(H. Greeley) Am. Whig R. 2:111; 4:215; 5:201; 14:81. Ed. R., 72:321. Dem. R., 7:341; 9:329; 10:357; 14:291, 447; 19:163.—Am. Q., 10:444; 11:345.—So. R., 2:582; 6:206; 8:213.—Niles R., 17:87; 19:331; 20:306, 354; 21:121, 147; 22:2, 292; 23:40, 118; 24:99, 116.—So. Lit. Mess., 8:421.”
Turning to the introduction of the book we find all the above abbreviations clearly explained, and the place of publication of each of the several periodicals referred to. For example: “Putnam, 7:1,” stands for Putnam’s Magazine, number 7, page 1; “Blackw. 80:616,” signifies Blackwood’s Magazine, number 80, page 616, and so on. Every public library in the land—city, village, college, high school, whatever its name—needs such a guide as this to periodical literature, and it is easy to see that no private library of any pretensions can do without it.
WHY 1900 WILL NOT BE A LEAP YEAR.
Tipton, Iowa.
Will the year 1900 be a leap year? Robinson’s Arithmetic says that 1896 will be a leap year but 1900 will not be. If this is true, please explain why.
Student.
Answer.—The old Roman year contained but 355 days, divided into twelve lunar months, with an intercalary month thrown in at certain intervals, as became necessary, to atone for the fact that it requires more than twelve precise lunar months to make a year. This arrangement led to great confusion, and Julius Cæsar, in the year B. C. 46, remedied the trouble in large degree by the introduction of what is known as the Julian calendar, which regarded the year as composed of 365¼ days. This was a great improvement, but as a matter of fact the natural year contains 11 minutes 10 seconds less than 365¼ days, which difference amounts in a hundred years to 18 hours 36 minutes 40 seconds, or a little more than three-fourths of a day. As a consequence, between the year A. D. 325—when the Council of Nice established the rule for the determination of Easter Sunday—and the year 1582 there was found to be an accumulated error of ten days. Whereas the sun had crossed the equator at the vernal equinox of A. D. 325 on March 21, it crossed it in 1582, according to the Julian calendar, on March 11. Pope Gregory XIII., resolved on ending the confusion attendant upon this imperfection of the generally accepted calendar, ordained that what according to this mode of reckoning would have been Oct. 5, 1582, be reckoned as Oct. 15; and to prevent a repetition of the error he further ordained that every hundredth year should not be a leap year, excepting the year 2000 and every four hundredth year thereafter. Manifestly the omission of an entire day every four hundredth year would be too much by about one day, since, as above shown, the error in the Julian mode of reckoning amounts only to 18h. 36 min. 40 sec. in a hundred years, or about three days in four hundred years. This correction the Gregorian amendment effects by the rule above stated, which took the years 1700, 1800, and 1900 out of the list of leap years, and left the year 2,000 in that list. This leaves but the small difference of 36 min. and 40 sec. in a hundred years between the civil and natural years: which amounts to no more than twenty-two seconds a year, or about six hours in 1,000 years. In England the change from the old style of reckoning to this new style was not ordered until 1751, by which time the error that was but ten days in Gregory’s time had grown to eleven days. The order took effect in England and the Colonies as regarded all official dates and reckoning, in September, 1752, when eleven days were left out of the calendar by reckoning Sept. 3 as Sept. 14. This explains apparent discrepancies between authors who wrote in the latter half of the last and the early part of this century. For example, some early biographies of Washington say that he was born Feb. 11, others that he was born Feb. 11, O. S., or Feb. 22, N. S. Some biographical sketches of John Adams, Washington’s successor, declare that he was born Oct. 19, 1735, without indicating that this was according to the old reckoning, while others state that he was born Oct. 30.
LEGISLATION FOR THE PEOPLE.
Denver, Col.
Enumerate the acts passed since the Republicans have been in power which have served to benefit the people generally, and not some corporation or monopoly only. An elderly Democrat declares that the Republican party has never passed any such laws.
C. S. Holley.
Answer.—It is useless to waste words on men so ignorant or politically mendacious as “elderly Democrat.” The following memorandum is for the benefit of younger and fairer minded men. First of all there is the series of acts ending in the preservation of the Union and the emancipation of 4,000,000 men who were so far from being “monopolists” or holders of corporation shares that they were slaves; as they would be to-day had the Democrats remained in power. It would take columns to enumerate the laws brought forward by Republicans and enacted since they came into power which have immensely benefited the people at large, and not “only monopolies,” as you express it. Among these are the laws which have brought cheap postage and rapid postal transportation; the homestead and timber culture acts; the establishment of the only thoroughly secure national paper currency and general banking system this country has ever enjoyed; the resumption of specie payments in the face of Democratic and Greenbacker opposition; the maintenance of the public credit against rebellion in the South and the Democracy in the North, re-enforced subsequently by the Greenback party, both clamoring for total or partial repudiation; the abolition of all duties on tea and coffee; the establishment of State schools of agriculture and industrial science, endowed by government land grants; the promotion of American inventions, manufactures, and mining, until it is considered that this country leads the world in useful inventions, and the capital invested in its factories is nearly three times as great as it was in 1860, when the Republicans came into power—the number of hands employed being 2,738,885, or more than double as many; the amount paid in wages, more than two and a half times as much; the value of farms, forest, mine and other materials consumed (nearly all American) about three and a third times as much; and the value of the product almost three times as great. As some of the consequences of the above industrial legislation, the public lands are passing into the hands of the people in homesteads and timber culture claims alone at the rate of 8,000,000 acres a year; and the twenty years from 1860 to 1880 added as many farms to the cultivated domain of the country as all its previous history. Gold, notwithstanding all the products of our fields and mines, not only stopped flowing out of the country, as it had done during all our former history, but began to pour in from other lands, millions on millions. While throughout all the vast interior of the country, notwithstanding the marvelous multiplication of farms, farm products are higher than in 1860, and nearly all manufactured goods that enter into general consumption are lower. In the same brief period the assessed taxes on real estate and personal property have mounted from $12,084,560,005 to $16,902,993,543.
EARTHQUAKES.
Lay, Col.
Please tell us the cause of earthquakes. Are they due to internal convulsions of the earth or to atmospheric disturbances?
Jacob Sloneker.
Answer.—According to that eminent physicist, F. W. Rudler (see his contribution to the Encyclopedia Britannica on “Earthquakes”), “even at the present day, after all that has been written on the subject, but little is known as to the origin of earthquakes.” The general opinion of investigators is that these agitations proceed from within outward, and are not of atmospheric or other external origin. True, Professor Alexis Perry, of Dijon, France, thought he had discovered relations between the ages of the moon and these recurrences, which seemed to sustain the theory of Zantedeschi, that the liquid nucleus of the earth responds to the moon’s attraction in tides, somewhat as the ocean does: but the theory that the earth has a liquid nucleus covered with only a thin, solid crust, is losing adherents continually. The theory of vibration communicated by meteoric impact has been advanced as accounting for some earthquakes. Another theory is that earthquakes are caused in some instances by steam from water rushing into the bowels of volcanoes, or from explosions of pent-up gases, generated by chemical decomposition of minerals. Others believe that many of these phenomena are due to magnetic disturbances, following eruptions in the sun. The prevailing opinion still is that whatever their origin, whether of one cause, or various causes, the vibrations of every earthquake can be traced to a focus within the earth, and that this lies directly beneath the point of greatest disturbance on the earth’s surface. After the great shock at Naples in 1857, Mr. Mallet, aided by the Royal Society, by determining the wave paths of the shock at twenty-six different stations, was able to locate the focal depth of the earthquake at about five and a half miles; and Dr. Oldham, by observations on the wave effects of the earthquake which occurred at Cachar, India, on Jan. 10, 1869, found that the focus of disturbance must have been about thirty miles below the surface. This is very near the maximum depth at which any earthquake is likely to originate, if we accept the reasoning of that most eminent of all investigators of this class of phenomena, Mr. Mallet, of Dublin, Ireland. There are credible records of between 6,000 and 7,000 earthquakes between 1606 B. C. and 1842 A. D. Professor Fuch’s more careful observations of recent years show that there were probably many times that number of unrecorded ones, since he registered ninety-seven during the year 1875 and 104 during 1876. In view of this fact this subject appears to be one of the most interesting problems of nature and is attracting growing attention, which, it is hoped, will presently lead to definite, satisfactory conclusions.
SOUTHEASTERN DAKOTA.
Plankington, D. T.
Having seen questions in The Inter Ocean inquiring about Dakota, and seeing no answers from this county, I concluded to write and tell what I know of it. Aurora is the fourth county from the eastern boundary and the third from the southern. It is considered by all who have traveled over it as one of the finest in Southern Dakota. The county is forty-eight miles long and twenty-four miles wide. In the northwestern portion are situated the “Wessington Hills.” These extend from northeast to southwest as far as the Missouri. Among them are beautiful broad valleys and lakes of clear water. The climate is all that can be desired. Last summer the days were warm and the nights invariably cool, so that after a hard day’s work you could lie down and rest sweetly. The past winter here, as in all other parts of the Northern States, has been very cold and stormy. One month, however, would take in all of the very cold weather. One foot would cover all the snow that we have had this winter. The soil is a black loam, varying in depth from one to six feet. The shallowest we have found on our land is eighteen inches, and the deepest four feet. It is very productive. Last year the crops yielded as follows: Corn from 25 to 60 bushels per acre, wheat from 20 to 40 bushels, oats from 50 to 80 bushels, barley from 30 to 60 bushels, rye from 40 to 60 bushels, flax from 7 to 22 bushels, buckwheat from 10 to 30 bushels, potatoes from 100 to 300 bushels, and all other vegetables yielded enormously. The way this county is filling up is wonderful. One year ago last fall there were only about 150 people in the county, and to-day there are between 450 and 500, and scores more coming on every train. If emigrants continue coming as they have done for the last eighteen months, this county will soon be filled up. Spring has already opened out with us, and farmers are putting in their wheat and barley. Plankington, our county seat, which hardly had a name eighteen months ago, is to-day a fine little village of over 700 inhabitants. With early and deep planting this country will grow almost anything.
Thomas Jacka.
INCOME OF THE CZAR.
Fort Wayne, Ind.
Will you inform us through Our Curiosity Shop from what source the Emperor of Russia receives his income of $25,000 a day?
S. S. Coleman.
Answer.—The annual income of the Czar of all the Russias probably averages a great deal more than $25,000 a day. The crown domains comprise more than a million square miles, covering an area exceeding that of all our New England, Middle, and Southern States. These include cultivated lands, pastures, and forests in different parts of this vast empire, which embraces in its despotic arms more than one-sixth the entire land surface of our globe. Besides the revenue from the above estates, the Czar derives a large income from gold, silver, copper, and other mines in Siberia. The actual total of his immense revenue from all these sources is not stated in the government budgets or finance accounts, the crown domains being considered the private property of the imperial family. In a British consular report of 1867 the total income of the imperial family is estimated at £2,450,000 sterling, which is an average of about $33,500 a day. The imperial contributions to charities, schools, theaters, etc., are estimated by the same authority at about £450,000, leaving a net sum of £2,000,000 a year to “keep the family.”
GETTYSBURG AND WATERLOO.
Red Oak, Iowa.
What was the most destructive battle of the late civil war; and how did it compare with the battle of Waterloo as to numbers engaged and loss of life?
Inquirer.
Answer.—The heaviest losses suffered by either side in any single battle of the late war were at Gettysburg. The numbers engaged and the losses are stated differently by different writers. Before the Committee on the Conduct of the War, General Meade, the Union commander, said: “Including all arms of the service, my strength was a little under 100,000—about 95,000.” Understanding this to include General French’s 7,000 men, who were by a blunder kept idle at Frederick, and about 4,000 more of French’s force, who had been detailed for special service—none of whom were brought into this battle—it would appear that Meade’s force at Gettysburg was about 84,000 men of all arms. This corresponds very nearly with General Humphrey’s statement that the Army of the Potomac in this action comprised 70,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, with an artillery force of 300 guns. Of the Confederate forces, General Humphrey says that General Lee entered Pennsylvania with 85,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and a due proportion of artillery. Greeley’s “American Conflict” says: “Lee’s army, carefully counted by two Union men independently, as it marched through Hagerstown, numbered 91,000 infantry, with 280 guns and 6,000 cavalry, while not less than 5,000 cavalry under Stuart advanced into Pennsylvania without passing through Hagerstown.” The Union loss was 23,190, of whom 2,834 were killed, 13,713 wounded, and 6,643 missing. The Confederate loss is not officially stated. It is estimated by one writer (in the American Cyclopedia) at 5,000 killed, 23,000 wounded, and 8,000 unwounded prisoners—a total of 36,000, which is evidently an exaggeration. Greeley’s “American Conflict” estimates Lee’s loss at 28,000, of whom 18,000 were killed and wounded, and 10,000 were unwounded prisoners; while J. Watts de Peyster, in Johnson’s Cyclopedia, estimates Lee’s loss at 31,600—18,000 killed and wounded, and 13,600 missing, which includes the unwounded prisoners in our hands. In the battle of Waterloo, the French army under Napoleon I. (according to P. Nicholas, in Haydn’s Dictionary of Dates) numbered 71,947 men and 246 guns, and the allies 133,661 men of all arms and 260 guns—English, under Wellington, 67,661; Prussians, 66,000 men. The loss of the allies was 22,976: of whom 4,206 were killed, 14,539 wounded, and 4,231 missing. The French loss was 18,500 killed and wounded, and 7,800 prisoners, total 26,300; but other accounts, including some French writers, make their loss about 30,000, the figures given in most English and American cyclopedias.
FRAUDULENT HOMESTEAD AND TIMBER CLAIMS.
LaCrosse, Wis.
Is it not the intention of the pre-emption, homestead, and timber-culture laws to encourage actual settlement and improvement of the country, and are not these laws constantly used to encourage fraudulent speculation, to the disadvantage of bona fide settlers?
Citizen.
Answer.—Undoubtedly the laws mentioned were enacted for the benefit of actual settlers, and not for the enrichment of speculators. The following communication from Samuel Huckins, Esq., of Hartford, D. T., just received, may be taken as an expose of the actual use made of the laws in thousands of instances: “I have been a reader of your worthy paper from the first year of its publication, and as I live away out here in the far West I take a great interest in the doings of Congress in regard to the public lands, of which The Inter Ocean has so much to say. Now my theory and belief is, and always has been, that the public lands should be given to those who will cultivate and improve them—actual settlers who will make for themselves and their descendants a home—and not throw this munificent gift of the National domain into the hands of land-sharks and speculators. Every person taking a claim, and those now holding claims under any of the different acts of Congress, should occupy and cultivate such lands according to the spirit and intent of the laws granting them the same. I think Congress made a very grave error in giving persons who had filed their entries of land under the homestead act the privilege to pay $1.25 per acre for it instead of residing on the land five years, thus giving those who never occupied the land, and probably never will, a great advantage over the first settlers on homestead land, who, in order to hold their claims, had to make the required improvements and have an actual residence. I believe from my personal knowledge that three-fourths of the land acquired under the above act passed into the hands of capitalists and speculators. The bogus homesteader would go to some money lender and get enough money to prove up on his land—say $200 for 160 acres and $50 or $100 besides—giving a deed or mortgage on the same as security. In this way the poor, honest home-seeker is cheated out of the land. There are a great many claims out here, especially timber claims, held by persons who have not fulfilled the requirements of the law, but as the law is now administered they can hold them with impunity. A great share of the land now covered by timber-culture claims on file is in reality far more effectually covered with rank weeds than with growing timber. Under the present system this law is of little value, and keeps off the sincere home-seeker, who would improve the land and help to build up schools and churches, and make for himself and family a much needed home.”
ASSASSINATED ON GOOD FRIDAY.
Chicago, Ill.
Please decide whether President Lincoln was assassinated on Good Friday, and settle a dispute.
Contestant.
Answer.—President Lincoln was assassinated on Friday, April 14, 1865, which was Good Friday.
THE DISCOVERY OF MEXICO.
Crab Orchard, Ill.
Who discovered Mexico?
Felix M. Burdett.
Answer.—The first knowledge of Mexico that reached the Spaniards otherwise than by vague and uncertain stories of natives of the West Indies came through two expeditions fitted out by Diego Velasquez, who made the first European settlements in Cuba. The first of these, under the command of Cordova, sailed from St. Jago de Cuba, Feb. 8, 1517, and landed on the shores of Yucatan and Campeachy. The second, commanded by Grijalvo, landed at various places on the coast, but returned without penetrating into the interior or making a settlement. It carried back such reports of the high civilization and great wealth of Mexico, learned through the natives, as served to intensify the determination of Velasquez to explore, and, if possible, conquer the country. He fitted up a fleet of eleven small vessels and placed them in command of Fernando Cortez, who set sail from Cuba, Feb. 10, 1519; landed near the present city of Vera Cruz, on March 4, and became the first actual explorer of the country, and the founder of the Spanish dominion in Mexico.
TITLE OF PRINCE OF WALES.
Hebron, Neb.
1. What is the origin of the title of the Prince of Wales? 2. Who pays the cost of the dinners given at the White House, and what is the annual expense on this account?
James Knox.
Answer.—1. On the conquest of Wales by Henry III. of England, he bestowed the principality of Wales and earldom of Chester on his son, afterward Edward I., as an office of trust and government. In 1343 Edward III. invested his son Edward, the “Black Prince,” with the principality, and from that time the eldest son of the reigning King has borne the title of Prince of Wales. 2. The President pays the expenses of entertainments given at the Executive Mansion out of his annual allowances, and the amount so expended is a private matter.
J. C. CALHOUN—WHIG PARTY.
Volga City, Iowa.
1. Why did John C. Calhoun resign the office of Vice President? 2. Who was his successor? 3. What caused the death of the Whig party?
H. C. Davis.
Answer.—1. Calhoun aspired to the Presidency at the end of President Jackson’s first term. This led to a personal alienation and final violent rupture between the two. Calhoun was elected Vice President along with Jackson in 1828, but he resigned the office in 1831 for the above reason, and in order to accept the United States Senatorship vacated by Mr. Hayne when the latter was elected Governor of South Carolina. 2. Martin Van Buren, of New York, succeeded Mr. Calhoun. 3. The growth of the Free Soil and Abolition parties in the North killed the old Whig party.
GREAT FIRES OF HISTORY.
Fredonia, N. Y.
How did the loss of lives and property in the great fire in Chicago compare with the losses in what are distinguished as the great fires of London and Moscow? Give a list also of the other principal fires recorded in history, and oblige
A Constant Reader.
Answer.—The loss of life and property in the willful destruction by fire and sword of the principal cities of ancient history—Nineveh, Babylon, Persepolis, Carthage, Palmyra, and many others—is largely a matter of conjecture. The following is a memorandum of the chief conflagrations of the current era:
In 64, A. D., during the reign of Nero, a terrible fire raged in Rome for eight days, destroying ten of the fourteen wards. The loss of life and destruction of property is not known.
In 70, A. D., Jerusalem was taken by the Romans and a large part of it given to the torch, entailing an enormous destruction of life and property.
In 1106 Venice, then a city of immense opulence, was almost wholly consumed by a fire, originating in accident or incendiarism.
In 1212 the greater part of London was burned.
In 1666 what is known as the Great Fire of London raged in the city from Sept. 2 to 6, consuming 13,200 houses, with St. Paul’s Church, 86 parish churches, 6 chapels, the Guild Hall, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House, 52 companies’ halls, many hospitals, libraries, and other public edifices. The total destruction of property was estimated at $53,652,500. Six lives were lost, and 436 acres burnt over.
In 1679 a fire in Boston burned all the warehouses, eighty dwellings, and vessels in the dock-yards; loss estimated at $1,000,000.
In 1700 a large part of Edinburgh was burned; loss unknown.
In 1728 Copenhagen was nearly destroyed; 1,650 houses burned.
In 1736 a fire in St. Petersburg burned 2,000 houses.
In 1729 a fire in Constantinople destroyed 12,000 houses, and 7,000 people perished. The same city suffered a conflagration in 1745, lasting five days; and in 1750 a series of three appalling fires: one in January, consuming 10,000 houses; another in April destroying property to the value of $5,000,000, according to one historian, and according to another, $15,000,000; and in the latter part of the year another, sweeping fully 10,000 houses more out of existence. It seemed as if Constantinople was doomed to utter annihilation.
In 1751 a fire in Stockholm destroyed 1,000 houses; and another fire in the same city in 1759 burned 250 houses with a loss of $2,420,000.
In 1752 a fire in Moscow swept away 18,000 houses, involving an immense loss.
In 1758 Christiana suffered a loss of $1,250,000, by conflagration.
In 1760 the Portsmouth (Eng.) dock-yards were burned, with a loss of $2,000,000.
In 1764 a fire in Konigsburg, Prussia, consumed the public buildings, with a loss of $3,000,000; and in 1769 the city was almost totally destroyed.
In 1763 a fire in Smyrna destroyed 2,600 houses, with a loss of $1,000,000; in 1772 a fire in the same city carried off 3,000 dwellings, and 3,000 to 4,000 shops, entailing a loss of $20,000,000; and in 1796 there were 4,000 shops, mosques, magazines, etc., burned.
In 1776, six days after the British seized the city, a fire swept off all the west side of New York city, from Broadway to the river.
In 1771 a fire in Constantinople burned 2,500 houses; another in 1778 burned 2,000 houses; in 1782 there were 600 houses burned in February, 7,000 in June, and on Aug. 12, during a conflagration that lasted three days, 10,000 houses, 50 mosques, and 100 corn-mills, with a loss of 100 lives. Two years later a fire, on March 13, destroyed two-thirds of Pera, the loveliest suburb of Constantinople, and on Aug. 5 a fire in the main city, lasting twenty-six hours, burned 10,000 houses. In this same fire-scourged city, in 1791, between March and July, there were 32,000 houses burned, and about as many more in 1795; and in 1799 Pera was again swept with fire, with a loss of 13,000 houses, including many buildings of great magnificence.
In 1784 a fire and explosion in the dock-yards, Brest, caused a loss of $5,000,000.
But the greatest destruction of life and property by conflagrations, of which the world has anything like accurate records, must be looked for within the current century. Of these the following is a partial list of instances in which the loss of property amounted to $3,000,000 and upward:
| Dates. | Cities. | Property destroyed. |
| 1802 | Liverpool | $5,000,000 |
| 1803 | Bombay | 3,000,000 |
| 1805 | St. Thomas | 30,000,000 |
| 1808 | Spanish Town | 7,500.000 |
| 1812 | Moscow, burned five days; 30,800 houses destroyed | 50,000,000 |
| 1816 | Constantinople, 12,000 dwellings, 3,000 shops | ..... |
| 1820 | Savannah | 4,000,000 |
| 1822 | Canton nearly destroyed | ..... |
| 1828 | Havana, 350 houses | ..... |
| 1835 | New York (“Great Fire”) | 15,000,000 |
| 1837 | St. Johns. N. B. | 5,000,000 |
| 1838 | Charleston, 1,158 buildings | 3,000,000 |
| 1841 | Smyrna, 12,000 houses | ..... |
| 1842 | Hamburg, 4,219 buildings, 100 lives lost | 35,000,000 |
| 1845 | New York, 35 persons killed | 7,500,000 |
| 1845 | Pittsburg, 1,100 buildings | 10,000,000 |
| 1845 | Quebec, May 28, 1,650 dwellings | 3,750,000 |
| 1845 | Quebec, June 28, 1,300 dwellings | ..... |
| 1846 | St Johns, Newfoundland | 5,000,000 |
| 1848 | Constantinople, 2,500 buildings | 15,000,000 |
| 1848 | Albany, N. Y., 600 houses | 3,000,000 |
| 1849 | St. Louis | 3,000,000 |
| 1851 | St. Louis, 2,500 buildings | 11,000,000 |
| 1851 | St. Louis, 500 buildings | 3,000,000 |
| 1851 | San Francisco, May 4 and 5, many lives lost | 10,000,000 |
| 1851 | San Francisco, June | 3,000,000 |
| 1852 | Montreal, 1,200 buildings | 5,000,000 |
| 1861 | Mendoza destroyed by earthquake and fire, 10,000 lives lost | .... |
| 1862 | St. Petersburg | 5,000,000 |
| 1862 | Troy, N. Y., nearly destroyed | |
| 1862 | Valparaiso, almost destroyed | |
| 1864 | Novgorod, immense destruction of property | ..... |
| 1865 | Constantinople, 2,800 buildings burned | ..... |
| 1866 | Yokohama, nearly destroyed 1865 Carlstadt, Sweden, all consumed but Bishop’s residence, hospital, and jail; 10 lives lost | ..... |
| 1866 | Portland, Me., half the city | 11,000,000 |
| 1866 | Quebec, 2,500 dwellings and 17 churches | ...... |
| 1870 | Constantinople, Pera suburb | 26,000,000 |
| 1871 | Chicago, 250 lives lost, 17,430 buildings burned, on 2,124 acres | 192,000,000 |
| 1871 | Paris, fired by the Commune | 160,000,000 |
| 1872 | Boston | 75,000,000 |
| 1873 | Yeddo, 10,000 houses | ...... |
| 1877 | Pittsburg, caused by riot | 3,260,000 |
| 1877 | St. Johns, N. B., 1,650 dwellings, 18 lives lost | 12,500,000 |
From the above it appears that the five greatest fires on record, reckoned by destruction of property, are:
| Chicago fire, of Oct. 8 and 9, 1871 | $192,000,000 |
| Paris fires, of May, 1871 | 160,000,000 |
| Moscow fire, of Sept. 14-19, 1812 | 150,000,000 |
| Boston fire, Nov. 9-10, 1872 | 75,000,000 |
| London fire, Sept. 2-6, 1666 | 53,652,500 |
| Hamburg fire, May 5-7, 1842 | 35,000,000 |
Taking into account, with the fires of Paris and Chicago, the great Wisconsin and Michigan forest fires of 1871, in which it is estimated that 1,000 human beings perished and property to the amount of over $3,000,000 was consumed, it is plain that in the annals of conflagrations that year stands forth in gloomy preeminence.
LOSS OF THE LADY ELGIN.
Crete, Ill.
When was the Lady Elgin lost, on Lake Michigan and how many persons were lost, and saved?
John Miller.
Answer.—The steamer Lady Elgin was cut to the water’s edge by a sailing vessel named the Augusta, heavily loaded with lumber, which struck her amidships, during the night, Sept. 8, 1860. She sunk almost immediately. Carrying an excursion party from Chicago to Milwaukee at the time, she had about 400 passengers on board. The disaster occurred about twenty-two miles north of Chicago, nearly off Glencoe. Many of the passengers and crew got on rafts and portions of the wreck, and drifted toward the land. Some of these came ashore between Glencoe and Evanston; but the most of them, after getting within hail of the beach, despite the best efforts of citizens and students of Evanston and Winnetka to assist them, were swallowed up in the breakers and carried out into the lake by the terrible undertow. Men with ropes around their chests plunged into the breakers, seized exhausted, drowning men and women, and were dragged in by main strength of men at the lines. Conspicuous among these noble men was Mr. Edward W. Spencer, of Rock Island, Ill., then a student at Garrett Biblical Institute, who saved fourteen or fifteen passengers, persisting until he was utterly exhausted; an example of heroism which was suitably commemorated afterwards by the presentation of a memorial watch and chain, given him by citizens of Chicago and Evanston. Of the total list of passengers only about one-fourth were rescued; 297 perished.
AUSTRALIA.
Colmar, Ill.
What are the area and principal natural features of Australia, and the nationalities and chief occupations of its population?
Charles L. Brickwell.
Answer.—Australia, often spoken of as an island, is about ten times the size of Borneo, the largest island of the world properly so called, and is nearly half the size of South America. To be more specific, it measures about 2,500 miles from east to west, and 1,950 from north to south, containing an estimated area of 3,000,000 miles. This is about the same as the entire extent of the United States, exclusive of Alaska. Along the east and west coasts the country is broken, rising at no great distance from the sea into a succession of mountain ranges; but the vast interior is almost as level as a gently undulating ocean-bed, which it evidently was at no very distant period—geologically speaking. It seems to be for the most part a great sandstone basin, rising toward the coast in nearly every direction. The mountain range in the southeast, known as the Australian Alps, rises to a height of 7,000 feet; the granite and syenitic mountains on the west coast range from 800 to 3,000 feet in elevation, and those along the coast of Queensland, and along the greater part of the north coast, from 1,000 to 4,000 feet. There are immense quantities of coal in Eastern Australia, rich gold mines, some silver, and an abundance of iron, copper, and tin. The broken and much of the mountainous regions are well wooded, but the interior is comparatively naked, and much of it wears a parched look, like the dry, treeless plains of Eastern Wyoming and Colorado, which are available for flocks and herds the most of the year, but not cultivable with profit without artificial irrigation. There are millions of acres of fine agricultural and grazing lands without entering this interior basis to any great distance; and the governments of the several provinces are offering liberal inducements to settlers. Few of the rivers of this vast country are navigable to any great distance, although several of them may be made so for a large part of the year by slight improvements of the channels. Conspicuous among the latter are Murray River, 1,100 miles long; the Roper and the Victoria. The regions beyond the seaboard are not likely to develop rapidly until means of transportation are extended. The railroad mileage of Australia is only a little over 4,042 miles, or about the same as that of Minnesota, which is thirty-six times smaller in area and began to be settled much later. The telegraph lines measure over 30,000 miles. The climate of the Southern half of Australia is quite similar to that of Southern Brazil or Cuba, and that of the greater part of the rest of the continent is a good counterpart of that of Southern Europe. The total population of the five provinces of Australia, by the census of 1881, is as follows:
| New South Wales | 751,468 |
| Queensland | 213,525 |
| South Australia | 279,865 |
| Victoria | 862,346 |
| Western Australia | 29,708 |
| Total | 2,136,912 |
The above does not include aborigines, estimated to number 80,000. The increase by immigration is not rapid. The population is mostly of British origin, but it embraces also nearly 10,000 Polynesians and 25,000 Chinese. The chief occupations are agriculture, grazing, mining, building, and commerce. Manufactures do not flourish, the colonies being dependent almost entirely upon the United Kingdom for manufactured goods. The chief exports are wool, hides, preserved meats, copper, lead, coal, and gold. The total quantity of gold mined in Victoria alone, from the discovery in 1851 to the end of 1880, amounted to 49,500,000 oz., valued at $990,000,000. The government of the several provinces is similar to that of the provinces of the present Dominion of Canada before their union.
ALDERNEYS AND JERSEYS.
Scott, Ind.
What is the difference between Alderney cattle and Jerseys, if any? Where did the breeds originate? Your answer will settle a dispute.
A Subscriber.
Answer.—Alderney, Jersey, and Guernsey are small islands in the British Channel, just off the coast of Normandy, France; from which the first, an isle of about four square miles in area, is separated by only a very narrow strait. Jersey, about sixteen miles off the coast, is a much larger and more fertile island, being about eleven times the size of Alderney. While the cattle of the three islands are all believed to have come from one common Norman stock, and pass under the common name of the Alderney breed, the Jersey cattle have been greatly improved by careful in-breeding, and are better milkers as to quantity, though not as to quality, than the native cattle of Alderney. Few cattle are exported from the latter island, while a considerable number of Jersey cattle are exported to England and this country, where nearly all the representatives of what is known as the Alderney breed are Jerseys. It would not be correct to speak of Alderneys and Jerseys as distinct breeds.
LOTTERY MATTER UNMAILABLE.
Shell Rock, Iowa.
Is it unlawful to send letters to lottery companies and lottery agents through the mails?
A Subscriber.
Answer.—Postal regulation 674 declares “No letter or circular concerning lotteries, so-called gift concerts, or similar enterprises, offering prizes,” etc., “shall be carried in the mail. Any person who shall knowingly deposit or send anything to be conveyed by mail in violation of this section shall be punishable by a fine of not more than $500 nor less than $100, with costs of prosecution.” Section 674 instructs postmasters and employes of the railway mail service to withdraw letters and third class matter addressed to lottery companies or agents from the mails and refer them to the proper officers for prosecution of the person mailing the same.
THE HIGH SEAS.
Union Grove, Wis.
1. What is meant by the “high seas” in article 1, section 8, of the Constitution of the United States? 2. Are the Great Lakes regarded as high seas? 3. If a crime were committed on any of the Great Lakes, where would the criminal be tried—in what court? 4. What persons are meant in the first clause of the ninth section of article 1 of the Constitution?
Robert Roberts.
Answer.—1. By the “high seas” is meant the open sea: that is the waters outside of the civil jurisdiction of any country, which the law of nations limits to one marine league, or three geographical miles from shore. 2. The Great Lakes are regarded, beyond the limits above designated, as high seas. 3. In the event of crimes committed on the high seas, parties charged therewith are subject to the jurisdiction of the Federal or United States courts in the district which the vessel first enters after the commission of the crime, or in the district where the offender is found. The courts of States bordering on the great lakes have jurisdiction concurrent with that of the United States courts where it can be shown that the crime was committed within their limits, which extend to the central line of the lakes bounding them. 4. In the clause of the Constitution which reads: “The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year 1808,” etc. The word “persons” was understood to mean African slaves. This form was adopted to avoid the use of the word slave in the Constitution, the very thought of which was repugnant to Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and other fathers of that instrument, whether from North or South. The slave trade, in conformity with the above clause of the Constitution, was promptly abolished in 1808.
UNIMPROVED LANDS—IMMIGRATION.
Ganges, Mich.
What proportion of the areas of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Nebraska is still unimproved Also, please state the number of immigrants arriving in this country in 1882.
H. H. H.
Answer.—1. The census of 1880 gives the following statistics of improved lands embraced in farms in the several States above named, opposite which we place the total area of each State in acres:
| No. of | Improved | Total | |
| States. | farms. | acres. | acres. |
| Ohio | 247,189 | 18,081,091 | 26,278,400 |
| Michigan | 154,008 | 8,296,862 | 37,705,600 |
| Indiana | 194,013 | 13,933,738 | 23,264,000 |
| Illinois | 255,741 | 26,115,154 | 36,256,000 |
| Iowa | 185,351 | 19,866,541 | 35,856,000 |
| Nebraska | 63,387 | 5,504,702 | 49,187,200 |
From this it appears that nearly one-third of Ohio, more than three-fourths of Michigan, about two-fifths of Indiana, a little more than one-fourth of Illinois, about three-sevenths of Iowa, and almost nine-tenths of Nebraska remained unimproved as farm property at the time of the last census. In settled States, the number of acres included in cities, towns, and villages, in roads, lakes, and navigable streams, will reduce the proportion of “unimproved acres” by about 2 per cent of the total area. The statistician of Indiana computes that there were in 1879, 249,686 acres, or 1⅛ per cent of the total State area, embraced in roads outside of cities and incorporated towns. 2. The total immigration into the United States in 1882 numbered 788,992.
LAW AGAINST CRUELTY TO ANIMALS.
Roscoe, Ill.
Please publish in Our Curiosity Shop in condensed form the law of this State to punish cruelty to animals. A person in this neighborhood, remonstrated with for cruelly beating his horse with a pitchfork, retorts that “a man has a right to pound his own horse.” Let us know the law for such cases.
A Subscriber.
Answer.—Chapter 38, section 50, of the Revised Statutes of Illinois says: “Whoever shall be guilty of cruelty to any animal in any of the ways mentioned in this section shall be fined not less than $3 nor more than $200, viz.: By overloading, overdriving, cruelly beating, tormenting, mutilating, or cruelly killing any animal; by cruelly working any old, maimed, infirm, sick, or disabled animal; by failing to provide any animal in his charge or custody with proper food, drink, and shelter; by abandoning any old, maimed, infirm, sick, or disabled animal; or by causing or knowingly allowing the same to be done.”
EMANCIPATION IN JAMAICA.
Shullsburg, Wis.
In what year and by whom were the slaves of Jamaica emancipated? Also state the circumstances under which they gained their freedom.
Richard Ivey, M. D.
Answer.—In 1807 the British Government abolished the slave trade in all British vessels and in British waters. The agitation against slavery was kept up in Parliament from that time, growing more and more irresistible every year, and spreading out into the farthest provinces, until in 1832 the negroes of Jamaica revolted, under the belief that emancipation had actually been decreed and that their masters were holding them in slavery against law as well as against natural right. The atrocities to be expected in a servile insurrection ensued; hundreds of lives and millions of property were destroyed. When the terrible tidings reached England it added new fuel to the emancipation agitation, already at white heat, and in 1833 the famous English emancipation act was passed. The government apportioned £6,161,927 among the owners of the slave population, of 309,338 persons; and after four years apprenticeship all of these former slaves became absolutely free.
BARNBURNERS AND HUNKERS.
Grand Rapids, Mich.
How and when did the political nicknames “Hunker” and “Barnburner” originate in the State of New York?
J. H. P.
Answer.—The Democratic party within New York State became badly divided soon after the inauguration of Mr. Polk, in 1845, owing to the slights put on Governor Silas Wright, of that State, to whose immense popularity Polk really owed his election. Wright could not carry all his friends over to Polk, as is shown by the fact that he was elected Governor by 10,030 majority, while Polk carried the State by 5,106. This, however, decided the electoral count in his favor. Polk was really a weak man, and showed it in nothing more than in his jealousy of Wright and annoyance at the general ascription, of his election by the organs of both parties, to Wright’s influence. He tendered Wright the choice of places in his Cabinet under constraint of the general wish of the party, and knowing that this statesman felt bound to retain the high office to which the people of New York had exalted him. Wright declined, but asked that Azariah C. Flagg, of New York, be made Secretary of the Treasury, and he understood the President to promise this; yet afterward the latter declined to make the appointment, and gave the portfolio of Secretary of State to ex-Governor Wm. L. Marcy, of New York, who was by no means friendly to Wright. The Collectorship of New York, it was understood, would be given as Governor Wright and ex-President Van Buren should request, but here again the President disappointed them. All this reminds us forcibly of the divisions in the Republican ranks in the same State, due to the Garfield-Conkling feud. The trouble rankled, and the Democratic party became divided into two pronounced factions before the election of delegates to the next gubernatorial convention. There were the administration Democrats, calling themselves Conservatives, and the “sore-heads” of those days, stigmatized as Radicals, because, among other things, they were affected with anti-slavery, or “free-soil” sentiments; whereas the administration party was strongly pro-slavery. In the Democratic State Convention, held at Syracuse early in 1847, the latter faction, by political manipulation, secured the organization of that body, and decided nearly all the contested seats in their own favor and made the State ticket and the State Committee to suit themselves; in other words, “carried off the hunk,” and fairly won the nickname of “Hunkers.” The other faction, led on by Governor Wright’s friends, Mr. Van Buren, Colonel Samuel Young, Michael Hoffman, and others, refused to support the ticket, and as a consequence the Whigs carried the State by over 30,000 majority in the gubernatorial election. One of the Hunker orators likened the Wright and Van Buren faction to the Dutch farmer who burned his barn to rid himself of the rats, and thenceforward the name Barnburners was fastened on them, and the two nicknames, Hunker and Barnburner, were bandied back and forth until after the latter joined with the Liberty party, in 1852, to support Mr. Van Buren as the Free Soil candidate for the Presidency. There is no difference of opinion as to the origin of the term Barnburner as above given, but Webster’s dictionary defines hunkerism as hostility to progress: “Bartlett’s Americanisms” defines “Hunkers” as a name given to a faction of the Democratic party because of devotion to old principles, from the Dutch “honk, place, post, home;” while others insist that the term grew out of the triumph of the administration faction at the Syracuse convention referred to above, which led them to imagine that they were “all hunk,” as the New York boys exclaim in certain games when they have reached their goal or “home” without being intercepted by the contestants on the other side of the game. Hunk, in this sense, is evidently a corruption of the Dutch “honk” or “home,” handed down by the Dutch children. As the Hankers did “carry off the hunk at Syracuse, did imagine themselves all hunk,” and were “hostile to progress,” either or all of the above explanations may be accepted without doing violence to history, whatever the consequences to philology.
COMMITTEE OF THE WHOLE.
Clinton, Mich.
What is meant when it is said “the House went into committee of the whole?” Please explain the whole subject.
Subscriber.
Answer.—Messages from the President and other matters of great importance are usually referred to a committee of the whole House, where general principles are digested in the form of resolutions, which are debated and amended until they get into a shape that meets the approbation of a majority. These resolutions, after being reported and confirmed by the House, are then referred to one or more select committees, where they are reduced into the form of bills or joint resolutions. It is found that the sense of the House is better learned in committee, because in all committees everyone speaks as often as he pleases. No gag law can be applied in committee by moving the previous question. The form for going from the House into the committee of the whole is for the Speaker, on motion, to put the question that the House do now resolve itself into a committee of the whole to take into consideration such a matter, naming it; to which the deliberations of the committee must be confined. If determined in the affirmative, he leaves the chair and takes a seat elsewhere, as any other member, and the person appointed chairman seats himself at the clerk’s table. The Speaker usually appoints a chairman, but the committee has full power to set him aside and select its own chairman. In case of the committee’s getting into violent disorder the Speaker, who is clothed with authority to call in the Sergeant-at-arms, if necessary, to enforce order, may take his chair, and at the tap of his gavel every member is required to take his proper seat, such action having the effect to dissolve the committee. Cases of this kind are rare. Usually when the committee is ready to rise the chairman rises, the Speaker immediately resuming the chair; if the business is unfinished, the chairman of the committee reports progress and asks permission for the committee to sit again, which the House may or may not consent to. If the business is finished the chairman tenders his report.
SAMUEL ADAMS, THE GREAT ORGANIZER.
Carbondale, Ill.
Give a short biographical sketch of Samuel Adams, of revolutionary times.
Charles L. H.
Answer.—Samuel Adams was one of the very first who organized measures of resistance against the encroachments of Great Britain on the rights of the colonies. He drew up the famous petition of the General Court of Boston to the King, in 1764, against taxation on trade. He was elected a Representative in the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1765, was chosen Clerk, and served in that body ten years. It is said that he was the first to suggest the congress of colonial delegates that assembled in New York in 1765, and was the father of the non-importation agreement of 1789, intended to check the use of British manufactures and other foreign imports and foster home manufactures and, still more, a spirit of independence. He was Chairman of the committee that waited on the Royal Governor and Council in 1770, on the day after the Boston riot and massacre, and demanded the removal of the troops. He was one of the signers of the declaration of independence: was one of those who matured the plan of the Continental Congress, to which he was a delegate from Massachusetts from 1774 to 1782, and signed the articles of confederation, which were the constitution of the country until replaced by the present Federal Constitution. He was Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts from 1789 to 1794, and Governor from 1794 to 1797. He was born in Boston Sept. 27, 1722, graduated at Harvard in 1740, and died in Boston Oct. 2, 1803.
ORIGIN OF THE CAUCUS.
Chicago, Ill.
Can you tell us the origin of the American caucus?
John Allen.
Answer.—The origin of the term “caucus” is traced back to the Caucus Club, Boston, of revolutionary days. This club was composed mainly of persons engaged in ship-building. It was one of the most radical opponents of British oppression. It and the Merchants’ Club of the same period, used to meet before elections and agree on candidates for town and provincial offices. “Caucus” is believed to be a corruption of “caulkers.”
THE YORK SHILLING.
Chicago, Ill.
To settle a dispute please inform us through Our Curiosity Shop whether the United States ever issued a coin called the “York shilling?” Was there not a coin of some kind called a York shilling?
Reader.
Answer.—The United States certainly never did mint any such coin. Neither did New York itself before the adoption of our present Constitution, under which individual States are not permitted to coin money. Most of the original thirteen States had issued bills of credit during colonial times, which had depreciated in the several colonies in different degrees, according to provisions made for their redemption and other incidents. In New England, after the adoption of the Federal decimal system, the pound in paper currency was worth only $3.33⅓ and the shilling 16⅔ cents, equal to six shillings to the dollar. This standard prevailed also in Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. In New York the paper currency pound was worth only $2.50, and so the shilling was reckoned but 12½ cents, equal to eight shillings to the dollar. This last is the “York shilling,” a money of account. The only coin that ever passed by that name is the Spanish real, known along the Ohio and Lower Mississippi as “a bit,” which, until a few years ago, was current through the country at 12½ cents, the value, as above shown, of the New York paper currency shilling of the olden times. In Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland the pound was worth $2.70, making the shilling worth 13½ cents, or 7s. 6d. to the $1. In Georgia and South Carolina the pound was worth $4.20, and the shilling 21-3/7 cents, or 4s. 8d. to the dollar. Such was the force of habit that, long after the old colonial paper money passed out of use, people continued to buy and sell and keep accounts in pounds and shillings; and schoolboys were required to familiarize themselves with the rules for reducing the several State currencies to Federal currency.
THE GREAT NAPOLEON’S DEFEATS.
Chicago, Ill.
1. Was Bonaparte repulsed at Acre? 2. Was he forced to leave Egypt? 3. Did he make a disastrous retreat from Moscow? 4. Did the Duke of Wellington suffer defeats parallel to those endured by Napoleon Bonaparte?
Thomas Wilson.
Answer.—1. In 1799, after laying siege to the stronghold of Acre, Syria, for sixty-one days, Napoleon Bonaparte resolved to raise the siege and return to Egypt, where his presence was demanded by the threatening state of affairs, which culminated at last in the great battle of Aboukir, in which he defeated Murad Bey, for the second time, with great slaughter. There is no doubt that, although victorious over the Ottoman and Egyptian armies, the almost utter annihilation of the French fleet by the English and Turks in the famous naval battle of the Nile, some months before this, and the menacing state of affairs in France, made it prudent for Napoleon to take advantage of the prestige of this victory to retire from Egypt, leaving the government of the country he had conquered to General Kleber, who soon after this totally defeated the Ottoman army, 70,000 strong, before Heliopolis. Not until after Kleber was assassinated and months of the unwise administration of his successor, General Menou, did the insurrection fomented by the English, and finally assisted by an English naval and land force, compel the French under Menou, to withdraw from Egypt, nearly two years after Bonaparte himself had returned to France. Taken all in all the French expedition into Egypt, planned by Napoleon Bonaparte, although distinguished by several brilliant exploits, must be regarded from a political and military standpoint as a failure. 3. So was the expedition to Moscow, which, after a succession of victories, ended in a disastrous retreat in midwinter, forced upon the French, not by arms, but by threatening starvation and other results of the burning of Moscow. 4. The Duke of Wellington, although several times compelled to retreat before French armies during campaigns in the Netherlands and in Spain, never suffered any disasters comparable with those inflicted on Napoleon; neither did he ever exhibit, even at Waterloo, where, with the allies, he had double the strength of the French army, such marvelous generalship as made Napoleon Bonaparte for many years more than a match for all the powers of Europe combined, the arbiter of all their thrones.
FUNDED AND FLOATING DEBT DEFINED.
Iroquois, D. T.
Explain the terms “floating debt,” “funded debt,” and “sinking fund.”
Querist.
Answer..—“Funded debt” is government or corporation indebtedness in the form of bonds or other evidences of money stipulated to be paid at stated intervals, and usually bearing interest payable annually or oftener. “Floating debt” is indebtedness, such as unsettled accounts, scrip in the nature of due bills, etc. not funded. A sinking fund is money set apart out of taxes, earnings, or other income, for the redemption of government or corporation bonds or other specific tokens of indebtedness.
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION.
Fayette, Iowa.
I am very anxious to learn how to make an incubator, or have one made, for hatching chickens by artificial means. Will you oblige myself and other readers by giving such minute directions that a carpenter can make one by following them?
E. J. Allcott.
Answer..—Similar requests are made by C. A. Brace, Esq., of Persia, Iowa; L. R. S., Cameron, Neb.; Q., of Elk Grove, Wis., and several others, some of whom desire to know what success has attended experiments in artificial incubation with modern apparatus. Conflicting reports as to this latter question, together with the fraudulent methods taken by some persons engaged in vending pamphlets that cost the publishers not to exceed 8 cents a copy, containing directions for making apparatus of this sort, at the extortionate price of $2, and selling ready-made incubators at exorbitant prices, has made caution advisable in treating this subject. Reports received within the past six weeks from twenty different persons, who have experimented with incubators, indicate that in about twelve cases out of twenty the average success is encouraging, and in the cases of the others the average results are quite discouraging. It is very certain that in a climate incident to such sudden and extreme changes as ours success demands skill and constant attention. None but absolutely fresh eggs must be selected, a temperature hardly varying from 103 deg., and a proper degree of moisture must be maintained, with sleepless vigilance. Let the eggs be chilled even for a few minutes and the consequences are disastrous. For a comparatively inexpensive incubator make a box 4 feet long, 3 feet wide, 6 inches deep, outside measurement, with a tight board lid and a zinc bottom; using boards 1¼ inches thick, nailed or screwed together. This is the heater. Of the same kind of boards make an egg-drawer 4 feet long, 2 feet 11½ inches wide, 5 inches high, outside measure, and 4 inches deep on the inside, with slats nailed in crosswise, instead of a board for the bottom. The slats better be of inch-thick lumber, not more than 1 inch wide, and set one inch apart. Over these slats on the inside tack a piece of coarse sack the full length and width of the box. Draw it tight and tack it securely to the slats and the ends of the box. Next make a frame 3 feet 7 inches long and 32 inches wide, using inch-square strips for the end pieces and inch-wide strips of half-inch thickness for the sides. Strain stout muslin over this frame and tack it firmly. Lay this, muslin side down, on the coarse cloth in the egg drawer. This is to support the eggs. Next bore twenty half-inch holes in each side of the egg drawer, 1¾ inches apart, and as close to the frame with the muslin bottom as can be done and yet allow this frame to slide easily underneath twenty slats a half-inch square each, which must be run through the box from hole to hole, to keep the eggs in position. Arrange the eggs between these slats, resting on the muslin of the muslin frame. It will be seen that by moving this frame about two inches backward or forward the eggs can be turned half over. Make a box of precisely the same length and breadth as the heater, but eight inches deep instead of six. Nail on a tight bottom of inch flooring stuff; bore twelve half-inch holes in this bottom, into which insert as many tin tubes of the same diameter, seven inches long, for ventilators. Fill all the space between the pipes with sawdust to within about an inch of their tops. Next set the egg drawer on top of this ventilator box, and set the heater, the first box described, on the top of the egg drawer. Take common inch-boards, one foot wide, and nail one on each side and across one end of this pile of boxes, driving the nails along the lower edge of each board into the ventilator box, and along the upper edge into the heater box; raising the latter off of the egg-drawer barely enough to let the latter slide easily back and forth between the heater and ventilator.
As the incubator stands now, the egg-drawer is protected from the cold, underneath, by the ventilator box with about six inches of sawdust: but it must be similarly protected on the sides and top. Set this nest of boxes, as now arranged, on a couple of trestles made of pieces of scantling, four feet eight or ten inches long, with short legs eight inches long, and build another box 27 inches high (outside) around them, long enough and wide enough to form a sawdust chamber 8 inches wide along both sides and the back end of the incubator, and rising 8 inches higher than the top of the heater. Next get two tin pipes, 12 or 13 inches long and about 2½ inches in diameter, seamed together, as solder melts; also get two such pipes about 6 inches long, and two elbows. Bore a 2½-inch hole through the sawdust-box and the heater-box entering the latter about 9 inches from the front and 2 inches below the lid, and slide one of the longer pipes through these holes. Attach one of the elbows and one of the 6-inch pipes outside. Put the other pipe into the heater from the opposite side, about 9 inches from the back end of the heater. Two kerosene lamps, set on brackets, on the outside of the sawdust box, with their chimneys thrust up into the short pipes, will supply all the heat that is required for hatching the eggs. If the lamps smoke, drop them low enough to admit a little air to enter between the chimneys and the inside of the pipes. Opposite where each of these tin flues enters the heater, bore three three-quarter-inch holes through the top of the heater, nine or ten inches apart, in a line about three inches from the side. Slide six tin tubes of the same diameter, fifteen or sixteen inches long, through these holes to within a half-inch of the zinc bottom of the heater. Now fill the sawdust chamber around the incubator and on top, putting earth instead of sawdust just around the hot-air flues, to avoid fire. As the zinc directly under where the hot-air flues enter the heater is apt to get overheated, it is best before covering the heater with sawdust to lay a piece of zinc or tin, about a foot square, on the zinc bottom as an equalizer of the temperature. Keep a thermometer in the egg drawer to test the temperature. This drawer will hold about 250 eggs.
This is the incubator; directions for using it will be given hereafter.
M. A. Bevard, Derby, Iowa—General Hull took part in the revolutionary battles of White Plains, Trenton, Stillwater, Princeton, Saratoga, and Monmouth. 2. Aaron Burr died on Staten Island.
INTEREST ON NOTES.
Washburn, Wis.
1. Will a promissory note draw interest if it is not so specified in the note? 2. Will a note made payable one year after date, with interest at 7 per cent, draw interest after the note becomes due?
A. E. R.
Answer..—1. Such a note will not draw interest until after due and payment has been demanded. It will draw legal interest from date of such demand. 2. Such a note will continue to draw interest at the same rate if payment is demanded at maturity and payment is withheld.
NEW YORK IMMIGRATION COMMISSION.
Barnard, Ill.
Who was the first to propose Castle Garden for the benefit of foreign immigrants? Is the board of management a National or a State organization? How did it originate?
Anna Sierle.
Answer.—The pitiable condition in which immigrants were landed in New York, the cruelties inflicted upon them in many cases in overcrowded emigrant ships, the extortions and downright frauds practiced upon them when they were put ashore like so many cattle, and left to shift for themselves in a strange city, without language to make their wants known, began to attract the attention of humane public officers and merchants of that city at an early day. The outrages multiplied, and the importance of providing some remedy grew with the rapid increase of foreign immigration, which swelled from 22,633 for the whole United States in 1831, to 104,565 in 1842. The Legislature of New York State was appealed to, and on May 5, 1847—in which year the rate of foreign immigration more than doubled upon that of 1842, the total number received rising to 234,968—it created the present Board of Commissioners of Emigration of the State of New York, which has been in successful operation ever since, and has proved one of the most beneficent institutions of the land. It consists of nine members, six of whom are appointed by the Governor with consent of the Senate, while the other three are the Mayor of the city and the Presidents of the German Society and the Irish Emigration Society. All of these serve without compensation. The law makes it their duty to provide suitable quarters for the reception of alien passengers arriving at New York; to care for the sick and helpless among them; to protect them from extortion, fraud, and impositions of any kind; to aid those who wish transfer to the railways and other transportation routes to the interior of the country; to assist such as wish to remain in the city to obtain work, and, in general, to give them trustworthy information and advice, and guard their interests. For this purpose they were authorized to collect of vessel owners $2.50 for each passenger, until 1871, when it was reduced to $1.50.
In 1855 the city of New York leased Castle Garden to the Commissioners for an immigrant landing depot, and it was opened for this purpose in August of that year. It occupies the extreme southern point of the city at the junction of the North River, or Hudson, with the East River. A more convenient, healthy, an every way desirable station could not have been selected. The immigrants are brought here directly from immigrant vessels, in tugs or barges, and received into rooms properly heated, lighted, and ventilated. Bath-rooms, lunch counters, with provisions at reasonable prices, suitable sleeping quarters, and other conveniences are all found within the building, and are conducted under strict superintendence. The names of such as have money, letters, or friends awaiting them are called out. Clerks stand ready to write letters for them in any European language. There are railway offices where tickets are sold them by thoroughly responsible clerks, who can talk with them in their native tongues. Responsible brokers exchange their foreign coin and currency at par market value. There is an employment bureau to find work for those who do not care to go any farther. A physician is in attendance, and the sick are properly cared for in a temporary hospital until they are transported to the immigrant hospitals on Ward’s Island.
In view of the fact that about two-thirds of all the foreign immigration to the United States land at New York, it is, indeed, a noble institution that meets these strangers with such generous provisions for their wants. According to an article in “The American Cyclopedia,” of the 5,033,392 immigrants arriving at New York between May 5, 1847, and Jan. 1, 1873, for whom commutation money was paid by the vessel-owners, “all of whom received protection, advice, and information from the commissions, 1,465,579 were provided and cared for out of the immigrant fund, for a greater or less period during the five years subsequent to their arrival; 398,643 received treatment and care in the institutions of the commissioners; 449,275 were temporarily supplied with board and lodging and money relief in the city of New York; 349,936 were provided with employment through the labor bureau at Castle Garden; 53,083 were forwarded from Castle Garden to their destination in the United States, or returned to Europe at their own request; and 214,642 were relieved and provided for in various parts of the State of New York,” all out of this immigrant fund. In 1872-3 bills were introduced into Congress to supersede this New York Emigration Commission by a National bureau, but the movement excited great opposition, not only in New York, but in other quarters, and it ended in failure.
DERIVATION OF SIRLOIN.
Galena, Ill.
Is it true that an English king knighted a roast of beef as Sir Loin, and that this was the origin of the name sirloin for a certain cut of meat?
A Subscriber.
Answer.—It is true that the great lexicographer, Dr. Johnson, gave credence and currency to this etymological nonsense, and that subsequent lexicographers, down to Webster and Worcester, parrot-like repeated it. But both of our distinguished lexicographers rejected this popular tradition of a silly freak or pun of James I. or Charles II. as of no etymological value, and agree that sirloin, which appears in Johnson’s dictionary for the first time with this orthography, is derived from the French surlonge, that is, “upper loin.” In the old English dictionaries, such as Ainsworth’s and Cotgrave’s, the English word was spelled surloin, and both Webster and Worcester, while giving sirloin as the usual orthography, recommend surloin, and authorize it as the preferable spelling. Skeats’ Etymological Dictionary, Oxford, 1882, vocabulates this word thus: “Sirloin, an inferior spelling of surloin, q. v.;” and under surloin says: “Frequently spelled sirloin, owing to a fable that the loin of beef was knighted by one of our kings in a fit of good humor.” The king was naturally imagined to be the merry monarch Charles II., though Richardson says (on no authority) that it was so entitled by King James I. Both stories are discredited by the use of the original French surlonge in the fourteenth century. Indeed, Wedgewood actually cites ‘a surloyn of beef’ from an account of expenses of Henry VI. But Richardson had the authority of Dean Swift for referring the pun on surloin to James I. In “Polite Conversation” Swift says: “But, pray, why is it called a sirloin? Why, you must know that our King James I., who loved good eating, being invited to dinner by one of his nobles, and seeing a large loin of beef at his table, he drew out his sword and in a frolic knighted it.” Which Swift, in all probability, intended to be taken as a legend, and nothing more.
NORTH CAROLINA GOLD MINES.
Give us some information in regard to the extent of mining for the precious metals in North Carolina.
Malcolm McManus.
Answer.—There was a time when gold mining in North Carolina was an important industry. The earliest record at the United States mint of gold produced in this country was in 1804. In that year a deposit was made at the mint of gold found in North Carolina. Small amounts, not exceeding an annual average of $2,500, were received from 1804 to 1823, after which there was a steady increase, as follows: In 1824, total amount received at mint, $5,000; in 1825, $17,000; in 1826, $20,000; in 1827, $21,000; in 1828, $46,000; in 1829, $134,000. During this last year $2,500 was received from Virginia and $3,500 from South Carolina. A Southern “gold fever” set in, and hundreds of people went to prospecting all along the Appalachian Mountains, so that in the next year, 1830, the mint received $212,000 from Georgia, $204,000 from North Carolina, $26,000 from South Carolina, $24,000 from Virginia, and $2,000 from Tennessee and Alabama. The total amounts of precious metals from the mines of the South, deposited at the United States mint from 1804 to 1881, was as follows:
| From Virginia | $ 1,689,797.00 |
| From North Carolina | 10,750,468.64 |
| From South Carolina | 1,429,751.55 |
| From Georgia | 7,869,282.60 |
| From Alabama | 220,892.25 |
| From Tennessee | 86,511.61 |
| Total | $22,046,703.65 |
Various causes conduced to the decrease of mining in the South before the discovery of gold in California, but this latter event drew away the best miners and most experienced, most enterprising capitalists engaged in the business, so that the gold product of this region became insignificant. A revival of mining has set in in North Carolina, yet the products of the Carolinas and Georgia in 1881 was only about $275,000.
MEERSCHAUM—SEA FOAM.
Gilman, Ill.
Is meerschaum a product of sea foam, as some persons declare?
W. C. Duckham.
Answer.—Meerschaum is a German word, compounded from meer, sea, and schaum, foam. It is the name of a fine clay composed of magnesia, silica, and water in equal parts. When fresh from the pit it is soft and makes a lather like soap, which gave rise to its name. After being molded into pipes, these are boiled in oil or wax and baked until hard.
STATE GOVERNORS.
Zanesville, Ohio.
Please give the names and politics of all State and Territorial Governors. Also, their salaries and dates of expiration of their terms.
A Subscriber.
Answer.—The following is a full list of Governors of the several States and Territories, with their salaries and the times when their terms end. The politics of Governors is indicated by running the names of Republicans in Roman, and of Democrats and Fusionists in italics:
| STATE. | Governor. | End of term. | Salary. |
| Alabama | Edw. A. O’Neal | Dec. 1, 1884 | $3,000 |
| Arkansas | James H. Berry | Jan. 2, 1885 | 3,000 |
| California | George Stoneman | Jan. 4, 1887 | 6,000 |
| Colorado | James B. Grant | Jan. 9, 1885 | 5,000 |
| Connecticut | Thos. M. Waller | Jan. 3, 1885 | 2,000 |
| Delaware | Chas. C. Stockley | Jan. 31, 1887 | 2,000 |
| Florida | Wm. D. Bloxham | Jan. 6, 1885 | 3,500 |
| Georgia | H. D. McDaniel | Nov. 3, 1885 | 3,000 |
| Illinois | John M. Hamilton | Jan. 12, 1885 | 6,000 |
| Indiana | Albert G. Porter | Jan. 12, 1885 | 5,000 |
| Iowa | B. R. Sherman | Jan. 14, 1884 | 3,000 |
| Kansas | George W. Glick[7] | Jan. 9, 1885 | 3,000 |
| Kentucky | L. P. Blackburn | Sept. 5, 1883 | 5,000 |
| Louisiana | S. D. McEnery | May 19, 1884 | 4,000 |
| Maine | Frederick Robie | Jan. 7, 1885 | 2,000 |
| Maryland | W. T. Hamilton | Jan. 2, 1884 | 4,500 |
| Massachusetts | Benj. F. Butler[8] | Jan. 2, 1884 | 4,000 |
| Michigan | Josiah W. Begole[9] | Jan. 1, 1885 | 1,000 |
| Minnesota | L. F. Hubbard | Jan. 7, 1884 | 3,800 |
| Mississippi | Robert Lowry | Jan. 5, 1886 | 4,000 |
| Missouri | T. T. Crittenden | Jan. 12, 1885 | 5,000 |
| Nebraska | James W. Dawes | Jan. 8, 1885 | 2,500 |
| Nevada | Jewett D. Adams | Jan. 2, 1887 | 6,000 |
| N. Hampshire | Samuel W. Hale | June 3, 1885 | 1,000 |
| New Jersey | Geo. C. Ludlow | Jan. 15, 1884 | 5,000 |
| New York | Grover Cleveland | Jan. 1, 1886 | 10,000 |
| No. Carolina | Thomas J. Jarvis | Jan. 1, 1885 | 3,000 |
| Ohio | Charles Foster | Jan. 14, 1884 | 4,000 |
| Oregon | Zenas F. Moody | Jan. 1, 1887 | 1,500 |
| Pennsylvania | R. E. Pattison | Jan. 18, 1887 | 10,000 |
| Rhode Island | A. H. Littlefield[10] | May 29, 1883 | 1,000 |
| So. Carolina | H. S. Thompson | Dec. 30, 1884 | 3,500 |
| Tennessee | Wm. B. Bate | Jan. 15, 1885 | 4,000 |
| Texas | John Ireland | Jan. 15, 1885 | 4,000 |
| Vermont | John L. Barstow | Oct. 4, 1884 | 1,000 |
| Virginia | W. E. Cameron[11] | Jan. 1, 1886 | 5,000 |
| West Virginia | Jacob B. Jackson | March 4, 1885 | 3,700 |
| Wisconsin | J. M. Rusk | Jan. 5, 1885 | 5,000 |
| Territories— | |||
| Arizona | Frederick Tritle | Feb. 6, 1886 | 2,600 |
| Dakota | Neh. G. Ordway | May 22, 1884 | 2,600 |
| Idaho | John B. Neil | July 12, 1884 | 2,600 |
| Montana | J. S. Crosby | Aug. 4, 1886 | 2,600 |
| New Mexico | Lionel A. Sheldon | May 5, 1885 | 2,600 |
| Utah | Eli H. Murray | Jan. 27, 1884 | 2,600 |
| Washington | Wm. A. Newell | April 26, 1884 | 2,600 |
| Wyoming | William Hale | Aug. 3, 1886 | 2,600 |